Avascular necrosis

Short description: Death of bone tissue due to interruption of the blood supply

Avascular necrosis

Other names| Osteonecrosis,[1] bone infarction,[2] aseptic necrosis,[1] ischemic bone necrosis[1]
Femoral head showing a flap of cartilage due to avascular necrosis (osteochondritis dissecans). Specimen removed during total hip replacement surgery.
Specialty| Orthopedics
Symptoms| Joint pain, decreased ability to move[1]
Complications| Osteoarthritis[1]
Usual onset| Gradual[1]
Risk factors| Bone fractures, joint dislocations, high dose steroids[1]
Diagnostic method| Medical imaging, biopsy[1]
Differential diagnosis| Osteopetrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Legg–Calvé–Perthes syndrome, sickle cell disease[3]
Treatment| Medication, not walking on the affected leg, stretching, surgery[1]
Frequency| ~15,000 per year (US)[4]

Avascular necrosis (AVN), also called osteonecrosis or bone infarction, is death of bone tissue due to interruption of the blood supply.[1] Early on, there may be no symptoms.[1] Gradually joint pain may develop, which may limit the person's ability to move.[1] Complications may include collapse of the bone or nearby joint surface.[1]

Risk factors include bone fractures, joint dislocations, alcoholism, and the use of high-dose steroids.[1] The condition may also occur without any clear reason.[1] The most commonly affected bone is the femur (thigh bone).[1] Other relatively common sites include the upper arm bone, knee, shoulder, and ankle.[1] Diagnosis is typically by medical imaging such as X-ray, CT scan, or MRI.[1] Rarely biopsy may be used.[1]

Treatments may include medication, not walking on the affected leg, stretching, and surgery.[1] Most of the time surgery is eventually required and may include core decompression, osteotomy, bone grafts, or joint replacement.[1]

About 15,000 cases occur per year in the United States.[4] People 30 to 50 years old are most commonly affected.[3] Males are more commonly affected than females.[4]

## Contents

* 1 Signs and symptoms
* 2 Causes
* 3 Pathophysiology
* 4 Diagnosis
* 4.1 Types
* 5 Treatment
* 5.1 Core decompression
* 6 Prognosis
* 7 Epidemiology
* 8 Society and culture
* 9 See also
* 10 References
* 11 External links

## Signs and symptoms

In many cases, there is pain and discomfort in a joint which increases over time. It can affect any bone, and for in about half of affected people, multiple sites are damaged.[5]

Avascular necrosis most commonly affects the ends of long bones, such as the femur. Other common sites include the humerus (upper arm),[6][7] knees,[8][9] shoulders,[6][7] ankles and the jaw.[10]

## Causes

The main risk factors are bone fractures, joint dislocations, alcoholism, and the use of high-dose steroids.[1] Other risk factors include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and organ transplantation.[1] Osteonecrosis is also associated with cancer, lupus, sickle cell disease,[11] HIV infection, Gaucher's disease, and Caisson disease (dysbaric osteonecrosis).[1][12] Bisphosphonates are associated with osteonecrosis of the mandible (jawbone).[13] The condition may also occur without any clear reason.[1]

Prolonged, repeated exposure to high pressures (as experienced by commercial and military divers) has been linked to AVN, though the relationship is not well understood.[14][15]

In children, avascular osteonecrosis can have several causes. It can occur in the hip as part of Legg–Calvé–Perthes syndrome,[16] and it can also occur as a result after malignancy treatment such as acute lymphoblastic leukemia and allotransplantation.[17]

## Pathophysiology

The hematopoietic cells are most sensitive to low oxygen and are the first to die after reduction or removal of the blood supply, usually within 12 hours.[2] Experimental evidence suggests that bone cells (osteocytes, osteoclasts, osteoblasts etc.) die within 12–48 hours, and that bone marrow fat cells die within 5 days.[2]

Upon reperfusion, repair of bone occurs in two phases. First, there is angiogenesis and movement of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells from adjacent living bone tissue grow into the dead marrow spaces, as well as entry of macrophages that degrade dead cellular and fat debris.[2] Second, there is cellular differentiation of mesenchymal cells into osteoblasts or fibroblasts.[2] Under favorable conditions, the remaining inorganic mineral volume forms a framework for establishment of new, fully functional bone tissue.[2]

## Diagnosis

Front X-ray of right knee of an adolescent (epiphyseal plates are open): arrows point to avascular necrosis and developing osteochondritis dissecans in the outer medial condyle of femur

In the early stages, bone scintigraphy and MRI are the preferred diagnostic tools.[18][19]

* Radiography of total avascular necrosis of right humeral head. Woman of 81 years with diabetes of long evolution.

* Radiography of avascular necrosis of left femoral head. Man of 45 years with AIDS.

* Nuclear magnetic resonance of avascular necrosis of left femoral head. Man of 45 years with AIDS.

* The intravertebral vacuum cleft sign (at white arrow) is a sign of avascular necrosis. Avascular necrosis of a vertebral body after a vertebral compression fracture is called Kümmel's disease.[20]

* Pathology of avascular necrosis, with a photograph of a cross-section of the involved bone at top left. The reactive zone shows irregular trebaculae with empty lacunae, and fibrosis of the marrow space.

### Types

When AVN affects the scaphoid bone, it is known as Preiser disease. Another named form of AVN is Köhler disease, which affects the navicular bone of the foot, primarily in children. Yet another form of AVN is Kienböck's disease, which affects the lunate bone in the wrist.[21]

## Treatment

A variety of methods may be used to treat the disease,[5] with the most common being total hip replacement (THR). However, THRs have a number of downsides, including long recovery times and the lifespans of the hip joints (often around 20 to 30 years).[22] THRs are an effective means of treatment in the older population; however, in younger people, they may wear out before the end of a person's life.[22]

Other techniques, such as metal-on-metal resurfacing, may not be suitable in all cases of avascular necrosis; its suitability depends on how much damage has occurred to the femoral head.[23] Bisphosphonates, which reduce the rate of bone breakdown, may prevent collapse (specifically of the hip) due to AVN.[24]

### Core decompression

Other treatments include core decompression, whereby internal bone pressure is relieved by drilling a hole into the bone, and a living bone chip and an electrical device to stimulate new vascular growth are implanted; and the free vascular fibular graft (FVFG), in which a portion of the fibula, along with its blood supply, is removed and transplanted into the femoral head.[25] A 2016 Cochrane review found no clear improvement between people who have had hip core decompression and participate in physical therapy, versus physical therapy alone. There is additionally no strong research on the effectiveness of hip core decompression for people with sickle cell disease.[11]

The disease's progression may be halted by transplanting nucleated cells from the bone marrow into avascular necrosis lesions after core decompression. However, much further research is needed to establish this technique.[26][27]

## Prognosis

The amount of disability that results from avascular necrosis depends on what part of the bone is affected, how large an area is involved, and how effectively the bone rebuilds itself. The process of bone rebuilding takes place after an injury as well as during normal growth.[23] Normally, bone continuously breaks down and rebuilds—old bone is resorbed and replaced with new bone. The process keeps the skeleton strong and helps it to maintain a balance of minerals.[23] In the course of avascular necrosis, however, the healing process is usually ineffective and the bone tissues break down faster than the body can repair them. If left untreated, the disease progresses, the bone collapses,[28] and the joint surface breaks down, leading to pain and arthritis.[1]

## Epidemiology

## Society and culture

Cases of avascular necrosis have been identified in a few high-profile athletes. It abruptly ended the career of American football running-back Bo Jackson in 1991. Doctors discovered Jackson to have lost all of the cartilage supporting his hip while he was undergoing tests following a hip injury he had on the field during an 1991 NFL Playoff game.[29] Avascular necrosis of the hip was also identified in a routine medical check-up on quarterback Brett Favre following his trade to the Green Bay Packers in 1992.[30] However, Favre would go on to have a long career at the Packers. Another high-profile athlete was American road racing cyclist Floyd Landis,[31] winner of the 2006 Tour de France, the title being subsequently stripped from his record by cycling's governing bodies after his blood samples tested positive for banned substances.[32] During that tour, Landis was allowed cortisone shots to help manage his ailment despite cortisone also being a banned substance in professional cycling at the time.[33]

Rafael Nadal successfully continued his tennis career after having surgery for Mueller–Weiss syndrome (osteonecrosis of the navicular bone in the foot).[34] YouTuber Steve Wallis has revealed that he has the condition in his hip.[where?]

## See also

* Sperm whale skeletons can show damage from avascular necrosis caused by decompression.[35]

## References

1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 "Questions and Answers about Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis)" (in en). October 2015. https://www.niams.nih.gov/health-topics/osteonecrosis. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Khan, Ali Nawaz; Al-Salman, Mohammed Jassim; Chandramohan, Muthusamy; MacDonald, Sumaira; Hutchinson, Charles Edward. "Bone Infarct". eMedicine Specialties. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/387545-overview.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Osteonecrosis". 2009. https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/osteonecrosis/.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Ferri, Fred F. (2017) (in en). Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2018 E-Book: 5 Books in 1. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-323-52957-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=wGclDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA166.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (March 2006). "Osteonecrosis". Food and Drug Administration. https://www.niams.nih.gov/health-topics/osteonecrosis.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Arthroscopically assisted core decompression of the proximal humerus for avascular necrosis". Arthroscopy 20 (9): 1003–6. November 2004. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2004.07.003. PMID 15525936.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Shoulder arthroplasty for atraumatic avascular necrosis of the humeral head: nineteen shoulders followed up for a mean of seven years". Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery 14 (2): 114–20. Mar 2005. doi:10.1016/j.jse.2004.06.019. PMID 15789002.
8. ↑ "Core decompression of the distal femur for avascular necrosis of the knee". The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. British Volume 71 (4): 583–7. August 1989. doi:10.1302/0301-620X.71B4.2768301. PMID 2768301. http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6aa4/90337662dc292fb3728ef89ea26c711802aa.pdf.
9. ↑ "Total knee arthroplasty in osteonecrosis". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 273 (273): 77–82. December 1991. doi:10.1097/00003086-199112000-00011. PMID 1959290.
10. ↑ "Avascular necrosis of the mandibular condyle causing fibrous ankylosis of the temporomandibular joint in sickle cell anemia". The Journal of Craniofacial Surgery 15 (6): 1052–6. November 2004. doi:10.1097/00001665-200411000-00035. PMID 15547404.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Martí-Carvajal, Arturo J.; Solà, Ivan; Agreda-Pérez, Luis H. (2019-12-05). "Treatment for avascular necrosis of bone in people with sickle cell disease". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2019 (12). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004344.pub7. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 31803937.
12. ↑ Campbell, Ernest S. (2019-04-04). "Dysbaric Osteonecrosis and Diving" (in en-US). SCUBADOC. http://scuba-doc.com/dysbaric-osteonecrosis-and-diving/.
13. ↑ "Jaw osteonecrosis related to bisphosphonate therapy: a severe secondary disorder". Bone 40 (4): 828–34. April 2007. doi:10.1016/j.bone.2006.11.023. PMID 17236837.
14. ↑ Uguen, M.; Pougnet, R.; Uguen, A.; Loddé, B.; Dewitte, J. D. (2014). "Dysbaric osteonecrosis among professional divers: a literature review". Undersea & Hyperbaric Medicine 41 (6): 579–587. ISSN 1066-2936. PMID 25562949.
15. ↑ Sharareh, Behnam; Schwarzkopf, Ran (March 2015). "Dysbaric osteonecrosis: a literature review of pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and management". Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine 25 (2): 153–161. doi:10.1097/JSM.0000000000000093. ISSN 1536-3724. PMID 24662571.
16. ↑ "Legg-Calve-Perthes Disease: Imaging Evaluation and Management". Seminars in Musculoskeletal Radiology 3 (4): 379–391. 1999. doi:10.1055/s-2008-1080081. PMID 11388931.
17. ↑ Kaste, Sue C.; Karimova, Evguenia J.; Neel, Michael D. (May 2011). "Osteonecrosis in Children After Therapy for Malignancy" (in en). American Journal of Roentgenology 196 (5): 1011–1018. doi:10.2214/AJR.10.6073. ISSN 0361-803X. PMID 21512065.
18. ↑ "Bone scintigraphy equipped with a pinhole collimator for diagnosis of avascular necrosis of the femoral head". Clinical Rheumatology 16 (4): 372–7. June 1997. doi:10.1007/BF02242454. PMID 9259251.
19. ↑ "MRI of avascular necrosis of bone". Topics in Magnetic Resonance Imaging 8 (4): 231–46. August 1996. doi:10.1097/00002142-199608000-00003. PMID 8870181.
20. ↑ "Kummel disease: a not-so-rare complication of osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures". Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine 22 (1): 75–8. 2009. doi:10.3122/jabfm.2009.01.080100. PMID 19124637.
21. ↑ Cross, Danielle; Matullo, Kristofer S. (2014-01-01). "Kienböck Disease". Orthopedic Clinics of North America 45 (1): 141–152. doi:10.1016/j.ocl.2013.09.004. ISSN 0030-5898. PMID 24267215. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0030589813001132.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Evans, Jonathan T; Evans, Jonathan P; Walker, Robert W; Blom, Ashley W; Whitehouse, Michael R; Sayers, Adrian (2019-02-16). "How long does a hip replacement last? A systematic review and meta-analysis of case series and national registry reports with more than 15 years of follow-up" (in en). The Lancet 393 (10172): 647–654. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31665-9. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 30782340.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 de Bernard, Benedetto (15 November 1989). "Calcium Metabolism and Bone Mineralization". Bone. CRC Press. pp. 74–. ISBN 978-0-936923-24-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZI9gkQa7DzYC&pg=PA74. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
24. ↑ "Efficacy of alendronate, a bisphosphonate, in the treatment of AVN of the hip. A prospective open-label study". Rheumatology 44 (3): 352–9. March 2005. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/keh481. PMID 15572396.
25. ↑ "Long-term results of free vascularized fibular grafting for femoral head necrosis". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 386 (386): 114–9. May 2001. doi:10.1097/00003086-200105000-00015. PMID 11347824.
26. ↑ "Treatment of osteonecrosis of the femoral head with implantation of autologous bone-marrow cells. Surgical technique". The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American Volume 87 Suppl 1 (Pt 1): 106–12. March 2005. doi:10.2106/JBJS.D.02662. PMID 15743852. http://www.ejbjs.org/cgi/content/full/87/1_suppl_1/106. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
27. ↑ "Treatment of osteonecrosis of the femoral head with core decompression and human bone morphogenetic protein". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 429 (429): 139–45. December 2004. doi:10.1097/01.blo.0000150312.53937.6f. PMID 15577478.
28. ↑ "Osteonecrosis in the foot". The Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons 15 (4): 208–217. April 2007. doi:10.5435/00124635-200704000-00004. PMID 17426292.
29. ↑ Altman, Lawrence K. (20 March 1991). "Jackson's Case Is Dividing The Doctors". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/20/sports/jackson-s-case-is-dividing-the-doctors.html.
30. ↑ "What, his hip? Favre reveals he has avascular necrosis". JS Online. 27 September 2006. http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=348858.
31. ↑ "What He's Been Pedaling". The New York Times. 16 July 2006. https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/16/magazine/16landis.html.
32. ↑ "Landis Tests Positive; Title is a total complete loss". Chicago Tribune. 5 August 2006.
33. ↑ Fotheringham, Alasdair (24 July 2006). "Cycling: Landis the Tour king celebrates a triumph of survival". The Independent (London). http://sport.independent.co.uk/general/article1193126.ece. (subscription required)
34. ↑ Roy, Neelabhra (13 May 2022). "What is Mueller-Weiss Syndrome, the foot injury Rafael Nadal suffers from?" (in en-us). https://www.sportskeeda.com/tennis/news-what-mueller-weiss-syndrome-what-foot-injury-rafael-nadal-suffers-from.
35. ↑ "Cumulative sperm whale bone damage and the bends". Science 306 (5705): 2215. 2004. doi:10.1126/science.1105452. PMID 15618509.

Steve Wallis Step 2 livestream 19 December 2020 https://www.youtube.com/live/5cOJC4ZE-Mo?si=BSgkpYNOTxM4QgGD

## External links

* Osteonecrosis / Avascular Necrosis at the National Institute of Health
* Osteonecrosis / Avascular necrosis at Merck Manual for patients
* Osteonecrosis / Avascular necrosis at Merck Manual for medical professionals

Classification|

* ICD-10: M87
* ICD-9-CM: 733.4
* MeSH: D010020
* DiseasesDB: 1174

|

External resources|

* MedlinePlus: 007260
* eMedicine: med/2924
* Orphanet: 399164

* v
* t
* e

Bone and joint disease (M80–M94, 730–733)

Bone|

| Inflammation|

| endocrine:|

* Osteitis fibrosa cystica
* Brown tumor

|

infection:|

* Osteomyelitis
* Sequestrum
* Involucrum
* Sesamoiditis
* Brodie abscess
* Periostitis
* Vertebral osteomyelitis

Metabolic|

* Bone density
* Osteoporosis
* Juvenile
* Osteopenia
* Osteomalacia
* Paget's disease of bone

Bone resorption|

* Osteolysis
* Hajdu-Cheney syndrome
* Ainhum
* Gorham's disease

Other|

* Ischaemia
* Avascular necrosis
* Osteonecrosis of the jaw
* Algoneurodystrophy
* Hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy
* Nonossifying fibroma
* Pseudarthrosis
* Stress fracture
* Fibrous dysplasia
* Monostotic
* Polyostotic
* Skeletal fluorosis
* bone cyst
* Aneurysmal bone cyst
* Hyperostosis
* Infantile cortical hyperostosis
* Osteosclerosis
* Melorheostosis
* Pycnodysostosis

Joint|

| Chondritis|

* Relapsing polychondritis

|

Other|

* Tietze's syndrome

Combined|

| Osteochondritis|

* Osteochondritis dissecans

|

Child|

| leg:|

* hip
* Legg–Calvé–Perthes syndrome
* tibia
* Osgood-Schlatter disease
* Blount's disease
* foot
* Köhler disease
* Sever's disease

|

spine|

*     * Scheuermann’s disease

arm:|

* wrist
* Kienböck's disease
* elbow
* Panner disease

* v
* t
* e

Underwater diving

* Diving modes
* Atmospheric pressure diving
* Freediving
* Saturation diving
* Scuba diving
* Snorkeling
* Surface-supplied diving
* Unmanned diving

Diving equipment

| Basic equipment|

* Diving mask
* Snorkel
* Swimfin

|

Breathing gas|

* Bailout gas
* Bottom gas
* Breathing air
* Decompression gas
* Emergency gas supply
* Heliox
* Nitrox
* Oxygen
* Travel gas
* Trimix

Buoyancy and
trim equipment|

* Buoyancy control device
* Power inflator
* Dump valve
* Diving weighting system
* Ankle weights
* Integrated weights
* Trim weights
* Weight belt

Decompression
equipment|

* Decompression buoy
* Decompression cylinder
* Decompression trapeze
* Dive computer
* Diving shot
* Jonline

Environmental
protection|

* Atmospheric diving suit
* Diving suit
* Dry suit
* Sladen suit
* Standard diving suit
* Rash vest
* Wetsuit
* Dive skins
* Hot-water suit

Helmets
and masks|

* Anti-fog
* Diving helmet
* Free-flow helmet
* Lightweight demand helmet
* Reclaim helmet
* Standard diving helmet
* Diving mask
* Band mask
* Half mask
* Full-face mask

Instrumentation|

* Bottom timer
* Depth gauge
* Dive computer
* Dive timer
* Diving compass
* Diving watch
* Pneumofathometer
* Submersible pressure gauge

Mobility
equipment|

* Diving bell
* Closed bell
* Wet bell
* Diving stage
* Diver propulsion vehicle
* Advanced SEAL Delivery System
* Cosmos CE2F series
* Dry Combat Submersible
* Human torpedo
* Motorised Submersible Canoe
* R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle
* SEAL Delivery Vehicle
* Shallow Water Combat Submersible
* Siluro San Bartolomeo
* Wet Nellie
* Wet sub
* Necker Nymph
* Swimfins
* Monofin
* Towboard

Safety
equipment|

* Alternative air source
* Bailout block
* Bailout bottle
* Bolt snap
* Buddy line
* Distance line
* Dive light
* Dive reel
* Diver's cutting tool
* Diver's knife
* Diver's telephone
* Through-water communications
* Diving bell
* Diving safety harness
* Emergency gas supply
* Lifeline
* Screw gate carabiner
* Line marker
* Octopus regulator
* Pony bottle
* Rescue tether
* Safety helmet
* Shark-proof cage
* Surface marker buoy
* Personal locator beacon

Underwater
breathing
apparatus|

* Atmospheric diving suit
* Diving cylinder
* Burst disc
* Diving cylinder valve
* Diving helmet
* Diving regulator
* Single-hose regulator
* Twin-hose regulator
* Regulator malfunction
* Regulator freeze
* Full face diving mask
* Reclaim helmet
* Open-circuit scuba
* Scuba set
* Bailout bottle
* Decompression cylinder
* Independent doubles
* Manifolded twin set
* Scuba manifold
* Pony bottle
* Sidemount
* Sling cylinder
* Scuba replacement
* Standard diving dress
* Diving rebreather
* Carbon dioxide scrubber
* Carleton CDBA
* CDLSE
* Cis-Lunar
* Cryogenic rebreather
* CUMA
* DSEA
* Dolphin
* Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor
* FROGS
* Halcyon PVR-BASC
* Halcyon RB80
* IDA71
* Interspiro DCSC
* KISS
* LAR-5
* LAR-6
* LAR-V
* LARU
* Porpoise
* Dräger Ray
* Siebe Gorman CDBA
* Siva
* Viper
* Surface-supplied diving equipment
* Air line
* Diver's umbilical
* Diving air compressor
* Hookah
* Sea Trek
* Snuba
* Standard diving dress

Diving
equipment
manufacturers|

* AP Diving
* Apeks
* Aqua Lung America
* Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique
* Beuchat
* René Cavalero
* Cressi-Sub
* Dacor
* DESCO
* Dive Xtras
* Divex
* Diving Unlimited International
* Drägerwerk
* Fenzy
* Maurice Fernez
* Technisub
* Oscar Gugen
* Heinke
* HeinrichsWeikamp
* Johnson Outdoors
* Mares
* Morse Diving
* Nemrod
* Oceanic Worldwide
* Porpoise
* Sub Sea Systems
* Shearwater Research
* Siebe Gorman
* Submarine Products
* Suunto

Diving support equipment

| Breathing gas|

* Air filtration
* Booster pump
* Carbon dioxide scrubber
* Cascade filling system
* Diver's pump
* Diving air compressor
* Diving air filter
* High pressure breathing air compressor
* Low pressure breathing air compressor
* Gas blending
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Gas panel
* Gas reclaim system
* Gas storage bank
* Gas storage quad
* Gas storage tube
* Helium analyzer
* Nitrox production
* Membrane method of gas concentration
* Pressure swing adsorption
* Oxygen analyser
* Oxygen compatibility

|

Decompression
equipment|

* Built-in breathing system
* Decompression tables
* Dive computer
* Diving bell
* Bell cursor
* Closed bell
* Clump weight
* Launch and recovery system
* Wet bell
* Diving chamber
* Diving stage
* Jersey upline
* Recreational Dive Planner
* Saturation system

Platforms|

* Dive boat
* Boarding stirrup
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Combat Rubber Raiding Craft
* Diving platform (scuba)
* Liveaboard
* Subskimmer
* Diving support vessel
* HMS Challenger (K07)
* Moon pool
* Underwater habitat
* Aquarius Reef Base
* Continental Shelf Station Two
* Helgoland Habitat
* Jules' Undersea Lodge
* Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station
* SEALAB
* Tektite habitat

Remotely operated
underwater vehicles|

* 8A4-class ROUV
* ABISMO
* Atlantis ROV Team
* CURV
* Épaulard
* Global Explorer ROV
* Goldfish-class ROUV
* Kaikō ROV
* Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System
* Mini Rover ROV
* OpenROV
* ROV KIEL 6000
* ROV PHOCA
* Scorpio ROV
* Sea Dragon-class ROV
* Seabed tractor
* Seafox drone
* Seahorse ROUV
* SeaPerch
* SJT-class ROUV
* T1200 Trenching Unit
* VideoRay UROVs

Safety equipment|

* Diver down flag
* Diving shot
* Hyperbaric lifeboat
* Hyperbaric stretcher
* Jackstay
* Jonline
* Reserve gas supply

General|

* Diving ladder
* Hot water system
* Downline

Freediving

| Activities|

* Aquathlon
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving
* Haenyeo
* Pearl hunting
* Ama
* Snorkeling
* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Underwater ice hockey
* Underwater rugby
* Underwater target shooting

|

Competitions|

* Nordic Deep
* Vertical Blue
* Disciplines
* Constant weight (CWT)
* Constant weight without fins (CNF)
* Dynamic apnea (DYN)
* Dynamic apnea without fins (DNF)
* Free immersion (FIM)
* No-limits apnea (NLT)
* Static apnea (STA)
* Skandalopetra diving
* Variable weight apnea (VWT)
* Variable weight apnea without fins

Equipment|

* Diving mask
* Diving suit
* Fins
* Hawaiian sling
* Monofin
* Polespear
* Snorkel (swimming)
* Speargun
* Water polo cap

Freedivers|

* Deborah Andollo
* Peppo Biscarini
* Sara Campbell
* Derya Can Göçen
* Goran Čolak
* Carlos Coste
* Robert Croft
* Mandy-Rae Cruickshank
* Yasemin Dalkılıç
* Leonardo D'Imporzano
* Flavia Eberhard
* Şahika Ercümen
* Emma Farrell
* Francisco Ferreras
* Pierre Frolla
* Flavia Eberhard
* Mehgan Heaney-Grier
* Elisabeth Kristoffersen
* Loïc Leferme
* Enzo Maiorca
* Jacques Mayol
* Audrey Mestre
* Karol Meyer
* Stéphane Mifsud
* Alexey Molchanov
* Natalia Molchanova
* Dave Mullins
* Patrick Musimu
* Guillaume Néry
* Herbert Nitsch
* Umberto Pelizzari
* Annelie Pompe
* Michal Risian
* Stig Severinsen
* Tom Sietas
* Aharon Solomons
* Martin Štěpánek
* Walter Steyn
* Tanya Streeter
* William Trubridge
* Devrim Cenk Ulusoy
* Danai Varveri
* Alessia Zecchini
* Nataliia Zharkova

Hazards|

* Barotrauma
* Drowning
* Freediving blackout
* Deep-water blackout
* Shallow-water blackout
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Historical|

* Ama
* Octopus wrestling
* Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming

Organisations|

* AIDA International
* Scuba Schools International
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Freediving Association
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* Performance Freediving International

Professional diving

| Occupations|

* Ama
* Commercial diving
* Commercial offshore diving
* Hazmat diving
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Diving safety officer
* Diving supervisor
* Haenyeo
* Media diving
* Underwater photography
* Underwater videography
* Military diving
* Army engineer diver
* Clearance diver
* Frogman
* Police diving
* Public safety diving
* Scientific diving
* Underwater archaeology

|

Underwater work|

* Commercial offshore diving
* Dive guide
* Diver training
* Recreational diver training
* Hyperbaric welding
* Nondestructive testing
* Pearl hunting
* Police diving
* Public safety diving
* Salvage diving
* Scientific diving
* Sponge diving
* Submarine pipeline
* Underwater archaeology
* Underwater demolition
* Underwater photography
* Underwater search and recovery
* Underwater videography

Tools & equipment|

* Abrasive waterjet
* Airlift
* In-water surface cleaning
* Brush cart
* Cavitation cleaning
* Pressure washing
* Lifting bag
* Remotely operated underwater vehicle
* Silt screw
* Snoopy loop
* Thermal lance
* Tremie
* Water jetting

Underwater
weapons|

* Limpet mine
* Speargun
* Hawaiian sling
* Polespear

| Underwater
firearm|

* Gyrojet
* Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun
* Powerhead
* Underwater pistols
* Heckler & Koch P11
* SPP-1 underwater pistol
* Underwater revolvers
* AAI underwater revolver
* Underwater rifles
* ADS amphibious rifle
* APS underwater rifle
* ASM-DT amphibious rifle

|

Recreational diving

| Specialties|

* Altitude diving
* Cave diving
* Deep diving
* Ice diving
* Muck diving
* Open-water diving
* Rebreather diving
* Sidemount diving
* Solo diving
* Technical diving
* Wreck diving

|

Diver
organisations|

* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP)

Diving tourism
industry|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Scuba diving tourism
* Shark tourism
* Sinking ships for wreck diving sites

Recreational
dive sites|

| Reef diving
regions|

* Arrecifes de Cozumel National Park
* Great Barrier Reef
* iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area
* Poor Knights Islands
* Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area

|

Reef dive
sites|

* Artificial reef
* Gibraltar Artificial Reef
* Shark River Reef
* Osborne Reef
* Palancar Reef
* Underwater artworks
* Cancún Underwater Museum
* Christ of the Abyss
* The Diver
* Molinere Underwater Sculpture Park

Wreck diving
regions|

* Chuuk Lagoon
* Maritime Heritage Trail – Battle of Saipan
* Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve
* Wreck Alley, San Diego

Wreck dive
sites|

* HMS A1
* HMS A3
* Engineering:USS Aaron Ward
* Abessinia
* Aeolian Sky
* Albert C. Field
* Andrea Doria
* Antilla
* Antilles
* Aquila
* Engineering:USS Arkansas
* HMS Boadicea
* Bianca C.
* Booya
* HMSAS Bloemfontein
* Breda
* HMAS Brisbane
* Bungsberg
* HMAS Canberra
* Carl D. Bradley
* Carnatic
* SMS Dresden
* Dunraven
* Eastfield
* HMT Elk
* Ellengowan
* RMS Empress of Ireland
* HMS Falmouth
* Fifi
* SS Francisco Morazan
* Fujikawa Maru
* Fumizuki
* SATS General Botha
* USNS General Hoyt S. Vandenberg
* HMS Ghurka
* Glen Strathallan
* SAS Good Hope
* Gothenburg
* Herzogin Cecilie
* Hilma Hooker
* Hispania
* HMS Hood
* HMAS Hobart
* Igara
* James Eagan Layne
* Captain Keith Tibbetts
* King Cruiser
* SMS Kronprinz
* Kyarra
* HMS Laforey
* USAT Liberty
* Louis Sheid
* Engineering:USS LST-507
* SMS Markgraf
* Mikhail Lermontov
* HMS M2
* Maine
* Maloja
* HMS Maori
* Marguerite
* SS Mauna Loa
* USAT Meigs
* Mendi
* USCGC Mohawk
* Mohegan
* RMS Moldavia
* HMS Montagu
* MV RMS Mulheim
* Nagato
* Oceana
* Engineering:USS Oriskany
* Oslofjord
* P29
* P31
* Pedernales
* Persier
* HMAS Perth
* SAS Pietermaritzburg
* Piłsudski
* Pool Fisher
* HMS Port Napier
* Preußen
* President Coolidge
* PS Queen Victoria
* Radaas
* Error: {{Ship}} missing prefix (help)
* RMS Rhone
* Rondo
* Rosehill
* Error: {{Ship}} missing prefix (help)
* Royal Charter
* Rozi
* HMS Safari
* Salem Express
* Engineering:USS Saratoga
* Engineering:USS Scuffle
* HMS Scylla
* HMS Sidon
* Engineering:USS Spiegel Grove
* Stanegarth
* Stanwood
* Stella
* HMAS Swan
* Engineering:USS Tarpon
* Thesis
* Thistlegorm
* Toa Maru
* Torrey Canyon
* SAS Transvaal
* Tulagi
* Tulamben
* U-40
* U-352
* U-1195
* Um El Faroud
* Varvassi
* Walter L M Russ
* Washingtonian (1913)
* HMNZS Wellington
* Engineering:USS Yancey
* Yongala
* Zenobia
* Zealandia
* Zingara

Cave diving
sites|

* Devil's Throat at Punta Sur
* Engelbrecht
* Fossil Cave
* Piccaninnie Ponds
* Pollatoomary
* Sistema Ox Bel Ha
* Sistema Sac Actun
* Sistema Dos Ojos
* Sistema Nohoch Nah Chich

Freshwater
dives|

* Ewens Ponds
* Little Blue Lake

Training sites|

* Capernwray Dive Centre
* National Diving and Activity Centre
* Stoney Cove

Open ocean
diving|

* Blue-water diving
* Black-water diving

Diving safety

* Ergonomics of diving equipment
* Human factors in diving safety
* Life support system
* Safety-critical system

| Diving hazards|

* Trait anxiety
* Cold shock response
* Decompression
* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Nitrogen narcosis
* Overconfidence effect
* Oxygen toxicity
* Panic
* Penetration diving
* Seasickness
* Silt out
* Single point of failure
* Task loading
* Uncontrolled decompression

|

Consequences|

* Barotrauma
* Decompression sickness
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Hypoxia
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Risk
management|

* Checklist
* Hazard identification and risk assessment
* Hazard analysis
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Risk control
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Incident pit
* Lockout-tagout
* Permit To Work
* Redundancy
* Safety data sheet
* Situation awareness
* Diving team
* Bellman
* Chamber operator
* Diver's attendant
* Diving supervisor
* Diving systems technician
* Life support technician
* Stand-by diver
* Equipment safety
* Breathing gas quality
* Testing and inspection of diving cylinders
* Hydrostatic test
* Sustained load cracking
* Diving regulators
* Breathing performance of regulators
* Occupational safety and health
* Approaches to safety
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Toolbox talk
* Housekeeping
* Association of Diving Contractors International
* Code of practice
* Contingency plan
* Diving regulations
* Emergency procedure
* Emergency response plan
* Evacuation plan
* Hazardous Materials Identification System
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Administrative controls
* Engineering controls
* Hazard elimination
* Hazard substitution
* Personal protective equipment
* International Marine Contractors Association
* Occupational hazard
* Biological hazard
* Chemical hazard
* Physical hazard
* Psychosocial hazard
* Occupational hygiene
* Exposure assessment
* Occupational exposure limit
* Workplace health surveillance
* Safety culture
* Code of practice
* Health and safety representative
* Operations manual
* Safety meeting
* Standard operating procedure

Diving
procedures|

* Ascending and descending
* Emergency ascent
* Boat diving
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Buddy diving
* Decompression
* Decompression practice
* Pyle stop
* Ratio decompression
* Dive briefing
* Dive log
* Dive planning
* Scuba gas planning
* Diver communications
* Diving hand signals
* Diving line signals
* Diver voice communications
* Diver rescue
* Diver training
* Doing It Right
* Drift diving
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Night diving
* Solo diving
* Water safety

Incidents|

| Diver rescues|

* Tham Luang cave rescue

|

Early diving|

* John Day (carpenter)
* Charles Spalding
* Ebenezer Watson

Freediving|

* Loïc Leferme
* Audrey Mestre
* Nicholas Mevoli
* Natalia Molchanova

Professional
diving|

* Johnson Sea Link accident
* Offshore diving incidents
* Byford Dolphin diving bell accident
* Drill Master diving accident
* Star Canopus diving accident
* Venture One diving accident
* Waage Drill II diving accident
* Wildrake diving accident
* Professional diver fatalities
* Roger Baldwin
* John Bennett
* Victor F. Guiel Jr.
* Craig M. Hoffman
* Peter Henry Michael Holmes
* Edwin Clayton Link
* Gerard Anthony Prangley
* Pier Skipness
* Robert John Smyth
* Albert D. Stover
* Richard A. Walker
* Lothar Michael Ward
* Joachim Wendler
* Death of Bradley Westell
* Arne Zetterström

Scuba diving
fatalities|

* Ricardo Armbruster
* Allan Bridge
* David Bright
* Berry L. Cannon
* Cotton Coulson
* Cláudio Coutinho
* E. Yale Dawson
* Deon Dreyer
* Milan Dufek
* Sheck Exley
* Maurice Fargues
* Guy Garman
* Steve Irwin
* Jim Jones
* Henry Way Kendall
* Artur Kozłowski
* Chris and Chrissy Rouse
* Kirsty MacColl
* Agnes Milowka
* François de Roubaix
* Dave Shaw
* Wesley C. Skiles
* Dewey Smith
* Rob Stewart
* Esbjörn Svensson
* Josef Velek

Diving medicine

| Diving
disorders|

* List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders
* Cramps
* Motion sickness
* Surfer's ear

| Pressure
related|

* Aerosinusitis
* Air embolism
* Alternobaric vertigo
* Barodontalgia
* Barostriction
* Barotrauma
* Compression arthralgia
* Decompression illness
* Dental barotrauma
* Dysbarism
* Pulmonary barotrauma

| Oxygen|

* Freediving blackout
* Hyperoxia
* Hypoxia
* Oxygen toxicity

|

Inert gases|

* Avascular necrosis
* Decompression sickness
* Isobaric counterdiffusion
* Taravana
* Dysbaric osteonecrosis
* High-pressure nervous syndrome
* Hydrogen narcosis
* Nitrogen narcosis

Carbon dioxide|

* Hypercapnia
* Hypocapnia

Breathing gas
contaminants|

* Carbon monoxide poisoning

Immersion
related|

* Asphyxia
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Immersion diuresis
* Instinctive drowning response
* Laryngospasm
* Salt water aspiration syndrome
* Swimming-induced pulmonary edema

Treatment|

* Demand valve oxygen therapy
* First Aid
* Hyperbaric medicine
* Hyperbaric treatment schedules
* In-water recompression
* Oxygen therapy
* Therapeutic recompression

Personnel|

* Diving Medical Examiner
* Diving Medical Practitioner
* Diving Medical Technician
* Hyperbaric nursing

Screening|

* Atrial septal defect
* Fitness to dive
* Psychological fitness to dive

Research|

| Researchers in
diving physiology
and medicine|

* Arthur J. Bachrach
* Albert R. Behnke
* Paul Bert
* George F. Bond
* Robert Boyle
* Albert A. Bühlmann
* John R. Clarke
* Guybon Chesney Castell Damant
* William Paul Fife
* John Scott Haldane
* Robert William Hamilton Jr.
* Leonard Erskine Hill
* Brian Andrew Hills
* Felix Hoppe-Seyler
* Christian J. Lambertsen
* Simon Mitchell
* Charles Momsen
* John Rawlins R.N.
* Charles Wesley Shilling
* Edward D. Thalmann
* Jacques Triger

|

Diving medical
research
organisations|

* Aerospace Medical Association
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)
* Diving Medical Advisory Council (DMAC)
* European Diving Technology Committee (EDTC)
* European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS)
* National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology
* Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
* Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine
* Rubicon Foundation
* South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society (SPUMS)
* Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association (SAUHMA)
* Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS)
* United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU)

Law

* Civil liability in recreational diving
* Duty of care
* List of legislation regulating underwater diving
* Investigation of diving accidents

History of underwater diving

* Aqua-Lung
* History of decompression research and development
* History of scuba diving
* List of researchers in underwater diving
* Porpoise regulator
* Standard diving dress
* Timeline of diving technology
* Underwater diving in popular culture
* Vintage scuba

Publications

| Manuals|

* NOAA Diving Manual
* U.S. Navy Diving Manual
* Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival

|

Standards and
Codes of Practice|

* DIN 7876

General non-fiction|

* The Darkness Beckons
* Goldfinder
* The Last Dive
* Shadow Divers

Training and registration

| Diver
training|

* Diving instructor
* Diving school
* Occupational diver training
* Commercial diver training
* Military diver training
* Public safety diver training
* Scientific diver training
* Competence and assessment
* Competency-based learning
* Skill assessment
* Refresher training (diving)
* Diver training standard
* Recreational diver training
* Introductory diving
* Skills
* Diver navigation
* Diver trim
* Ear clearing
* Frenzel maneuver
* Valsalva maneuver
* Finning techniques
* Scuba skills
* Buddy breathing
* Low impact diving
* Diamond Reef System
* Surface-supplied diving skills
* Underwater searches
* Teaching methods
* Muscle memory
* Overtraining
* Stress exposure training

|

Organisations|

* European Underwater Federation (EUF)
* International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF)
* International Diving Schools Association (IDSA)
* International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA)
* List of diver certification organizations
* National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
* Nautical Archaeology Society
* Universal Referral Program
* World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC)

| Commercial diver
certification
authorities|

* Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS)
* Commercial diver registration in South Africa
* Divers Institute of Technology
* Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
* Department of Employment and Labour

|

Commercial diving
schools|

* Divers Academy International

Free-diving
certification
agencies|

* AIDA International (AIDA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Performance Freediving International (PI)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)

Recreational scuba
certification
agencies|

* American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC)
* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (ANMP)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* International Diving Educators Association (IDEA)
* Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* National Academy of Scuba Educators (NASE)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond (NOB)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Sub-Aqua Association (SAA)
* Scuba Diving International (SDI)
* Scuba Educators International (SEI)
* Scottish Sub Aqua Club (ScotSAC)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* United Diving Instructors (UDI)
* YMCA SCUBA Program

Recreational scuba
certification
levels|

* Advanced Open Water Diver
* Autonomous diver
* CMAS* scuba diver
* CMAS** scuba diver
* Dive leader
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Introductory diving
* Low Impact Diver
* Master Instructor
* Master Scuba Diver
* Open Water Diver
* Rescue Diver
* Solo diver
* Supervised diver

Scientific diver
certification
authorities|

* American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS)
* CMAS Scientific Committee

Technical
certification
agencies|

* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Diving Science and Technology (DSAT)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)
* Trimix Scuba Association (TSA)
* Technical Extended Range (TXR)

| Cave
diving|

* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)

|

Underwater sports

| Surface snorkeling|

* Finswimming (surface swimming & bi-fins)

|

Snorkeling/breath-hold|

* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Underwater rugby
* Underwater target shooting

Breath-hold|

* Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving
* Underwater ice hockey

Open Circuit Scuba|

* Immersion finswimming
* Sport diving (sport)
* Underwater orienteering
* Underwater photography (sport)

Rebreather|

* Underwater photography (sport)

Sports governing
organisations|

* International
* AIDA International
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques)
* National
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Octopush Association
* British Underwater Sports Association
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* South African Underwater Sports Federation
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu
* Underwater Society of America)

Freediver Federations|

* AIDA International
* AIDA Hellas
* British Freediving Association (BFA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)

Sports federations|

* Australian Underwater Federation (AUF)
* British Octopush Association (BOA)
* British Underwater Sports Association (BUSA)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* South African Underwater Sports Federation (SAUSF)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* Underwater Society of America (USOA)

Underwater divers

| Pioneers of diving|

* Aquanaut
* Jacques Cousteau
* Hans Hass
* Arne Zetterström

|

Underwater scientists and archaeologists|

* Michael Arbuthnot
* Robert Ballard
* George Bass
* Mensun Bound
* Louis Boutan
* Hugh Bradner
* Cathy Church
* Eugenie Clark
* James P. Delgado
* Sylvia Earle
* John Christopher Fine
* George R. Fischer
* Anders Franzén
* Honor Frost
* David Gibbins
* Robert F. Marx
* Charles T. Meide
* Mark M. Newell
* John Peter Oleson
* Margaret Rule
* Gunter Schöbel
* E. Lee Spence
* Robert Sténuit
* Peter Throckmorton

Scuba record holders|

* Sheck Exley
* Nuno Gomes

Underwater filmmakers|

* Samir Alhafith
* David Attenborough
* Ramón Bravo
* Ivan Tors
* Andrew Wight

Underwater photographers|

* Tamara Benitez
* Georges Beuchat
* Adrian Biddle
* Jonathan Bird
* Eric Cheng
* Neville Coleman
* Jacques Cousteau
* John D. Craig
* Ben Cropp
* Bernard Delemotte
* David Doubilet
* John Christopher Fine
* Dermot FitzGerald
* Rodney Fox
* Ric Frazier
* Stephen Frink
* Peter Gimbel
* Monty Halls
* Hans Hass
* Henry Way Kendall
* Rudie Kuiter
* Joseph B. MacInnis
* Luis Marden
* Agnes Milowka
* Noel Monkman
* Steve Parish
* Zale Parry
* Pierre Petit
* Leni Riefenstahl
* Peter Scoones
* Brian Skerry
* Wesley C. Skiles
* E. Lee Spence
* Philippe Tailliez
* Ron and Valerie Taylor
* Albert Tillman
* John Veltri
* Stan Waterman
* Jiang Wenhao
* Michele Westmorland
* John Ernest Williamson
* J. Lamar Worzel

Underwater explorers|

* Caves
* Sheck Exley
* Martyn Farr
* Jill Heinerth
* William Hogarth Main
* Rick Stanton
* Bill Stone
* John Volanthen
* Reefs
*   * Wrecks
* Clive Cussler
* Aristotelis Zervoudis

Science of underwater diving

| Diving
physics|

* Breathing performance of regulators
* Buoyancy
* Archimedes' principle
* Neutral buoyancy
* Diffusion
* Molecular diffusion
* Force
* Gas law
* Amontons's law
* Boyle's law
* Charles's law
* Combined gas law
* Dalton's law
* Gay-Lussac's law
* Ideal gas law
* Oxygen fraction
* Permeation
* Pressure
* Absolute pressure
* Ambient pressure
* Atmospheric pressure
* Gauge pressure
* Hydrostatic pressure
* Metre sea water
* Partial pressure
* Psychrometric constant
* Solubility
* Henry's law
* Saturation
* Solution
* Supersaturation
* Surface tension
* Hydrophobe
* Surfactant
* Torricellian chamber
* Underwater vision
* Snell's law
* Weight
* Apparent weight

|

Diving
physiology|

* Artificial gills
* Circulatory system
* Blood shift
* Patent foramen ovale
* Perfusion
* Systemic circulation
* Cold shock response
* Diving reflex
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Lipid
* Maximum operating depth
* Metabolism
* Physiological response to water immersion
* Respiration
* Blood–air barrier
* Breathing
* CO₂ retention
* dead space
* Gas exchange
* Hypocapnia
* Normocapnia
* Respiratory exchange ratio
* Respiratory quotient
* Respiratory system
* Work of breathing
* Tissue
* Underwater vision

| Decompression
theory|

* Decompression models:
* Bühlmann decompression algorithm
* Haldane's decompression model
* Reduced gradient bubble model
* Thalmann algorithm
* Thermodynamic model of decompression
* Varying Permeability Model
* Equivalent air depth
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Maximum operating depth
* Oxygen window in diving decompression
* Physiology of decompression
* Pulmonary circulation

|

Diving
environment|

| Diving
environment
classification|

* Altitude diving
* Benign water diving
* Confined water diving
* Deep diving
* Inland diving
* Inshore diving
* Muck diving
* Night diving
* Open water diving
* Open ocean diving
* Black-water diving
* Blue-water diving
* Penetration diving
* Cave diving
* Ice diving
* Wreck diving
* Recreational dive sites
* Underwater environment

|

Environmental
impact|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Low impact diving

Environmental
factors|

* Algal bloom
* Currents:
* Current
* Longshore drift
* Ocean current
* Rip current
* Tidal race
* Undertow
* Upwelling
* Ekman transport
* Halocline
* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Reef
* Coral reef
* Stratification
* Thermocline
* Tides
* Turbidity
* Wind wave
* Breaking wave
* Surf
* Surge
* Wave shoaling

Special interest groups

* Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia (ARSBC)
* CMAS Europe
* Diving Equipment and Marketing Association (DEMA)
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Green Fins
* Historical Diving Society
* Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS)
* Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club
* Project AWARE
* Reef Life Survey
* Save Ontario Shipwrecks (SOS)
* SeaKeys
* Sea Research Society

Other

* Submarine escape training facility

* Category
* Commons
*   * Glossary
* Indexes: dive sites
* divers
* diving
*   * Outline
* Portal

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avascular necrosis. Read more

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