Debate over school closures during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, 2020

* * *

These pages were updated from March 2020 through June 2020 and do not contain the latest commentary available. To submit arguments for inclusion on this page, email editor@ballotpedia.org. To learn how Ballotpedia decides which arguments to feature, click here.

* * *

Scroll here for more articles

Debate over responses to coronavirus pandemic

* * *

Topics
Elections • Protests • Religious service restrictions • School closures • State lockdowns • Testing

* * *

Arguments by topic
Testing • Mask requirements • School closures • Travel restrictions • Lockdown/stay-at-home orders • Expansion of absentee/mail-in voting • Religious service restrictions

* * *

Debate by state
Alabama • Alaska • Arizona • Arkansas • California • Colorado • Connecticut • Delaware • Florida • Georgia • Hawaii • Idaho • Illinois • Indiana • Iowa • Kansas • Kentucky • Louisiana • Maine • Maryland • Massachusetts • Michigan • Minnesota • Mississippi • Missouri • Montana • Nebraska • Nevada • New Hampshire • New Jersey • New Mexico • New York • North Carolina • North Dakota • Ohio • Oklahoma • Oregon • Pennsylvania • Rhode Island • South Carolina • South Dakota • Tennessee • Texas • Utah • Vermont • Virginia • Washington • West Virginia • Wisconsin • Wyoming

* * *

Related coronavirus coverage
Changes to elections • Federal responses • State responses

Ballotpedia is providing comprehensive coverage of how the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic is affecting America's political and civic life. In addition to monitoring federal, state, and local responses to the coronavirus, we are also capturing the nationwide and local debates on whether to extend or lift coronavirus-related restrictions affecting the economy, schools, government operations, public health, religious services, and travel.

These arguments come from a variety of sources, including public officials, journalists, think tanks, economists, scientists, and other stakeholders. We encourage you to share the debates happening in your local community to editor@ballotpedia.org.

This article covers the national debate over school closures implemented in response to the coronavirus pandemic and the timelines for re-opening schools. You will find the following:

* Debate over school closures and public health
* Debate over school closures and learning loss
* Debate over school closures and childcare
* Debate over school closures and mental health
* Debate over reopening colleges
* Links to state-specific debates
* Background on school closures

## Contents

* 1 Debate over the cost of reopening schools
* 2 Debate over school closures and public health
* 3 Debate over school closures and learning loss
* 4 Debate over school closures and childcare
* 5 Debate over school closures and mental health
* 6 Debate over reopening colleges
* 7 State-specific debates
* 8 Background
* 8.1 Most recent actions
* 8.2 Map of school closures
* 9 General resources
* 10 See also
* 11 Footnotes

## Debate over the cost of reopening schools[edit]

* David Lewis, executive director of the Association of School Business Officials International (US News & World Report): David Lewis, executive director of the Association of School Business Officials International, responded to a report by the Association of School Business Officials International saying that COVID-19 safety measures would add an additional cost of $1.8 million for an average school district of&nbsp;3,700 students, with proportionally higher costs for larger districts. He said that schools don't have enough funds currently available to open safely.

"There is an answer to this. We need round four of funding and we need the federal government to step in. To keep our economy going we have to have the schools open. It's going to take the federal government to step in and say we are ready to go." - "Report: No Way to Reopen Schools Safely Without Federal Bailout," June 8, 2020.

* Wall Street Journal Editorial Board (Wall Street Journal): The Wall Street Journal Editorial Board argues that federal money should be directed towards schools that are making the effort to reopen safely in the fall.

"Many private schools are doing the work to reopen safely in places where public schools stay closed. Most states have private-school choice programs like tax credit scholarships or education savings accounts. The GOP proposal would require states that don’t have them to create programs at least temporarily or surrender their share of the funding to other states. Union-controlled states would hurt their constituents by refusing to set up scholarship programs." - "Pandemic Education Scholarships," July 29, 2020.

* David R. Henderson, a research fellow at Stanford University’s Hoover Institution (Wall Street Journal): Henderson argues that if public schools don't reopen for in-person instruction in the fall many Americans will realize the value of charter schools and homeschooling.&nbsp;

"Even many who don’t home-school will push for an expansion of charter schools, which tend to be responsive to parents and can more easily fire poor teachers. The advantage for taxpayers is that charter schools cost, on average, thousands of dollars less than traditional public schools. Teachers unions won’t be in a strong position to object to a shift to lower-cost charters if they continue to object to the idea of teaching in person five days a week. The unions might even “settle” for charter schools over the dreaded home-school option." - "The Virus May Strike Teachers Unions," July 29, 2020.

* Shardha Jogee, an astronomy professor at the University of Texas at Austin (The New York Times): "Allow schools to offer only virtual classes this fall, and convert schools and other large unused spaces into Safe Centers for Online Learning. We could call them not schools, but 'SCOLs.'... Rather than spending billions on in-person classes that would put everyone at risk and not even allow us to reopen the economy, let’s fund creative options like SCOLs, which do." - "How to Reopen the Economy Without Killing Teachers and Parents," July 20, 2020.

## Debate over school closures and public health[edit]

* Steve Hilton (Newsweek): Steve Hilton said that recovery from the pandemic wouldn't be possible unless children went back to school.

"We're told schools must be closed to keep kids safe. But they're not in danger. According to [the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention] data, children under 18 make up only 2 percent of cases and 0.67 percent of hospitalizations. Children under 14 make up just 0.02 percent of deaths." - "Trump Wants Schools to Reopen 'ASAP'—Majority of Americans Think They Will Still Be Unsafe For Months," May 25, 2020.

* Bill Gates (CNBC):

"I’m a big believer that for young children, the benefits in almost every location — particularly if you can protect the teachers well — the benefits outweigh the costs. ... As you get up to age, like, 13 and higher, then you’ll have to look at your locale to decide what you’ll do with high schools. And if they’re not in, then you have to put massive effort into trying to get there to be continued learning online." - "Bill Gates on back to school: Benefits in ‘almost every location’ outweigh costs for young children," July 28, 2020.

* Dr. Scott Gottlieb, former FDA commissioner (CNBC): Dr. Gottlieb argued that the parts of the country that have controlled the spread of the virus could reopen their schools for at least some part of the fall semester.

"It’s going to be very hard for communities to open schools for in-class learning against the backdrop of really epidemic, uncontrolled spread. ... The good news is a lot of parts of the country the epidemic is under some semblance of control. ... I think those states are going to have the opportunity to try to open their schools in the fall, at least for a period of time." - "Dr. Scott Gottlieb: ‘We don’t want to find out’ what happens if as many kids get coronavirus as flu," July 24, 2020.

* Researchers at the University College of London (The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health): Researchers at the University College of London said school closures alone would prevent fewer deaths than other social distancing interventions.

"Recent modelling studies of COVID-19 predict that school closures alone would prevent only 2–4% of deaths, much less than other social distancing interventions. Policy makers need to be aware of the equivocal evidence when considering school closures for COVID-19, and that combinations of social distancing measures should be considered. Other less disruptive social distancing interventions in schools require further consideration if restrictive social distancing policies are implemented for long periods." - "School closure and management practices during coronavirus outbreaks including COVID-19: a rapid systematic review," April 6, 2020.

* Neil Ferguson, director of the MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis (CNN): Neil Ferguson, director of the MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, said school closures were important for slowing transmission in conjunction with other social distancing measures.

"While school closure as a measure on its own is predicted to have a limited effectiveness in controlling Covid-19 transmission, when combined with intense social distancing it plays an important role in severing remaining contacts between households, and thus ensuring transmission declines." - "School closures may only have a small effect on stopping coronavirus, study says," April 7, 2020.

* President Donald Trump (R) (Newsweek): President Donald Trump (R) tweeted that schools should reopen as soon as possible.

"Schools in our country should be opened ASAP. Much very good information now available." - "Trump Wants Schools to Reopen 'ASAP'—Majority of Americans Think They Will Still Be Unsafe For Months," May 25, 2020.

* President Donald Trump (R) (White House): The Trump administration released its guidelines on April 16, 2020, for opening up the country. In Phase One, the guidelines said that schools and organized youth activities currently closed should remain closed. In Phase Two, school and youth activities could reopen with continued social distancing. Groups of 50 people or more should be avoided in Phase Two. - "Guidelines: Opening Up America Again," April 16, 2020.

* Mike Reid, professor at the University of California-San Francisco (USA Today): Mike Reid, professor of infectious disease at the University of California-San Francisco, said another spike in cases was likely in the fall of 2020 when children were expected to return to school. - "When will a second wave of the coronavirus hit, and what will it look like?," April 19, 2020.

* Aaron E. Carroll, professor of pediatrics at the Indiana University School of Medicine (The New York Times): "It’s not just children that we need to worry about. Plenty of adults work in schools: teachers, janitors, food preparation workers and more. They’re all being put at risk by keeping schools open. Arguably they’re more at risk than many other workers at businesses that have already been shut down. Closing schools can make a big difference in flattening the curve, evidence from past epidemics shows. A study in Nature in 2006 that modeled an influenza outbreak found that closing school during the peak of a pandemic could reduce the peak attack rate, or speed of spread, by 40 percent. Another study in 2016 in BMC Infectious Diseases found that, based on the H1N1 pandemic of 2009, closing schools could reduce the attack rate up to 25 percent and the peak weekly incidence, or rate of new cases, by more than 50 percent." - "Is Closing the Schools a Good Idea?," March 17, 2020.

* Vice President Mike Pence (WhiteHouse.gov): "What I will tell you is I’ll yield to the health experts, but it’ll be part of what we’re looking at, in terms of guidance going forward, whether it — whether it be summer school, or whether it be returning to school next fall. But the most important thing we can do is put this epidemic behind us as quickly as possible." - "Remarks by President Trump, Vice President Pence, and Members of the Coronavirus Task Force in Press Briefing | April 7, 2021," April 7, 2020.

* Dr. Anthony Fauci (WhiteHouse.gov): "I fully expect — though I’m humble enough to know that I can’t accurately predict — that by the time we get to the fall, that we will have this under control enough that it certainly will not be the way it is now, where people are shutting schools." - "Remarks by President Trump, Vice President Pence, and Members of the Coronavirus Task Force in Press Briefing | April 7, 2020," April 7, 2020.

* Aaron Carroll, professor of pediatrics at Indiana University School of Mesicine (Seattle Times): "If I was to design a system of transmitting a virus as quickly as possible, I’d be hard pressed to find [a place that's more effective than a school]. Not only do we cram [children] in, but every 45 minutes or so we ring a bell and have them move to a whole other group of people where we cram them. And once a day we stick them all in one huge room where we make them eat almost on top of each other." - "Coronavirus has closed Washington’s schools, at least through summer. When will it be safe to return?," April 8, 2020.

* Dr. Scott W. Atlas and Paul E. Peterson, senior fellows at Stanford University’s Hoover Institution (The Hill): "[Social distancing plans for schools] borders on the absurd, when we now know that social distancing and face coverings for children are completely unnecessary. Never have schools subjected children to such an unhealthy, uncomfortable and anti-educational environment, so science cannot precisely define the total harm it will cause. But science does tell us that risks from COVID-19 are too minimal to sacrifice the educational, social, emotional and physical well-being – to say nothing of the very health – of our young people." - "Science says: 'Open the schools'," June 1, 2020.

* Emily Oster, an economics professor at Brown University (The New York Times): "For parents, knowing the chance that your school will be shut down at a moment’s notice is key in the decision about whether your children return or not. I am as eager as anyone to have my kids back in school, but if the school will shut down for two weeks after each case, I may prefer to embrace the inevitable and plan for it rather than whiplash back and forth. This planning could involve identifying backup care, talking to other parents about how to maintain social time during a school closing or even deciding that we should opt for an entirely online experience from the start." - "What Will Schools Do When a Teacher Gets Covid-19?," July 28, 2020.

### Additional reading

* "What Is Betsy DeVos Thinking?" - The New York Times, July 15, 2020

## Debate over school closures and learning loss[edit]

* Doug Harris, professor at Tulane University (NPR): Tulane University Professor Doug Harris said that it took two years for students affected by Hurricane Katrina to recover their lost learning. He said the economic impact and emotional trauma affected the students as much as the school closures and that these same principles apply to students affected by the coronavirus pandemic. - "9 Out Of 10 Children Are Out Of School Worldwide. What Now?," April 2, 2020.

* Jason Tan, an associate professor at Nanyang Technological University’s National Institute of Education in Singapore (Bloomberg): "The biggest obstacle to closing schools is a question of equity. Not everyone has a laptop or a tablet to support online learning, and remote instruction is a challenge for younger kids regardless. Low-income families could miss out on free school meals." - "Should Schools Close to Fight Virus? These Places Say No," March 27, 2020.

* Betsy DeVos, U.S. secretary of education (EducationNext): "Everyone needs to rethink education, to get creative about ways to serve students—and that has never been more clear than it is right now. We don’t know how long Covid-19 will disrupt our lives and we will undoubtedly face challenges again in the future. I’m focused on supporting schools in building capacity to be better prepared. I’m also thinking a lot about the current learning loss and how students can make up for lost time." - "Betsy DeVos on Coronavirus: What Are the Feds Doing to Help Schools?," April 8, 2020.

* Olivia Krauth and Sommer Brugal (Louisville Courier Journal): "Sudden, lengthy closures across the country could capsize student teachers' efforts to become certified and start teaching in their own classrooms. Educators and professors are concerned the switch to remote learning – increasingly, for the rest of the school year – will limit student teachers' exposure to leading lessons and managing a classroom." - "Coronavirus school closures push out student teachers. Will US teacher shortage get worse?," April 6, 2020.

* Dr. Howard Taras (San Diego Union Tribune): "We have to think of the economy not only for the next one to two years ... but if our students are not educated back in school, that could adversely affect the economy 10 years from now." - "Schools will likely reopen gradually with physical distancing, San Diego Unified physician says," April 15, 2020.

* Vernon M. Billy (CalMatters): "We must provide for the health and security of students and staff first, which, in turn, enhances the safety of the larger community. As educators, we are eager to resume school because we understand its importance to our children, to society and to the economy. But we also know the greatest lesson is understanding what really matters. Let’s not gamble with the health of our communities by opening up schools too soon or without the proper resources and processes in place." - "Reopen schools when it’s safe for students, not for the convenience of adults," May 15, 2020.

### Additional reading

* "The US should prioritize reopening schools, not salons and restaurants" - Vox, May 28, 2020

## Debate over school closures and childcare[edit]

* Simon Rodberg, education consultant (EdSurge): "I think the custodial aspect of school is one of the purposes that schools serve best, which is that they take children and keep them safe and keep them secure and feed them, and whether a school is quote 'good' or quote 'bad,' whether the test scores are high or the test scores are low, pretty much at every school in the country parents can send their child and be secure that at the end of the day they will get their child back. And I think probably every parent in America, that's what they're missing." - "What Will K-12 Schools Look Like Post-Coronavirus?," April 3, 2020.

* Zachary B. Wolf (CNN): "School is how we teach our children facts and figures. It's also how we take care of them in the middle of the day. Parents can't easily pick up and go back to work if they have no place to put their children. The reality is that nobody—not governors or the White House—can completely reopen the economy if the schools are still shut." - "The economy can't reopen without schools," April 15, 2020.

* Ruth Faden, Prof. Megan Collins, and Prof. Annette Anderson of Johns Hopkins (Baltimore Sun): "The biggest ethical challenge for decision makers is determining how to balance the interests of children and the interests of the rest of society. Factored into this moral calculus is the additional argument that school reopening is integral to economic reopening; parents need the full-day child care schools provide in order to return to their stores, offices and factories." - "Ethical issues to consider when reopening school," June 1, 2020.

## Debate over school closures and mental health[edit]

* Catherine Carroll-Meehan, School of Education and Sociology at the University of Portsmouth (CNN): "The longer schools, colleges and universities are closed, we do risk the mental health and wellbeing of children and young people who are vulnerable because of the situation created by self-isolation and social distancing policies." - "School closures may only have a small effect on stopping coronavirus, study says," April 7, 2020.

### Additional reading

* "Will schools be open in September? We asked several experts to weigh in" - CNBC, May 5, 2020

* "New Studies Add to Evidence that Children May Transmit the Coronavirus" - NYTimes, May 5, 2020

* "AFT Launches Landmark Plan to Safely Reopen America’s Schools and Communities" - American Federation of Teachers, April 29, 2020

* "A blueprint for back to school" - American Enterprise Institute, May 4, 2020

* "A Few Schools Reopen, But Remote Learning Could Go On For Years In U.S." - NPR, May 7, 2020

## Debate over reopening colleges[edit]

* Robert Hecht and Shan Soe-Lin of Pharos Global Health Advisors (Politico): State public health officials should regulate college and university re-openings.

"University openings should be strictly regulated by state public health officials, with plans approved only once they meet what’s known as “gating” criteria: adequate hospitalization capacity, low rates of new infections, and testing capabilities for all universities in the state." - "States — Not Universities — Should Decide When Campuses Reopen," June 1, 2020.

* Kevin McClure, an associate professor of higher education at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington (The Atlantic): "We have to recognize that a certain percentage of students come to college precisely to socialize. If you bring them back to campus, where they are around friends and there is even a small opportunity for them to get together, they’re going to do it." - "The Nightmare That Colleges Face This Fall," May 19, 2020.

* Laurence Steinberg, professor of psychology at Temple University (New York Times): "My pessimistic prediction is that the college and university reopening strategies under consideration will work for a few weeks before their effectiveness fizzles out. By then, many students will have become cavalier about wearing masks and sanitizing their hands. They will ignore social distancing guidelines when they want to hug old friends they run into on the way to class. They will venture out of their 'families' and begin partying in their hallways with classmates from other clusters, and soon after, with those who live on other floors, in other dorms, or off campus. They will get drunk and hang out and hook up with people they don’t know well. And infections on campus — not only among students, but among the adults who come into contact with them — will begin to increase." - "Expecting Students to Play It Safe if Colleges Reopen Is a Fantasy: Safety plans border on delusional and could lead to outbreaks of Covid-19 among students, faculty and staff.," June 15, 2020.

### Additional reading

* "15 Fall Scenarios: Higher education in a time of social distancing" - Inside Higher ED, April 22, 2020

* "Colleges Face Student Lawsuits Seeking Refunds After Coronavirus Closures" - NPR, May 29, 2020

## State-specific debates[edit]

Many debates over responses to the coronavirus pandemic are unique to individual states and localities. Select a state below to read about debates in that state.

* Alabama
* Alaska
* Arizona
* Arkansas
* California
* Colorado
* Connecticut
* Delaware
* Florida
* Georgia
* Hawaii
* Idaho
* Illinois
* Indiana
* Iowa
* Kansas
* Kentucky
* Louisiana
* Maine
* Maryland
* Massachusetts
* Michigan
* Minnesota
* Mississippi
* Missouri
* Montana
* Nebraska
* Nevada
* New Hampshire
* New Jersey
* New Mexico
* New York
* North Carolina
* North Dakota
* Ohio
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* Pennsylvania
* Rhode Island
* South Carolina
* South Dakota
* Tennessee
* Texas
* Utah
* Vermont
* Virginia
* Washington
* West Virginia
* Wisconsin
* Wyoming

## Background[edit]

See also: School responses to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic during the 2019-2020 academic year

### Most recent actions[edit]

### Map of school closures[edit]

The map below shows the status of school reopenings and closures at the end of the 2019-2020 academic year.

* States closed to in-person instruction for the remainder of the 2019-2020 school year: 48
* Number of public school students in states closed to in-person instruction for the remainder of the 2019-2020 school year: 50,261,464

## General resources[edit]

The chart below shows coronavirus statistics from countries across the world. The information is provided by Real Clear Politics.

Click the links below to explore official resources related to the coronavirus outbreak.

* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
* National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
* Occupational Safety and Health Administration, U.S. Department of Labor
* U.S. Department of Education
* World Health Organization
* Trends in Number of COVID-19 Cases and Deaths in the US Reported to CDC, by State/Territory
* Coronavirus (COVID-19) Vaccinations, Our World in Data (Number of vaccines administered)
* Coronavirus Vaccine Tracker, New York Times (Progress of vaccine trials)

## See also[edit]

* Ballotpedia: Political responses to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, 2020
* State government responses to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, 2020
* Government official, politician, and candidate deaths, diagnoses, and quarantines due to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, 2020-2021
* Changes to ballot measure campaigns, procedures, and policies in response to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, 2020-2022
* Ballotpedia's elections calendar

## Footnotes[edit]

v • e

Political responses to the coronavirus pandemic, 2020-2021

Overviews|

Overview • Changes to election dates and procedures • Ballotpedia's polling on the coronavirus pandemic • Resources for citizens • Terms and definitions

* * *

Articles by Type|

Federal policy responses • State government responses • Local government responses • Diagnosed or quarantined incumbents, candidates, and officials • State legislative session changes • State legislative responses • State executive orders •  Eviction and foreclosure policies • Travel restrictions • School responses (2021-2022) • School responses (2020-2021) • School responses (2019-2020) • State court closures • Stay-at-home order status • States that issued stay-at-home orders • States that did not issue stay-at-home orders • Changes to ballot measure campaigns and policies • Changes to vote-by-mail and absentee voting procedures • Initial key federal official responses • Arguments in support of and opposition to government responses • Lawsuits • Multistate agreements • Non-governmental plans to reopen • Unemployment filings • Analysis articles • Paycheck Protection Program • Mask requirements • School budget changes • State budgets • Federal definitions of essential and nonessential businesses • Federal aid to states • Lost Wages Assistance (LWA) program • State emergency power authority • Changes to state emergency power authority • Municipal emergency power authority • Halloween guidelines • Vaccine distribution plans • State plans to end federal unemployment • Changes to emergency power laws • Active COVID-19 emergency orders • State vaccine requirement (vaccine passport) policies • Recalls related to the pandemic • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidance on school responses to the coronavirus • State employee vaccine requirements • Healthcare worker vaccine requirements

* * *

State responses to coronavirus|

Alabama • Alaska • Arizona • Arkansas • California • Colorado • Connecticut • Delaware • Florida • Georgia • Hawaii • Idaho • Illinois • Indiana • Iowa • Kansas • Kentucky • Louisiana • Maine • Maryland • Massachusetts • Michigan • Minnesota • Mississippi • Missouri • Montana • Nebraska • Nevada • New Hampshire • New Jersey • New Mexico • New York • North Carolina • North Dakota • Ohio • Oklahoma • Oregon • Pennsylvania • Rhode Island • South Carolina • South Dakota • Tennessee • Texas • Utah • Vermont • Virginia • Washington • West Virginia • Wisconsin • Wyoming

* * *

State paths to recovery|

Alabama • Alaska • Arizona • Arkansas • California • Colorado • Connecticut • Delaware • Florida • Georgia • Hawaii • Idaho • Illinois • Indiana • Iowa • Kansas • Kentucky • Louisiana • Maine • Maryland • Massachusetts • Michigan • Minnesota • Mississippi • Missouri • Montana • Nebraska • Nevada • New Hampshire • New Jersey • New Mexico • New York • North Carolina • North Dakota • Ohio • Oklahoma • Oregon • Pennsylvania • Rhode Island • South Carolina • South Dakota • Tennessee • Texas • Utah • Vermont • Virginia • Washington • West Virginia • Wisconsin • Wyoming

* * *

State school responses|

Alabama • Alaska • Arizona • Arkansas • California • Colorado • Connecticut • Delaware • Florida • Georgia • Hawaii • Idaho • Illinois • Indiana • Iowa • Kansas • Kentucky • Louisiana • Maine • Maryland • Massachusetts • Michigan • Minnesota • Mississippi • Missouri • Montana • Nebraska • Nevada • New Hampshire • New Jersey • New Mexico • New York • North Carolina • North Dakota • Ohio • Oklahoma • Oregon • Pennsylvania • Rhode Island • South Carolina • South Dakota • Tennessee • Texas • Utah • Vermont • Virginia • Washington • West Virginia • Wisconsin • Wyoming

* * *

Coronavirus debate topics|

Elections • Protests • Religious service restrictions • School closures  • State lockdown

* * *

Coronavirus debate by state|

Alabama • Alaska • Arizona • Arkansas • California • Colorado • Connecticut • Delaware • Florida • Georgia • Hawaii • Idaho • Illinois • Indiana • Kansas • Kentucky • Louisiana • Maine • Maryland • Massachusetts • Michigan • Minnesota • Mississippi • Missouri • Montana • Nebraska • Nevada • New Hampshire • New Jersey • New Mexico • New York • North Carolina • North Dakota • Ohio • Oklahoma • Oregon • Pennsylvania • Rhode Island • South Carolina • South Dakota • Tennessee • Texas • Utah • Vermont • Virginia • Washington • West Virginia • Wisconsin • Wyoming