Loongson

From Handwiki
Short description: Chinese microprocessor manufacturer
龙芯中科技术有限公司
Loongson Technology Corporation Limited
TypePublic, Mixed ownership enterprise
Traded as
SSE: 688047
IndustrySemiconductor technology industry
FoundedApril 2010; 14 years ago (2010-04)
FounderHu Weiwu (zh)
HeadquartersChina
Loongson Industrial Park, Building 2, Zhongguancun Environmental protection park, Haidian District, Beijing, China
Area served
Global
Key people
Hu Weiwu
(Chairman)
ServicesChip design, motherboard design, operating system and kernel maintenance, important software and library maintenance
Number of employees
More than 400 (estimate)
Website{{{1}}}
Loongson
Loongson logo.svg
General Info
Marketed byLoongson Technology, Jiangsu Lemote Tech Co., Ltd, Dawning Information Industry, and others
Designed byInstitute of Computing Technology (ICT), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Loongson Technology, Jiangsu Lemote Tech Co., Ltd
Common manufacturer(s)
  • STMicroelectronics, SMIC
Performance
Max. CPU clock rate800 MHz to 2.0 GHz
HyperTransport speeds800 MHz to 3.0 GHz
Architecture and classification
ApplicationDesktop, Server, Supercomputer, Industrial Device, Embedded Device, Aerospace
Min. feature size180 nm to 28 nm
Microarchitecturesee text
Instruction setMIPS64 (with LoongISA extensions)
LoongArch
Physical specifications
Cores
  • 1–8
History

Loongson (simplified Chinese: 龙芯; traditional Chinese: 龍芯; pinyin: Lóngxīn; literally: 'Dragon Core')[1] is the name of a family of general-purpose, MIPS architecture-compatible microprocessors, as well as the name of the Chinese fabless company (Loongson Technology) that develops them. The processors are alternately called Godson processors,[2] which is described as its academic name.[3]

History

The Godson processors, based on MIPS architecture, were initially developed at the Institute of Computing Technology (ICT), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS).[4] The chief architect was Hu Weiwu [zh].[5] The development of the first Loongson chip was started in 2001.[5][6] The aim of the Godson project was to develop "high performance general-purpose microprocessors in China",[2] and to become technologically self-sufficient as part of the Made in China 2025 plan.[5] The development was supported by funding via the 10th and 11th Five-Year Plans.[7][8]

In 2010 the company was commercialized as a separate entity,[5] and in April 2010 Loongson Technology Corporation Limited was formally established and settled in Zhongguancun, Beijing, China.[citation needed] The company is a public–private partnership between ICT and Beijing-based chip designer BLX IC Design Corporation.[6] BLX itself was a spin-off from ICT, and was founded in 2002 with Jiangsu Zhongyi Group. As Loongson is a fabless designer, STMicroelectronics fabricates and markets the processors.[6][5]

The South China Morning Post reported that since 2020, Loongson has partnered with UnionTech and Sunway to develop and promote the Debian Linux-based Deepin operating system to reduce Chinese computers dependency on Microsoft Windows.[9][10]

In 2021, Loongson filed for an initial public offering on the Shanghai Stock Exchange STAR Market.[5][11] The company was seeking to raise US$500 million.[11] Details from this time suggested Loongson needing CN¥ 400,000,000 annual funding, for the first 10 years of its existence, and the company only broke even in 2015.[12]

U.S. sanctions

In March 2023, the United States Department of Commerce added Loongson to the Bureau of Industry and Security's Entity List for acquisition of American technology to support the People's Liberation Army (PLA).[13][14]

Instruction set architectures

MIPS

Loongson began by using the MIPS64 instruction set architecture (ISA). The internal microarchitecture was independently developed by ICT.[citation needed] Early implementations of the family lacked four instructions patented by MIPS Technologies (US4814976A, unaligned load-store) to avoid legal issues.[15][16]

In 2007, a deal was reached by MIPS Technologies and ICT. STMicroelectronics bought a MIPS license for Loongson, and thus the processor can be promoted as MIPS-based or MIPS-compatible instead of MIPS-like.[17][18][19]

In June 2009, ICT licensed the MIPS32 and MIPS64 architectures directly from MIPS Technologies.[20]

In August 2011, Loongson Technology Corp. Ltd. licensed the MIPS32 and MIPS64 architectures from MIPS Technologies, Inc. for continued development of MIPS-based Loongson CPU cores.[21][22]

In January 2024, Loongson won a case over rights to use MIPS architecture.[23]

LoongISA

The Loongson 3A2000 in 2015 saw the adoption of LoongISA 1.0, an expanded instruction set that is a superset of MIPS64 release 2.[24][8] It can be broken down into:

  • LoongEXT, general-purpose extensions, 148 instructions
  • LoongVZ, virtualisation extensions to the "VZ" system introduced in MIPS64 release 5, 5 instructions
  • LoongBT, faster x86 and ARM binary translation, 213 instructions
  • LoongSIMD, formerly LoongMMI (in Loongson 2E/F), for 128-bit SIMD, 1014 instructions
  • MIPS SIMD Architecture (MSA), DSP, and VZ modules from MIPS Release 5

The LoongISA instructions were introduced as part of the GS464E cores.[8] The binary translation instructions have the specific benefit of speeding up Intel x86 CPU emulation at a cost of 5% of the total die area. The new instructions help a QEMU hypervisor translate instructions from x86 to MIPS with only a reported 30% performance penalty.[25][26]

LoongArch

Loongson moved to their own processor instruction set architecture (ISA) in 2021 with the release of the Loongson 3 5000 series.[27][28] A Loongson developer described it as "...a new RISC ISA, which is a bit like MIPS or RISC-V. LoongArch includes a reduced 32-bit version (LA32R), a standard 32-bit version (LA32S) and a 64-bit version (LA64)".[29] The stated rationale was to make Loongson and China not dependent on foreign technology or authorisation to develop their processor capability, whilst not infringing on any technology patents.[30]

The ISA has been referred to as "a fork of MIPS64r6" due to a perceived lack of changes judging from instruction listings.[31][32]

The Register reported in November 2021 the suspicion that LoongArch combines the best parts of MIPS and RISC-V, along with custom instructions.[33]

Cores

Loongson has three main families of processor cores, some of which are available as IP cores:[34]

  • GS464 series: MIPS64 core with four-way superscalar out-of-order issue.[35] The design originated from the Loongson 2F processor.[8] It was first widely used in the Loongson 3A processor, before also being used in the Loongson 2 series.[35][36]
    • GS464V was first introduced in 2010 with the Godson 3B, and is a GS464 with vector capabilities.[7][37]
    • GS464E is an improved version of the GS464.[38] Development had started in 2012 after shortcomings were found in the GS464 processor.[8] The core has multiple improvements, including larger caches and better branch prediction amongst others, and was better optimised.[8] The core was extended to support LoongISA (in addition to the in addition to MIPS64 R2 architecture).[38]
    • GS464EV is a development of the GS464 series, first used by the 3A4000 processor[39]
    • LA464 is the development of the GS464 to support LoongArch. Whilst the initial core of the 3A5000 was noted to be GS464, due to incompatible instruction sets Loongson renamed the 3A5000 core to LA464 in their documentation in August 2021.[40]
    • LA664 is the architecture for the 3A6000 series processors.

It has been noted by the community that the naming of the Loongson microarchitectures is not consistent, with different products being noted to have the same processor core, even though the instructions sets might not be exactly compatible.[40]

Processor families

Loongson has built 3 processor families from their architectural cores.[26] These are the:[26]

  • Godson-1, for consumer electronics and embedded applications
  • Godson-2, single core processors for embedded applications and low performance personal computers[note 1]
  • Godson-3, multi-core processors for higher performance computers, high-performance computing and servers[note 2]

Godson-1

The first Loongson processor, the Godson-1, was designed in 2001, released in 2002, and is a 32-bit CPU running at a clock speed of 266 MHz.[6][3][26] It is fabricated with 0.18 micron CMOS process, has 8 KB of data cache, 8 KB of instruction cache and a 64-bit floating-point unit, capable of 200 double-precision MFLOPS.[41] Godson-1 series chips either use the GS132 or GS232 cores.[42]

Loongson X is a radiation hardened version of the GS232 core used in the Godson-1.[8]

Godson-2 / Loongson 2

Loongson 2F CPU from STMicroelectronics in a Gdium laptop

The Loongson 2 is a family of MIPS III compatible processors.[43][3] It adds 64-bit ability to the Loongson architecture.[6][26] Later Loongson 2 processors migrated to being MIPS64 compatible, due to sharing the GS464 core with the Loongson 3 series.[8]

The development plan for the Godson-2 was to develop it from a CPU to a SOC.[3][7] The 2E (2006) was a CPU, the 2F (2007) integrated the north bridge, the 2G (2008) had a hyper transport link between the CPU/north bridge and an integrated GPU/south bridge, and the 2H (2009) integrated all these functions into a SOC.[3][7] The design of the 2F was the basis of the GS464 core.[8] The 2G uses a single GS464 core;[7] the 2H uses the GS464V core, as a single-core version of the initial Godson 3B.[37]

Godson 3 / Loongson 3 MIPS processors

Loongson 3B1500E CPU
Lemote-A1310 mini-ITX motherboard (with Loongson 3B1500E)
Loongson 3A3000 CPU

The Loongson 3 family of processors are "...multi-core CPU[s] designed for high performance desktops, servers and clusters".[44][26] They were designed as the first Loongson processors that had multiple cores.[35] The processors were initially designed to use LoongISA - i.e. the MIPS64 ISA with additional extensions.[35] The designers also attempted to optimise x86 translation on the chip.[3]

1000 series

The first production processor was the Loongson 3A, which used 4 GS464 cores.[35][25]

The designers noted that they would produce a 3B chip with enhanced processing and vector capabilities, with 8 cores, and a 3C for server applications with up to 16 cores.[7][26] The 8-core Loongson 3B was noted to use the upgraded GS464V core, with extended vector capabilities.[37] This was followed by the Loonson 3C which used 16 GS464V cores.[37]

The 3B1000, and related 2I, both failed as processors due to design errors.[24] In May 2013 development of the 3C was suspended, in favour of developing the 3A2000 processor.[24]

1500 and 2000 series

In 2015, the 3A1500 and 3B2000 were released using the enhanced GS464E cores.[8] The improved microarchitecture core allowed better performance, reportedly 3 times as fast as the 3A1000, as well as introducing the LoongISA enhanced instruction set.[8] The 3A1500 was for embedded applications, whilst the 3B2000 was for servers and PCs.[8]

3000 series

In 2017, Loongson released the 3A3000. The performance of the 3A3000 is reported to be equivalent to the Intel J1900 processor (released in 2013).[39]

4000 series

In late-2019 the 3A and 3B 4000 series were released. They used the upgraded GS464EV microarchitecture.[39]

Loongson 3 LoongArch processors

5000 series, transition to LoongArch

In July 2021 the Loongson 3 5000 series was released.[28] The processor series is Loongson's first with their own developed ISA, "LoongArch".[28] The processors announced include the 3A5000, a four-core desktop CPU, and the 3C5000L, a sixteen-core server CPU based on four 3A5000 in a single package.[31][27][33] Both CPUs are reported to be fabricated on a 12 nm process. Whilst the processor was noted to be using the GS464V cores initially, due to incompatibility with previous versions, the cores were renamed to LA464 in August 2021.[40]

The Register reported that "the 3A5000 is said to be 50 per cent faster and 30 per cent more power efficient" than the preceding 3A4000.[33] Phoronix reports that the 3A5000 CPU is "roughly on a par with the likes of the Intel Core i3 8109U / Core 2 Quad Q9500 / Core i5 750, or Armv8-based Phytium FT-2000".[28]

In April 2023, Loongson launched the 3D5000 processor for data centers and cloud computing, based on the LoongArch instruction set architecture.[45]

6000 series

In 2022 Loongson announced their 6000 series processors.[46] The updated processor architecture will use new "LA664" cores.,[46] and the company claimed that the single-core performance will rival that of AMD's Zen 3 and Intel's Tiger Lake (11th-generation Core) architecture.[46]

In November 2023 Loongson debuted the 3A6000 processor.[47] The Register noted that Loongson had demonstrated benchmarks suggesting that the 3A6000 processor was competitive with an Intel 10th-generation Core processor.[47]

Supported software

Operating systems

The Loongson processors are mainly designed around using the Linux operating system.[48] Any operating system supporting the MIPS architecture should theoretically work. Windows CE was ported to a Loongson-based system with minimal effort.[49] In 2010, Lemote ported an Android distribution to the Loongson platform.[50]

Loongson machines are used in the package-building and CI infrastructure of Debian and Golang, respectively. This is partially because of Loongson's status as the only vendor producing application-grade MIPS CPUs for retail.[51]

As of February 2022, there are at least four Chinese Linux distributions that support LoongArch: Kylin, Loongnix, Deepin[52] and Unity Operating System. There are efforts to build LoongArch support into community versions of Linux.[40]

Compiler support

The GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) is the main compiler for software development on the Loongson platform.[53][54]

Before 2021 LLVM support was still inadequate due to missing workarounds for Loongson's CPU errata on MIPS.[55][40]

ICT also ported Open64 to the Loongson II platform.[56]

LoongArch is supported by the GCC, LLVM, Golang compilers, and supports the Java, JavaScript and .NET virtual machines.[57]

Loongson microprocessor specifications

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Series Model Frequency
(MHz) 		Architecture
MicroArchitecture Year Cores Process
(nm) 		Transistor
(million) 		Die Size
(mm²) 		Power
(W) 		Voltage
(V) 		Cache (KiB) Peak Floating Point Performance
(GFLOPS) 		Performance
int/fp [SPEC2000] (SPEC2006) 		Remarks
L1(Single Core) L2 L3
Data instruction
Godson 1 266 MIPS-II 32-bit N/A 2001 1 180 22 71.4 1.0 Unknown 8 8 N/A N/A 0.6 [19/25] [58]
FCR_SOC 266 MIPS-II 32-bit N/A 2007 1 180 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown 8 8 N/A N/A 0.6 Unknown [59][60]
2B 250 MIPS-III 64-bit N/A 2003 1 180 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown 32 32 N/A N/A Unknown [52/58]
2C 450 MIPS-III 64-bit N/A 2004 1 180 13.5 41.5 Unknown Unknown 64 64 N/A N/A Unknown [159/114]
2E 1000 MIPS-III 64-bit GS464 (r1)(Prototype) 2006 1 90 47 36 7 1.2 64 64 512 N/A Unknown [503/503]
Loongson 1 1A 300 MIPS32 GS232 2010 1 130 22 71.4 1.0 Unknown 16 16 N/A N/A 0.6 Unknown [34]
1B 266 MIPS32 GS232 2010 1 130 13.3 28 0.6 Unknown 8 8 N/A N/A Unknown Unknown [34]
1C 300 MIPS32 GS232 2013 1 130 11.1 28.3 0.5 Unknown 16 16 N/A N/A Unknown Unknown [34]
1C101 8 MIPS32 GS132R 2018 1 130 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown N/A N/A N/A N/A Unknown Unknown [34]
1D 8 MIPS32 GS132 2014 1 130 1 6 3 × 10−5 Unknown N/A N/A N/A N/A Unknown Unknown [34]
Loongson 2 2F 1200 MIPS-III 64-bit GS464 (r1) 2007 1 90 51 43 5 1.2 64 64 512 N/A 3.2 Unknown [34]
2G 1000 MIPS64 GS464 (r2) 2012 1 65 Unknown Unknown Unknown 1.15 64 64 4096 N/A Unknown Unknown [61]
2GP 800 MIPS64 GS464 (r2) 2013 1 65 82 65.7 8 1.15 64 64 1024 N/A 3.2 Unknown
2I
2H 1000 MIPS64 GS464 (r2) 2012 1 65 152 117 5 1.15 64 64 512 N/A 4 Unknown
2K1000 1000 MIPS64 Release 2 LoongISA 1.0 GS264E 2017 2 40 1900 79 5 1.1 32 32 256 × 2 1024 8 Unknown [34]
Loongson３ 3A1000 1000 MIPS64 Release 2

LoongISA 1.0

GS464 (r2) 2009 4 65 425 174.5 10 1.15 64 64 256 × 4 N/A 16 [568/788], (2.4/2.3) [34]
3B1000 1000 MIPS64 Release2

LoongISA 1.0

GS464 (r2) 2010 4+4 65 ＞ 600 Unknown 20 1.15 64 64 128 × 8 N/A Unknown Unknown [62]
3B1500 1200–1500 MIPS64 Release 2

LoongISA 1.0

GS464V 2012 4+4 32 1140 142.5 30(typical)
60(vector) 		1.15–1.35 64 64 128 × 8 8192 150 Unknown [34][63]
3A1500-I 800–1000 MIPS64 Release2

LoongISA 1.0

GS464E 2015 4 40 621 202.3 15 1.15–1.25 64 64 256 × 4 4096 16 (6/??) [34]
3A2000
3B2000
3A3000 1500 MIPS64 Release 2

LoongISA 1.0

GS464E 2016 4 28 ＞ 1200 155.78 30 1.15–1.25 64 64 256 × 4 8192 24 [1100/1700], (11/10)@Single (36/33)@Rate [34]
3B3000 GS464E
3A4000 1800-2000 MIPS64 Release 5

LoongISA 2.0

GS464EV(GS464v) 2019 4 28 ? ? <30 W@1.5 GHz

<40 W@1.8 GHz

<50 W@2.0 GHz[34]

0.95-1.25 64 64 256 x 4 8192 128 (21.1/21.2)@Single (61.7/58.1)@Rate
3B4000
3A5000 3B5000 2300-2500 LoongArch GS464V 2021 4 12 / 14 35w @ 2.5 GHz 64 64 256x4 16384 160 (26.6*/??)@Single, (80*/??)@Rate *SpecInt Base point [34]
3C5000L 2200 LoongArch GS464V 2021 16 12 / 14 150w @ 2.2 GHz 64 64 256x16 16384x4 560 Unknown [34]
3C5000L-LL 2000 LoongArch GS464V 2021 16 12 / 14 125w @ 2.0 GHz 64 64 256x16 16384x4 512 Unknown [citation needed]
3A6000 2000-2500 LoongArch LA664 2023 4 12-14 38w @ 2.5 GHz [47]

Loongson-based systems

Lemote FuLoong and YeeLoong with a Loongson 2F microprocessor
Lemote's Fulong MiniPC on top of a CD-ROM drive as reference

In 2012 it was reported that Loongson processors had found itself into very few computing systems.[6] The processors are mainly used in Chinese computers; in 2021 it was reported that Loongson supplies CPUs for most desktop computers procured by the Chinese government, and 80% of the Chinese government's servers.[12] The release of the 3A3000 processor in 2015 was noted as turning point for the company's fortunes.[12] In 2017 it was noted that the company's processors were being used in the Beidou satellite.[12][8]

Personal computers

In March 2006, a €100 Loongson II computer design called Longmeng (Dragon Dream) was announced by Lemote.[citation needed]

In June 2006 at Computex'2006, YellowSheepRiver announced the Municator YSR-639,[64] a small form factor computer based on the 400 MHz Loongson 2.

(As of November 2008) the new 8.9" netbook from the Chinese manufacturer Lemote that replaced mengloong, Yeeloong (Portable Dragon),[65] running Debian, is available[66] in Europe from the Dutch company Tekmote Electronics.

In January 2010, Jiangsu province planned to buy 1.5 million Loongson PCs.[67]

In September 2011, Lemote announced the Yeeloong-8133 13.3" laptop featuring 900 MHz, quad-core Loongson-3A/2GQ CPU.[68]

Supercomputers

On 26 December 2007, China revealed its first Loongson based supercomputer in Hefei. The KD-50-I has a reported peak performance of 1 TFLOPS, and about 350 GFLOPS measured by LINPACK.[69] This supercomputer was designed by a joint team led by Chen Guoliang at the computer science technology department of the University of Science and Technology of China (USCT) and ICT (the secondary contractor). KD-50-I is the first Chinese built supercomputer to utilize domestic Chinese CPUs, with a total of more than 336 Loongson-2F CPUs, and nodes interconnected by ethernet. The size of the computer was roughly equivalent to a household refrigerator and the cost was less than RMB800,000 (approximately US$120,000, Template:EU€80,000).[70]

In 2012 it was reported that Loongson processors were to be found in the Sunway BlueLight MPP and Dawning 6000 supercomputers.[6]

See also

  • 863 Program
  • Sinomanic
  • Ingenic XBurst, a Chinese MIPS32 compatible processor.
  • SW26010 a Chinese manycore processor.

Notes

  1. ↑ The Godson/Loongson 2 series processors have been developed and named mostly sequentially in an alphabetical format.
  2. ↑ The Godson/Loongson 3 series processors seem to be named according to segment and then a generation number. The segment tends to be A (general purpose PCs), B (seemingly high core counts) and C (server processors). The generation numbers start at 1000 for the first series processors, and then increment generally to the next thousand. There are some processors that may be between generation products, that have a x5000 designation.

References

  1. ↑ "龙芯处理器英文品牌定名Loongson(组图)_业界_科技时代_新浪网". http://tech.sina.com.cn/it/2006-11-20/00141245061.shtml. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Hu, Wei-Wu; Zhang, Fu-Xin; Li, Zu-Song (March 2005). "Microarchitecture of the Godson-2 Processor". Journal of Computer Science and Technology 20 (2): 243–249. doi:10.1007/s11390-005-0243-6. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Hu, Weiwu (August 2008). "Micro-architecture of Godson-3 multi-core processor". 2008 IEEE Hot Chips 20 Symposium (HCS). pp. 1–31. doi:10.1109/HOTCHIPS.2008.7476554. ISBN 978-1-4673-8871-9. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7476554. Retrieved 2 August 2021. 
  4. ↑ Wu, Yimian (23 May 2018). "China Supports Local Semiconductor Firms By Adding Them To Government Procurement List". China Money Network. https://www.chinamoneynetwork.com/2018/05/23/china-supports-local-semiconductor-firms-by-adding-them-to-government-procurement-list. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Houweling, Elles (29 June 2021). "China-backed Loongson chip manufacturer files for IPO". Verdict. https://www.verdict.co.uk/china-backed-chip-company-files-for-shanghai-ipo/. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Muncaster, Phil (19 December 2012). "Why China's Homemade Microchips Will Struggle to Displace Western Giants" (in en). MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2012/12/19/181065/why-chinas-homemade-microchips-will-struggle-to-displace-western-giants/. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Hu, Wei-Wu; Gao, Yan-Ping; Chen, Tian-Shi; Xiao, Jun-Hua (May 2011). "The Godson Processors: Its Research, Development, and Contributions". Journal of Computer Science and Technology 26 (3): 363–372. doi:10.1007/s11390-011-1139-2. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11390-011-1139-2.pdf. Retrieved 2 August 2021. 
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 Hu, Weiwu; Zhang, Yifu; Fu, Jie (January 2016). "An introduction to CPU and DSP design in China". Science China Information Sciences 59 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1007/s11432-015-5431-6. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11432-015-5431-6.pdf. Retrieved 12 August 2021. 
  9. ↑ Yiu, Enoch (29 June 2021). "Loongson files US$542 million IPO in Shanghai to fund chip growth" (in en). South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/business/banking-finance/article/3139124/loongson-files-us542-million-ipo-star-market-chinas-home. 
  10. ↑ Ye, Josh (18 March 2020). "Meet the Chinese operating system that's trying to shift the country off Windows" (in en). South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/abacus/tech/article/3075656/meet-chinese-operating-system-thats-trying-shift-country-windows. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 YINGZHE, GUO (30 June 2021). "Chinese CPU designer Loongson looks for $500m in STAR IPO". Nikkei Asia. Caixin. https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Caixin/Chinese-CPU-designer-Loongson-looks-for-500m-in-STAR-IPO. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 "The Loongson IPO brings out the three major technical camps of the six major Chinese core families, and how far is it to compete with the United States". iNews. 2 August 2021. https://inf.news/en/economy/6301c74130e4517a295a926d4006f725.html. 
  13. ↑ Mayersen, Isaiah (4 March 2023). "US blacklists China's Loongson as its CPUs reach maturity" (in en-US). https://www.techspot.com/news/97817-us-blacklists-china-loongson-cpus-reach-maturity.html. 
  14. ↑ Shilov, Anton (2023-03-03). "U.S. Govt Blacklists Chinese Tech Firms Loongson and Inspur" (in en). https://www.tomshardware.com/news/us-govt-blacklists-loongson-and-inspur. 
  15. ↑ China's Microprocessor Dilemma(Subscription content?)
  16. ↑ "The Linley Group - China's Microprocessor Dilemma". http://www.linleygroup.com/newsletters/newsletter_detail.php?num=4264. 
  17. ↑ MIPS Technologies Licenses MIPS64 Architecture to STMicroelectronics
  18. ↑ "Newsroom - STMicroelectronics". http://www.st.com/stonline/stappl/cms/press/news/year2007/t2154.htm. 
  19. ↑ Godson-3 Emulates x86
  20. ↑ China's Institute of Computing Technology Licenses Industry-Standard MIPS Architectures
  21. ↑ Loongson Licenses MIPS32® and MIPS64® Architectures for Embedded and Computing Applications
  22. ↑ "Loongson Licenses MIPS32(R) and MIPS64(R) Architectures for Embedded and Computing Applications". https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=andnpz5dILv0. 
  23. ↑ Connatser, Matthew (2024-01-19). "Chinese chipmaker Loongson wins case over rights to MIPS architecture - company's new CPU architecture heavily resembles existing MIPS" (in en). https://www.tomshardware.com/pc-components/cpus/chinese-chipmaker-loongson-wins-case-over-rights-to-mips-architecture-companys-new-cpu-architecture-heavily-resembles-existing-mips. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 "Core Journey - 20 years of technical failure, is there still a chance for China's CPU?". ElectroDealPro. 14 June 2021. https://electrodealpro.com/core-journey-20-years-of-technical-failure-is-there-still-a-chance-for-chinas-cpu-_detailed-interpretation_latest-information_hot-events_36氪/. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Hu, Weiwu; Wang, Jian; Gao, Xiang; Chen, Yunji; Liu, Qi; Li, Guojie (March 2009). "Godson-3: A Scalable Multicore RISC Processor with x86 Emulation". IEEE Micro 29 (2): 17–29. doi:10.1109/MM.2009.30. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4812133. Retrieved 29 July 2021. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 Morgan, Timothy Prickett (25 February 2011). "Godson: China shuns US silicon with faux x86 superchip" (in en). www.theregister.com. https://www.theregister.com/2011/02/25/ict_godson_3b_chip/. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Tang, Yvonne (23 July 2021). "Loongson launches 3A5000, first processor to use its own LoongArch architecture". CnTechPost. https://cntechpost.com/2021/07/23/loongson-launches-3a5000-first-processor-to-use-its-own-loongarch-architecture/. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 "First benchmarks of China's Loongson 3A5000 CPU surface". HEXUS. 26 July 2021. https://hexus.net/tech/news/cpu/148149-first-benchmarks-chinas-loongson-3a5000-cpu-surface/. 
  29. ↑ Chen, Huacai. "arch: Add basic LoongArch support [LWN.net"]. https://lwn.net/Articles/861951/. 
  30. ↑ AUFRANC, JEAN-LUC (17 April 2021). "Loongson unveils LoongArch CPU instruction set architecture for processors made in China - CNX Software". CNX Software - Embedded Systems News. https://www.cnx-software.com/2021/04/17/loongson-loongarch-cpu-instruction-set-architecture/. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 April 2021, Anton Shilov 16 (16 April 2021). "Loongson Technology Develops Its Own CPU Instruction Set Architecture" (in en). Tom's Hardware. https://www.tomshardware.com/news/loongson-technology-develops-its-own-cpu-instruction-set-architecture#xenforo-comments-3698897. 
  32. ↑ Conill, Ariadne. "Real World Technologies - Forums - Thread: LoongArch". https://www.realworldtech.com/forum/?threadid=201588&curpostid=201593. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Shah, Agam (2 November 2021). "Loongson chip is China's next step to semiconductor freedom" (in en). www.theregister.com. https://www.theregister.com/2021/11/02/china_loongson_mips/. 
  34. ↑ 34.00 34.01 34.02 34.03 34.04 34.05 34.06 34.07 34.08 34.09 34.10 34.11 34.12 34.13 34.14 "IP核_龙芯官方网站-[龙芯官方网站"]. http://www.loongson.cn/product/ipcore/. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 Gao, Xiang; Chen, Yun-Ji; Wang, Huan-Dong; Tang, Dan; Hu, Wei-Wu (March 2010). "System Architecture of Godson-3 Multi-Core Processors". Journal of Computer Science and Technology 25 (2): 181–191. doi:10.1007/s11390-010-9315-3. 
  36. ↑ Fan, Bao-Xia; Yang, Liang; Wang, Jiang-Mei; Wang, Ru; Xiao, Bin; Xu, Ying; Liu, Dong; Zhao, Ji-Ye (March 2010). "Physical Implementation of the 1GHz Godson-3 Quad-Core Microprocessor". Journal of Computer Science and Technology 25 (2): 192–199. doi:10.1007/s11390-010-9316-2. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11390-010-9316-2.pdf. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 Weiwu Hu; Yunji Chen. GS464V: A High-performance Low-Power Processor Core with 512-bit Vector Extension. http://sourcedb.ict.cas.cn/cn/ictthesis/201103/P020110313703732094700.pdf. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Wang, HuanDong; Wang, WenXiang; Wu, RuiYang; Hu, WeiWu (1 April 2015). "Design of Loongson GS464E processor architecture". Scientia Sinica Informationis 45 (4): 480–500. doi:10.1360/N112014-00292. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 "你不曾见过的国产CPU：可能是最全的龙芯系列芯片家谱（下）" (in Chinese). www.ijiwei.com. 2019-06-01. https://www.ijiwei.com/n/717789. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 WÁNG, Xuěruì "xen0n" (3 March 2022). "The unofficial yet comprehensive FAQ for LoongArch (last updated 2022-03-06)" (in en). https://blog.xen0n.name/en/posts/tinkering/loongarch-faq/. 
  41. ↑ cpu-museum.de Forum: Godson-1 and 2 Microprocessor Chips, 2005-Apr-20 [|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
  42. ↑ zevanzhao (2019-06-01). "你不曾见过的国产CPU：可能是最全的龙芯系列芯片家谱（上） - IT之家" (in Chinese). www.ithome.com. https://www.ithome.com/0/426/195.htm. 
  43. ↑ Shuchang, Zhou (2009). Open64 on MIPS: porting and enhancing Open64 for Loongson II. https://www.capsl.udel.edu/conferences/open64/2009/Papers/102-Open64onMIPS2.pdf. Retrieved 29 July 2021. 
  44. ↑ Kun, Ling (2012). Loongcc-A Compiler based on Open64 for MIPS64 Compatible Loongson 3 Architecture. http://soft.cs.tsinghua.edu.cn/open64/open64-12-sessionII-01.pdf. Retrieved 29 July 2021. 
  45. ↑ "China's Loongson Unveils 32-Core CPU, Reportedly 4X Faster Than Arm Chip" (in en). 2023-04-08. https://www.tomshardware.com/news/loongson-unveils-32-core-cpu. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 Mujtaba, Hassan (31 August 2022). "Chinese-Built Loongson 3A6000 CPUs Achieve 68% Faster Single-Core Performance, Will Be Able To Rival Zen 3 & Tiger Lake". Wccftech. https://wccftech.com/chinese-built-loongson-3a6000-cpus-achieve-68-percent-faster-single-core-performance-will-rival-amd-zen-3-intel-tiger-lake/. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Sharwood, Simon (30 November 2023). "China’s Loongson debuts new CPU that 'matches Intel in 2020'" (in en). www.theregister.com. https://www.theregister.com/2023/11/30/loongson_3a6000/?td=rt-3a. 
  48. ↑ "linux-loongson/community (社区版龙芯Linux)". http://dev.lemote.com/code/linux-loongson-community. 
  49. ↑ 福瓏電腦WinCE 5.0 圖片
  50. ↑ Fletcher, Owen (3 March 2010). "Company puts Android on laptop with China-backed chips". https://www.computerworld.com/article/2519386/company-puts-android-on-laptop-with-china-backed-chips.html. 
  51. ↑ "Build log for linux-2.6 (2.6.35~rc6-1~experimental.1) on mipsel". https://buildd.debian.org/status/fetch.php?&pkg=linux-2.6&ver=2.6.35~rc6-1~experimental.1&arch=mipsel&stamp=1280346533&file=log. 
  52. ↑ "Deepin is Complete Because of You | DDUC 10th Anniversary Successfully Hosted and Witnessed by Over 200,000 Participants – Deepin Technology Community" (in en-US). https://www.deepin.org/en/dduc2020/. 
  53. ↑ "Maxim Kuvyrkov - [MIPS[LS2][4/5] Scheduling and tuning"]. https://gcc.gnu.org/ml/gcc-patches/2008-05/msg01396.html. 
  54. ↑ "GCC 4.6 Release Series Changes, New Features, and Fixes". Free Software Foundation (FSF). 25 March 2011. https://gcc.gnu.org/gcc-4.6/changes.html. 
  55. ↑ "49611 – Need multiple errata workaround options for loongson". https://bugs.llvm.org/show_bug.cgi?id=49611. 
  56. ↑ Open64 on MIPS: porting and enhancing Open64 for Loongson II
  57. ↑ Jean-Luc Aufranc (2021-07-24). "Loongson's first LoongArch processors – 3A5000 for computers, 3C5000L for servers". https://www.cnx-software.com/2021/07/24/loongsons-first-loongarch-processors-3a5000-for-computers-3c5000l-for-servers/. 
  58. ↑ HU Wei-Wu (2003). TANG Zhi-Min. "Architecture of the Godson-1 Processor". Chinese Journal of Computers (4). http://cjc.ict.ac.cn/eng/qwjse/view.asp?id=1229. 
  59. ↑ 陈杰 (2007). 章军. "一种集成"龙芯1号"IP核的SoC的体系结构". 计算机工程与应用 (19). http://sourcedb.ict.cas.cn/cn/ictthesis/200907/P020090722610434578505.pdf. 
  60. ↑ "成功研制以龙芯为内核的税控SOC芯片 苏州中科集成电路设计中心". szicc.com.cn. http://www.szicc.com.cn/sk_cgal1.asp. 
  61. ↑ "龙芯2G用户手册". http://mirrors.loongnix.org/doc/01user manual/loongson2g/Loongson2G processor user manualP1_V1.0.pdf. 
  62. ↑ "龙芯3B1000用户手册". http://mirrors.loongnix.org/doc/01user manual/loongson3b1000/Loongson3B1000 processor user manual_P1_V1.3.pdf. 
  63. ↑ "Bonito 3c780e Start.S (1.5Ghz@1.35v)". http://www.loongnix.org/cgit/pmon-loongson3/tree/Targets/Bonito3c780e/Bonito/start.S. 
  64. ↑ "LinuxDevices article about the Municator". http://www.linuxfordevices.com/c/a/News/Chinese-150-Linux-miniPC-races-OLPC-to-market/. 
  65. ↑ "Yeelong Specs". http://www.linuxdevices.com/news/NS2928309621.html.  (LinuxDevices, 22 Octobjer 2008)
  66. ↑ Yeelong 8.9" netbook at tekmote.nl for 335.50€
  67. ↑ "Soon Loongson in 1.5 million computers". http://www.chinaeconomicreview.com/china-eye/2009_09_30/Soon_Loongson_in_15_million_computers.html. 
  68. ↑ "Lemote Announced Yeeloong-8133 Laptop". http://www.lemote.com/products/computer/yilong/312.html. 
  69. ↑ KD-50-I Home page
  70. ↑ "基于龙芯2号国产万亿次高性能计算机KD-50-I简介 - 硬件". http://www.cnbeta.com/articles/47215.htm. 

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