Sepik languages

Short description: Papuan language family

Not to be confused with Sepik Coast languages or Lower Sepik languages.

Sepik

Sepik River
Geographic
distribution| Sepik River region, northern Papua New Guinea (mostly in East Sepik Province)
Linguistic classification| One of the world's primary language families
Subdivisions|

* Leonhard Schultze
* Sepik Hills
* Middle Sepik
* Upper Sepik

Glottolog| sepi1257[1]

Distribution of Sepik languages in Papua New Guinea

The Sepik or Sepik River languages are a family of some 50 Papuan languages spoken in the Sepik river basin of northern Papua New Guinea, proposed by Donald Laycock in 1965 in a somewhat more limited form than presented here. They tend to have simple phonologies, with few consonants or vowels and usually no tones.

The best-studied Sepik language is Iatmul. The most populous are Iatmul's fellow Ndu languages Abelam and Boiken, with about 35,000 speakers each.

The Sepik languages, like their Ramu neighbors, appear to have three-vowel systems, /ɨ ə a/, that distinguish only vowel height in a vertical vowel system. Phonetic [i e o u] are a result of palatal and labial assimilation to adjacent consonants. It is suspected that the Ndu languages may reduce this to a two-vowel system, with /ɨ/ epenthetic (Foley 1986).

## Contents

* 1 Classification
* 1.1 Usher (2020)
* 1.2 Foley (2018)
* 2 Pronouns
* 3 Cognates
* 4 Typological overview
* 4.1 Gender
* 4.2 Periodic tense
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 6.1 Notes
* 6.2 Bibliography
* 7 External links

## Classification

The Sepik languages consist of two branches of Kandru's Laycock's Sepik–Ramu proposal, the Sepik subphylum and Leonhard Schultze stock. According to Malcolm Ross, the most promising external relationship is not with Ramu, pace Laycock, but with the Torricelli family.

Palmer (2018) classifies the Leonhard Schultze languages as an independent language phylum.[2]

### Usher (2020)

In the cladogram below,[3] the small, closely related families in bold at the ends of the branches are covered in separate articles.

Sepik  |  | Leonhard Schultze |  |  |

Walio family

|

Papi family (Papi, Suarmin/Asaba)

Upper Sepik  |  |  |  |  |

Abau

|

Iwam family

Yellow–Wanibe Rivers  |  |  |

Ram family

|

Yellow River family

Amal–Kalou

Middle Sepik |  |  |  |  |

Tama family

|

Nukuma family

|  |  |

Yerakai

|

Ndu family

Sepik Hills  |  |  |

Sanio

|

Hewa–Paka: Niksek (Paka, Gabiano), Piame, Hewa

Bahinemo family

Alamblak family

The Sepik languages as classified by William A. Foley

### Foley (2018)

Foley (2018) provides the following classification, with 6 main branches recognized.[4]

* Sepik family
* Middle Sepik languages
* Ndu languages
* Nukuma languages
* Yerakai (Garamambu)
* Yellow River languages
* Tama languages
* Sepik Hill languages
* Eastern (Alamblak)
* Central (Bahinemo)
* Western: Saniyo-Hiyewe, Paka (Setiali), Gabiano (Niksek), Piame, Bikaru, Umairof, Hewa
* Ram languages
* Upper Sepik languages
* Wogamus languages
* Iwam languages
* Abau
* Amal

Like the neighboring Torricelli languages, but unlike the rest of the Sepik languages, the Ram and Yellow River languages do not have clause chaining constructions (for an example of a clause chaining construction in a Trans-New Guinea language, see Kamano language#Clause chaining). Foley (2018) suggests that many of the Ram and Yellow River-speaking peoples may have in fact been Torricelli speakers who were later assimilated by Sepik-speaking peoples.[4]: 298

Foley classifies the Leonhard Schultze languages separately as an independent language family.[4]

## Pronouns

The pronouns Ross reconstructs for proto-Sepik are:[5]

I | *wan | we two | *na-nd, *na-p | we | *na-m

|
|
|
|
|

thou (M) | *mɨ-n | you two | *kwə-p | you | *kwə-m
thou (F) | *yɨ-n, *nyɨ-n
he | *ətə-d, *də | they two | *ətə-p, *tɨ-p | they | *ətə-m, *tɨ-m
she | *ətə-t, *tɨ

Note the similarities of the dual and plural suffixes with those of the Torricelli languages.

Ross reconstructs two sets of pronouns for "proto–Upper Sepik" (actually, Abau–Iwam and Wogamusin (Tama)). These are the default set (Set I), and a set with "certain interpersonal and pragmatic functions" (table 1.27):

Pronoun Set I  I | *an | we two | *nə-d | we | *nə-n

|
|
|
|
|

thou (M) | *nɨ | you two | *nə-p | you | *nə-m
thou (F) | (*nɨ-n)
he | *tə- | they two | (*rə-p) | they | *ra-m
she | *tɨ-

Pronoun Set II  I | *ka | we two | *krə-d | we | *krə-m

|
|
|
|
|

thou (M) | *kɨ | you two | *kə-p | you | *kə-m
thou (F) | ?
he | *si | they two | *sə-p | they | (*sə-m)
she | (*sae)

Most Sepik languages have reflexes of proto-Sepik *na ~ *an for 1sg, *no for 1pl, and *ni for 2sg.[4]

## Cognates

Proto-Sepik forms reconstructed by Foley (2018) that are widespread across the family:[4]

gloss | proto-Sepik

|

‘breast’ | *muk
‘tongue’ | *ta(w)r
‘tree’ | *mi
‘dog’ | *wara
‘louse’ | *nim
‘feces’ | *ri
‘go’ | *(y)i
‘come’ | *ya
‘1sg’ | *na ~ *an
‘2sg’ | *ni
‘1pl’ | *no
‘dative suffix’ | *-ni
‘locative suffix’ | *-kV

## Typological overview

Even internally within Sepik subgroups, languages in the Sepik family can have vastly different typological profiles varying from isolating to agglutinative, with example languages listed below.[4]

group | isolating | agglutinative

|
|

Ndu | Ambulas | Manambu
Sepik Hill  | Sanio-Hiowe | Alamblak
Tama  | Yessan-Mayo | Mehek

In contrast, languages within the Ramu, Lower Sepik, and Yuat families all have relatively uniform typological profiles.[4]

### Gender

Like the isolate Taiap, but unlike the Lower Sepik-Ramu, Yuat, and Upper Yuat families, Sepik languages distinguish masculine and feminine genders, with the feminine gender being the more common default unmarked gender. Proto-Sepik gender-marking suffixes are reconstructed by Foley (2018) as:[4]

| singular | dual | plural

|
|
|

masculine  | *-r  | *-f  | *-m
feminine  | *-t ~ *-s

In Sepik languages, gender-marking suffixes are not always attached to the head noun, and can also be affixed to other roots in the phrase.

Typically, the genders of lower animals and inanimate objects are determined according to shape and size: big or long objects are typically classified as masculine (as a result of phallic imagery), while small or short objects are typically classified as feminine. In some languages, objects can be classified as either masculine or feminine, depending on the physical characteristics intended for emphasis. To illustrate, below is an example in Abau, an Upper Sepik language:[4]

* youk se ‘paddle M.DAT’ focuses on the length of the paddle
* youk ke ‘paddle F.DAT’ focuses on the flat nature of the two-dimensional paddle blade

Except for the Middle Sepik languages, most Sepik languages overtly mark nouns using gender suffixes.[4]

### Periodic tense

Many Sepik languages from different branches, including Awtuw, May River Iwam, Abau or Alamblak, encode periodic tense in their verbal morphology, though the markers themselves are not cognate.[6]

## See also

* Papuan languages
* Sepik–Ramu languages
* Donald Laycock
* William A. Foley

## References

### Notes

1. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds (2017). "Sepik". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sepi1257.
2. ↑ Palmer, Bill (2018). "Language families of the New Guinea Area". in Palmer, Bill. The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1–20. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
3. ↑ NewGuineaWorld - Sepik River
4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 Foley, William A. (2018). "The Languages of the Sepik-Ramu Basin and Environs". in Palmer, Bill. The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 197–432. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
5. ↑ Ross (2005)
6. ↑ Jacques, Guillaume (2023). "Periodic tense markers in the world's languages and their sources". Folia Linguistica 57 (3): 539–562. doi:10.1515/flin-2023-2013. https://shs.hal.science/halshs-04239547.

### Bibliography

* Dye, Wayne; Patricia Townsend; William Townsend (1969). "The Sepik Hill languages: a preliminary report". Oceania 34: 146–156. ISSN 0029-8077. OCLC 1761006.
* Foley, William A. (1986). The Papuan Languages of New Guinea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-28621-2. OCLC 13004531.
* ~~ ~~ (2005). "Linguistic prehistory in the Sepik–Ramu basin". in Andrew Pawley. Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 109–144. ISBN 0-85883-562-2. OCLC 67292782.
* ~~ ~~ (2018). "The languages of the Sepik-Ramu basin and environ". in Bill Palmer. The languages and linguistics of the New Guinea area. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 197–432.
* Laycock, Donald C. (1961). "The Sepik and its languages". Australian Territories 1 (4): 35–41. OCLC 2257996.
* ~~ ~~ (1965). The Ndu language family (Sepik District, New Guinea). Canberra: Australian National University. OCLC 810186. https://archive.org/details/ndulanguagefamil0000layc.
* ~~ ~~ (1973). Sepik languages: checklist and preliminary classification. Canberra: Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 978-0-85883-084-4. OCLC 5027628. https://archive.org/details/sepiklanguagesch0000layc.
* Laycock, Donald C.; John Z'graggen (1975). "The Sepik–Ramu phylum". in Stephen A. Wurm. Papuan languages and the New Guinea linguistic scene: New Guinea area languages and language study 1. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. pp. 731–763. OCLC 37096514.
* Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". in Andrew Pawley. Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15-66. ISBN 0858835622. OCLC 67292782.

## External links

* Sepik languages database at TransNewGuinea.org

Template:Sepik languages

* v
* t
* e

Papuan language families
(Palmer 2018 classification)

Trans-New Guinea
subgroups|

| central Papua, Indonesia|

* Ok-Oksapmin
* Dani
* Asmat-Kamoro
* Mek
* Paniai Lakes
* West Bomberai
* Somahai

|

southeast Papua, Indonesia|

* Anim
* Greater Awyu
* Kayagaric
* Kolopom
* Marori

southwest Papua New Guinea|

* Gogodala-Suki
* Turama-Kikori
* Kiwaian
* Awin-Pa

central Papua New Guinea|

* Madang
* Finisterre-Huon
* Kainantu-Goroka
* Chimbu-Wahgi
* Enga-Kewa-Huli
* Bosavi
* East Strickland
* Kutubu
* Duna-Bogaya
* Wiru

Papuan Peninsula|

* Angan
* Greater Binanderean
* Dagan
* Mailuan
* Koiarian
* Goilalan
* Yareban
* Kwalean
* Manubaran

Eastern Nusantara
families and isolates|

* Timor-Alor-Pantar
* North Halmahera

* Tambora†

Bird's Head Peninsula
families and isolates|

* South Bird's Head
* Nuclear South Bird's Head
* Inanwatan–Duriankere
* Konda–Yahadian
* East Bird's Head
* Nuclear East Bird's Head
* Hatam–Mansim
* West Bird's Head

* Abun
* Mpur
* Maybrat
* Mor
* Tanah Merah

Northern Western New Guinea
families and isolates|

* Tor-Kwerba
* Lakes Plain
* Border
* Sko
* East Cenderawasih Bay
* Pauwasi
* Eastern
* Western
* Nimboran
* Sentani
* Mairasi
* Kaure
* Lepki-Murkim
* Senagi (Angor-Dera)
* Tofanma-Namla
* Yapen

* Abinomn
* Burmeso
* Elseng
* Kapauri
* Kembra
* Keuw
* Kimki
* Massep
* Mawes
* Molof
* Usku
* Yetfa

Central Western New Guinea
families and isolates|

* Bayono-Awbono

* Dem
* Uhunduni

Sepik-Ramu basin
families and isolates|

* Torricelli
* Sepik
* Lower Sepik-Ramu
* Lower Sepik
* Ramu
* Kwomtari
* Leonhard Schultze (Walio-Papi)
* Upper Yuat (Arafundi-Piawi)
* Yuat
* Left May
* Amto-Musan

* Busa
* Taiap
* Yadë

| Torricelli subgroups|

* Marienberg
* Arapesh
* Urim
* Maimai
* Wapei
* Palei
* One (West Wapei)
* Monumbo?

|

Sepik subgroups|

* Middle Sepik
* Ndu
* Nukuma
* Yellow River
* Yerakai
* Upper Sepik
* Wogamus
* Iwam
* Abau
* Sepik Hill
* Tama
* Ram
* Amal

Ramu subgroups|

* Lower Ramu
* Ottilien
* Misegian
* Middle Ramu
* Grass?
* Tamolan
* Ataitan (Tanggu)

Gulf of Papua and southern New Guinea
families and isolates|

* Yam
* Pahoturi River
* Eleman
* Oriomo
* Teberan
* Doso-Turumsa
* Komolom
* Yelmek-Maklew

* Dibiyaso
* Kaki Ae
* Kamula
* Karami
* Pawaia
* Porome
* Purari
* Tabo

Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands
families and isolates|

* Baining
* North Bougainville
* South Bougainville
* Central Solomons
* Butam-Taulil

* Anêm
* Ata
* Kol
* Kuot
* Makolkol
* Sulka

Rossel Island
isolate|

* Yélî Dnye

Proposed groupings|

* West Papuan
* Northwest Papuan
* South Pauwasi
* East Papuan
* Southeast Papuan
* Papuan Gulf
* Binanderean–Goilalan
* Arai–Samaia
* Asmat–Mombum
* Trans-Fly–Bulaka River
* Trans-Fly
* Dani–Kwerba
* East Bird's Head – Sentani
* Kwomtari–Fas
* Left May – Kwomtari
* Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran
* West Trans–New Guinea
* West Papuan Highlands
* Central and South New Guinea
* Central West New Guinea
* East New Guinea Highlands
* Yele – West New Britain
* Sepik–Ramu
* Indo-Pacific

Proto-language|

* Proto-Trans–New Guinea

* v
* t
* e

Primary language families

Africa|

* Afroasiatic
* Austronesian
* Khoe–Kwadi
* Kx'a
* Niger–Congo
* Nilo-Saharan?
* Tuu
* Mande?
* Songhay?
* Ijaw?
* Ubangian?
* Kadu?

| Isolates|

* Bangime
* Hadza
* Jalaa
* Sandawe
* Laal?
* Shabo?

|

Europe
and Asia|

* Afroasiatic
* Ainu
* Austroasiatic
* Austronesian
* Chukotko-Kamchatkan
* Dravidian
* Eskimo–Aleut
* Great Andamanese
* Hmong–Mien
* Hurro-Urartian
* Indo-European
* Japonic
* Kartvelian
* Koreanic
* Kra–Dai
* Mongolic
* Nivkh
* Northeast Caucasian
* Northwest Caucasian
* Ongan
* Sino-Tibetan
* Tungusic
* Turkic
* Tyrsenian
* Uralic
* Yeniseian
* Yukaghir
* Digaro?
* Hrusish?
* Kho-Bwa?
* Miju?
* Siangic?

| Isolates|

* Basque
* Burushaski
* Elamite
* Hattic
* Kusunda
* Nihali
* Sumerian

|

New Guinea
and the Pacific|

* Arai–Samaia
* Austronesian
* Binanderean–Goilalan
* Border
* Bulaka River
* Central Solomons
* Chimbu–Wahgi
* Doso–Turumsa
* East Geelvink Bay
* East New Britain
* East Strickland
* Eleman
* Engan
* Fas
* Kaure–Kosare
* Kiwaian
* Kutubuan
* Kwomtari
* Lakes Plain
* Lower Mamberamo
* Lower Sepik
* Madang
* Mairasi
* North Bougainville
* Pauwasi
* Ramu
* Senagi
* Sentani
* Sepik
* Skou
* South Bougainville
* Teberan
* Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran
* Torricelli
* Trans-Fly
* Trans–New Guinea
* Turama–Kikorian
* Upper Yuat
* West Papuan
* Yam
* Yawa
* Yuat
* Northwest Papuan?
* Papuan Gulf?

| Isolates|

* Abinomn
* Abun
* Anêm?
* Ata?
* Kol
* Kuot
* Maybrat
* Mpur
* Porome
* Taiap?
* Pawaia
* Porome
* Sulka?
* Tambora
* Wiru

|

Australia|

* Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan?
* Bunuban
* Darwin Region?
* Eastern Daly
* Eastern Tasmanian
* Garawan
* Iwaidjan
* Jarrakan
* Marrku–Wurrugu?
* Mirndi
* Northern Tasmanian
* Northeastern Tasmanian
* Nyulnyulan
* Pama–Nyungan
* Southern Daly?
* Tangkic
* Wagaydyic
* Western Daly
* Western Tasmanian
* Worrorran
* Yangmanic (incl. Wagiman)?

| Isolates|

* Giimbiyu
* Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?)
* Tiwi

|

North
America|

* Algic
* Alsea
* Caddoan
* Chimakuan
* Chinookan
* Chumashan
* Comecrudan
* Coosan
* Eskimo–Aleut
* Iroquoian
* Kalapuyan
* Keresan
* Maiduan
* Muskogean
* Na-Dene
* Palaihnihan
* Plateau Penutian
* Pomoan
* Salishan
* Shastan
* Siouan
* Tanoan
* Tsimshianic
* Utian
* Uto-Aztecan
* Wakashan
* Wintuan
* Yukian
* Yuman–Cochimí

| Isolates|

* Chimariko
* Esselen
* Haida
* Karuk
* Kutenai
* Seri
* Siuslaw
* Takelma
* Timucua
* Waikuri
* Washo
* Yana
* Yokuts
* Yuchi
* Zuni

|

Mesoamerica|

* Chibchan
* Jicaquean
* Lencan
* Mayan
* Misumalpan
* Mixe–Zoque
* Oto-Manguean
* Tequistlatecan
* Totonacan
* Uto-Aztecan
* Xincan

| Isolates|

* Cuitlatec
* Huave
* Tarascan/Purépecha

|

South
America|

* Andoque–Urequena
* Arauan
* Araucanian
* Arawakan
* Arutani–Sape
* Aymaran
* Barbacoan
* Boran
* Cahuapanan
* Cariban
* Catacaoan
* Chapacuran
* Charruan
* Chibchan
* Choco
* Chonan
* Guaicuruan
* Guajiboan
* Harákmbut–Katukinan
* Jirajaran
* Jivaroan
* Katembri–Taruma
* Mascoian
* Matacoan
* Nadahup
* Nambikwaran
* Otomákoan
* Pano-Tacanan
* Peba–Yaguan
* Quechuan
* Piaroa–Saliban
* Ticuna–Yuri
* Timotean
* Tiniguan
* Tucanoan
* Tupian
* Uru–Chipaya
* Witotoan
* Yanomaman
* Zamucoan
* Zaparoan
* Bora–Witoto languages?
* Chimuan?
* Esmeralda–Yaruro?
* Hibito–Cholón?
* Lule–Vilela?
* Macro-Jê?
* Tequiraca–Canichana?

| Isolates
(extant in 2000)|

* Aikanã?
* Alacalufan
* Camsá
* Candoshi
* Chimane
* Chiquitano
* Cofán?
* Fulniô
* Guató
* Hodï/Joti
* Irantxe?
* Itonama
* Kunza
* Leco
* Maku-Auari of Roraima
* Movima
* Mura-Pirahã
* Nukak?
* Puinave
* Huaorani/Waorani
* Trumai
* Urarina
* Warao
* Yamana
* Yuracaré

|

Sign languages|

* Arab
* BANZSL
* Chinese
* Francosign
* Germanosign
* Indo-Pakistani
* Japanese
* Original Thai
* Swedish
* Tanzanian?

| Isolates|

* See list of sign languages

|

See also|

* Language isolates
* Unclassified languages
* Creoles
* Pidgins
* Mixed languages
* Artificial languages

* Families in italics have no living members.
* Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.

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