Ottoman Empire

Short description: Turkish Empire (c. 1299–1922)

This page is about the empire. For the associated caliphate, see Ottoman Caliphate.

"The Ottoman Empire" redirects here. For the band formerly known under that name, see Luna Mortis.

Sublime Ottoman State

* دولت عليه عثمانیه
* Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿOs̱mānīye

c. 1299–1922

Flag
(1844–1922)

Coat of arms
(1882–1922)

Motto:

* دولت ابدمدت
* Devlet-i Ebed-müddet
* "The Eternal State"[1]

Anthem:

Various

* "Mahmudiye Marşı"
(1829–1839, 1918–1922)

File:Mahmudiye Marşı.ogg

* "Mecidiye Marşı"
(1839–1861)

File:Mecidiye Marşı.ogg

* "Aziziye Marşı"
(1861–1876)

* "Hamidiye Marşı" (modified)
(1876–1909)

File:Hamidiye Marşı.ogg

* "Reşadiye Marşı"
(1909–1918)

File:Marche de sa Majesté Impériale Le Sultan Mohammed V. par Italo Selvelli.ogg

The Ottoman Empire in 1481

The Ottoman Empire in 1566

The Ottoman Empire in 1683

The Ottoman Empire in 1739

The Ottoman Empire in 1914

Status| Empire
Capital|

* Söğüt[2]
* (c. 1299–1331)
* Nicaea (İznik)[3]
* (1331–1335)
* Bursa
* (1335–1360s)
* Adrianople (Edirne)[lower-alpha 1]
* (1360s–1453)
* Constantinople (Istanbul)[lower-alpha 2]
* (1453–1922)

Official languages| Ottoman Turkish
Other languages|

* Arabic[lower-alpha 3]
* Persian[lower-alpha 4]
* Greek[lower-alpha 5]
* Chagatai[lower-alpha 6]
* French[lower-alpha 7]
* many others

Religion

* Sunni Islam (state)
* School: Hanafi

Demonym(s)| Ottoman
Government|

* Absolute monarchy
* (c. 1299–1876; 1878–1908; 1920–1922)
* Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy
* (1876–1878; 1908–1920)
* Unionist dictatorship
* (1913–1918)

Sultan|

• c. 1299–1323/4 (first)

| Osman I

• 1918–1922 (last)

| Mehmed VI
Caliph|

• 1517–1520 (first)

| Selim I[19][lower-alpha 8]

• 1922–1924 (last)

| Abdülmecid II[lower-alpha 9]
Grand Vizier|

• 1320–1331 (first)

| Alaeddin Pasha

• 1920–1922 (last)

| Ahmet Tevfik Pasha
Legislature| General Assembly
(1876–1878; 1908–1920)

• Upper house (unelected)

| Chamber of Notables
(1876–1878; 1908–1920)

• Lower house (elected)

| Chamber of Deputies
(1876–1878; 1908–1920)
History|

• Founded

| c. 1299[20]

• Interregnum

| 1402–1413

• Conquest of Constantinople

| 29 May 1453

• Constitutional Era I

| 1876–1878

• Constitutional Era II

| 1908–1920

• Ottoman coup d'état

| 23 January 1913

• Sultanate abolished

| 1 November 1922[lower-alpha 10]

• Republic of Turkey established

| 29 October 1923[lower-alpha 11]

• Caliphate abolished

| 3 March 1924
Area
1481| 1,220,000 km2 (470,000 sq mi)
1521[21]| 3,400,000 km2 (1,300,000 sq mi)
1683[21][22][23]| 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi)
1913[21]| 2,550,000 km2 (980,000 sq mi)
Population

• 1912[24]

| 24,000,000
Currency| Akçe, manghir, sultani, para, kuruş, lira

Dependencies

* Algerian budju
* Egyptian qirsh
* Tunisian rial

Predecessor states and successor states

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Sultanate of Rum

|

| Anatolian beyliks
| Byzantine Empire
| Despotate of the Morea
| Empire of Trebizond
| Principality of Theodoro
| Second Bulgarian Empire
| Tsardom of Vidin
| Despotate of Dobruja
| Despotate of Lovech
| Serbian Despotate
| Kingdom of Bosnia
| Zeta
| Kingdom of Hungary
| Kingdom of Croatia
| League of Lezhë
| Mamluk Sultanate
| Hafsid Kingdom
| Aq Qoyunlu
| Hospitaller Tripoli
| Kingdom of Tlemcen
| State of Turkey |

|

Hellenic Republic |
Caucasus Viceroyalty |
Principality of Bulgaria |
Eastern Rumelia |
Albania |
Kingdom of Romania |
Revolutionary Serbia |
Bosnia and Herzegovina |
Principality of Montenegro |
Emirate of Asir |
Kingdom of Hejaz |
OETA |
Mandatory Iraq |
French Algeria |
British Cyprus |
French Tunisia |
Italian Tripolitania |
Italian Cyrenaica |
Sheikhdom of Kuwait |
Kingdom of Yemen |

The Ottoman Empire,[lower-alpha 12] also known as the Turkish Empire[lower-alpha 14] or Turkey, controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th century to the early 20th century. It also controlled parts of southeastern Central Europe between the early 16th and early 18th centuries.[27][28][29]

The empire emerged from a beylik, or principality, founded in northwestern Anatolia in c. 1299 by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. His successors conquered much of Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans by the mid-14th century, transforming their petty kingdom into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II. With its capital at Constantinople and control over a significant portion of the Mediterranean Basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Middle East and Europe for six centuries. Ruling over so many peoples, the empire granted varying levels of autonomy to its many confessional communities, or millets, to manage their own affairs per Islamic law. During the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire became a global power.[30]

While the Ottoman Empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, modern academic consensus posits that the empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military into much of the 18th century. The true decline of the Ottomans began when they suffered military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, culminating in the loss of territory. With rising nationalism, a number of new states emerged in the Balkans. Following Tanzimat reforms over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became more powerful and organized internally. In the 1876 revolution, the Ottoman Empire attempted constitutional monarchy, before reverting to a royalist dictatorship under Abdul Hamid II, following the Great Eastern Crisis.

Over the course of the late 19th century, Ottoman intellectuals known as Young Turks sought to liberalize and rationalize society and politics along Western lines, culminating in the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 led by the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), which reestablished a constitutional monarchy. However, following the disastrous Balkan Wars, the CUP became increasingly radicalized and nationalistic, leading a coup d'état in 1913 that established a dictatorship.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in large-scale loss of life and mass migration into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans, Caucasus, and Crimea.[31] The CUP joined World War I on the side of the Central Powers. It struggled with internal dissent, especially the Arab Revolt, and engaged in genocide against Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks. In the aftermath of World War I, the victorious Allied Powers occupied and partitioned the Ottoman Empire, which lost its southern territories to the United Kingdom and France. The successful Turkish War of Independence, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk against the occupying Allies, led to the emergence of the Republic of Turkey and the abolition of the sultanate in 1922.

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
* 2.1 Rise (c. 1299–1453)
* 2.2 Expansion and peak (1453–1566)
* 2.3 Stagnation and reform (1566–1827)
* 2.3.1 Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683)
* 2.3.2 Military defeats
* 2.4 Decline and modernisation (1828–1908)
* 2.5 Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922)
* 2.5.1 Young Turk movement
* 2.5.2 World War I
* 2.5.3 Genocides
* 2.5.4 Arab Revolt
* 2.5.5 Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence
* 3 Historiographical debate on the Ottoman state
* 4 Government
* 4.1 Law
* 4.2 Military
* 5 Administrative divisions
* 6 Economy
* 7 Demographics
* 7.1 Language
* 7.2 Religion
* 7.2.1 Islam
* 7.2.2 Christianity and Judaism
* 7.3 Social-political-religious structure
* 8 Culture
* 8.1 Education
* 8.2 Literature
* 8.3 Media
* 8.4 Architecture
* 8.5 Decorative arts
* 8.6 Music and performing arts
* 8.7 Cuisine
* 8.8 Sports
* 9 Science and technology
* 10 See also
* 11 References
* 11.1 Footnotes
* 11.2 Citations
* 11.3 Sources
* 12 Further reading
* 12.1 General surveys
* 12.2 Early Ottomans
* 12.3 Diplomatic and military
* 12.4 Specialty studies
* 12.5 Historiography
* 13 External links

## Etymology

The word Ottoman is an historical anglicisation of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān (عثمان). In Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye (دولت عليه عثمانیه), lit. Sublime Ottoman State, or simply Devlet-i ʿOsmānīye (دولت عثمانيه‎), lit. Ottoman State.

The Turkish word for "Ottoman" (Osmanlı) originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the 14th century. The word subsequently came to be used to refer to the empire's military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term "Turk" (Türk) was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population and was seen as a disparaging term when applied to urban, educated individuals.[32]: 26 [33] In the early modern period, an educated, urban-dwelling Turkish speaker who was not a member of the military-administrative class typically referred to himself neither as an Osmanlı nor as a Türk, but rather as a Rūmī (رومى), or "Roman", meaning an inhabitant of the territory of the former Byzantine Empire in the Balkans and Anatolia. The term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond.[34]: 11

In Western Europe, the names "Ottoman Empire", "Turkish Empire" and "Turkey" were often used interchangeably, with "Turkey" being increasingly favoured both in formal and informal situations. This dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–1923, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Many scholarly historians typically avoid the terms "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" when referring to the Ottomans, arguing about the empire's multinational character despite ethnic Turkish dominance.[35]

## History

See also: History:Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire

### Rise (c. 1299–1453)

Ottoman miniature of Osman I by Yahya Bustanzâde (18th century)

As the Rum Sultanate declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish[36] tribal leader Osman I (d. 1323/4),[37] a figure of obscure origins from whom the name Ottoman is derived.[38]: 444 Osman's early followers consisted of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, with many but not all converts to Islam.[39]: 59 [40]: 127 Osman extended control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River. A Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Bapheus in 1302 contributed to Osman's rise. It is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbors, due to the lack of sources surviving. The Ghaza thesis popular during the 20th century credited their success to rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, but it is no longer generally accepted. No other hypothesis has attracted broad acceptance.[41]: 5, 10 [42]: 104

In the century after Osman I, Ottoman rule had begun to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. The earliest conflicts began during the Byzantine–Ottoman wars, waged in Anatolia in the late 13th century before entering Europe in the mid-14th century, followed by the Bulgarian–Ottoman wars and the Serbian–Ottoman wars in the mid-14th century. Much of this period was characterised by Ottoman expansion into the Balkans. Osman's son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326, making it the new capital and supplanting Byzantine control in the region. The important port of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387 and sacked. The Ottoman victory in Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.[43]: 95–96 The Battle of Nicopolis for the Bulgarian Tsardom of Vidin in 1396, regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottomans.[44]

The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, as depicted in an Ottoman miniature from 1523

As the Turks expanded into the Balkans, the conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. The Ottomans had already wrested control of nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the strong defense of Constantinople's strategic position on the Bosporus Strait made it difficult to conquer. In 1402, the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when the Turco-Mongol leader Timur, founder of the Timurid Empire, invaded Ottoman Anatolia from the east. In the Battle of Ankara in 1402, Timur defeated Ottoman forces and took Sultan Bayezid I as prisoner, throwing the empire into disorder. The ensuing civil war lasted from 1402 to 1413 as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power.[45]: 363

The Balkan territories lost by the Ottomans after 1402, including Thessaloniki, Macedonia, and Kosovo, were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad repelled the Crusade of Varna by defeating the Hungarian, Polish, and Wallachian armies under Władysław III of Poland and John Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna, although Albanians under Skanderbeg continued to resist. Four years later, John Hunyadi prepared another army of Hungarian and Wallachian forces to attack the Turks, but was again defeated at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448.[46]: 29

According to modern historiography, there is a direct connection between the rapid Ottoman military advance and the consequences of the Black Death from the mid-14th century onwards. Byzantine territories, where the initial Ottoman conquests were carried out, were exhausted demographically and militarily due to the plague, which facilitated Ottoman expansion. In addition, slave hunting was the main economic driving force behind Ottoman conquest. Some 21st-century authors re-periodize conquest of the Balkans into the akıncı phase, which spanned 8 to 13 decades, characterized by continuous slave hunting and destruction, followed by administrative integration into the Empire.[47][48][49][50]

### Expansion and peak (1453–1566)

Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror's entry into Constantinople; painting by Fausto Zonaro (1854–1929)

The son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized both state and military, and on 29 May 1453 conquered Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire.[51] Mehmed allowed the Eastern Orthodox Church to maintain its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority.[52] Due to tension between the states of western Europe and the later Byzantine Empire, most of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule, as preferable to Venetian rule.[52] Albanian resistance was a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion on the Italian peninsula.[53]

In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a period of expansion. The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective Sultans. It flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.[54]: 111 [lower-alpha 15]

Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail of Safavid Iran, in the Battle of Chaldiran.[55]: 91–105 Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt by defeating and annexing the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. After this Ottoman expansion, competition began between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottomans to become the dominant power in the region.[56]: 55–76

Suleiman the Magnificent and his wife Hürrem Sultan, by 16th-century Venetian painter Titian

Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566)[57] captured Belgrade in 1521, conquered the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Hungary as part of the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars, and, after his historic victory in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, he established Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary and other Central European territories. He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city.[58]: 50 In 1532, he made another attack on Vienna, but was repulsed in the siege of Güns.[59][60] Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, establishing Ottoman rule in Iraq and gaining naval access to the Persian Gulf. After the end of the Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555), the Caucasus became partitioned for the first time between the Safavids and the Ottomans, a status quo that persisted until the Russian conquest of the Caucasus in the 19th century. By this partitioning as signed in the Peace of Amasya, Western Armenia, western Kurdistan, and Western Georgia fell into Ottoman hands,[61] while southern Dagestan, Eastern Armenia, Eastern Georgia, and Azerbaijan remained Persian.[62]

Ottoman miniature of the Battle of Mohács in 1526[63]

In 1539, a 60,000-strong Ottoman army besieged the Spanish garrison of Castelnuovo on the Adriatic coast; the successful siege cost the Ottomans 8,000 casualties,[64] but Venice agreed to terms in 1540, surrendering most of its empire in the Aegean and the Morea. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule,[65] became allies. The French conquests of Nice (1543) and Corsica (1553) occurred as a joint venture between French king Francis I and Suleiman, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals Hayreddin Barbarossa and Dragut.[66] France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the 1543 Ottoman conquest of Esztergom in northern Hungary. After further advances by the Turks, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. Suleiman died of natural causes during the siege of Szigetvár in 1566. Following his death, the Ottomans were said to be declining, although this has been rejected by many scholars.[67] By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire spanned approximately 877,888 sq mi (2,273,720 km2), extending over three continents.[68]: 545

Ottoman admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeated the Holy League of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza in 1538.

The Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean Sea.[69]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Empire was now a major part of European politics. The Ottomans became involved in multi-continental religious wars when Spain and Portugal were united under the Iberian Union. The Ottomans were holders of the Caliph title, meaning they were the leaders of Muslims worldwide. The Iberians were leaders of the Christian crusaders, and so the two fought in a worldwide conflict. There were zones of operations in the Mediterranean[70] and Indian Ocean,[71] where Iberians circumnavigated Africa to reach India and, on their way, wage war upon the Ottomans and their local Muslim allies. Likewise, the Iberians passed through newly-Christianized Latin America and had sent expeditions that traversed the Pacific to Christianize the formerly Muslim Philippines and use it as a base to attack the Muslims in the Far East.[72] In this case, the Ottomans sent armies to aid its easternmost vassal and territory, the Sultanate of Aceh in Southeast Asia.[73]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". [74]

The Spanish–Ottoman wars took place primarily in the Mediterranean. Barbary corsairs from the North African cities of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, which were nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, captured thousands of merchant ships and raided coastal towns in Europe, enslaving the people they captured.[75]

During the 1600s, the world conflict between the Ottoman Caliphate and Iberian Union was a stalemate since both were at similar population, technology and economic levels. Nevertheless, the success of the Ottoman political and military establishment was compared to the Roman Empire, despite the difference in size, by the likes of contemporary Italian scholar Francesco Sansovino and French political philosopher Jean Bodin.[76]

### Stagnation and reform (1566–1827)

#### Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683)

Late 16th or early 17th century Ottoman galley known as Tarihi Kadırga at the Istanbul Naval Museum, built in the period between the reigns of Sultan Murad III (1574–1595) and Sultan Mehmed IV (1648–1687)[77][78]

In the second half of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire came under increasing strain from inflation and the rapidly rising costs of warfare that were impacting both Europe and the Middle East.[79] These pressures led to a series of crises around the year 1600, placing great strain upon the Ottoman system of government.[80]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The empire underwent a series of transformations of its political and military institutions in response to these challenges, enabling it to successfully adapt to the new conditions of the 17th century and remain powerful, both militarily and economically.[67][81]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Historians of the mid-20th century once characterised this period as one of stagnation and decline, but this view is now rejected by the majority of academics.[67]

The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. Despite the growing European presence in the Indian Ocean, Ottoman trade with the east continued to flourish. Cairo, in particular, benefitted from the rise of Yemeni coffee as a popular consumer commodity. As coffeehouses appeared in cities and towns across the empire, Cairo developed into a major center for its trade, contributing to its continued prosperity throughout the seventeenth and much of the 18th century.[82]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

Under Ivan IV (1533–1584), the Tsardom of Russia expanded into the Volga and Caspian regions at the expense of the Tatar khanates. In 1571, the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, commanded by the Ottomans, invaded Russia and burned Moscow.[83] The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the Battle of Molodi. The Ottoman Empire and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate, continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of slave raids,[84] and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.[85] The Crimean cavalry became indispensable for the Ottomans' campaigns against Russia, Poland, Hungary, and Persia.[86]

Order of battle of the two fleets in the Battle of Lepanto, with an allegory of the three powers of the Holy League in the foreground, fresco by Giorgio Vasari

The Ottomans decided to conquer Venetian Cyprus and on 22 July 1570, Nicosia was besieged; 50,000 Christians died, and 180,000 were enslaved.[87]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". On 15 September 1570, the Ottoman cavalry appeared before the last Venetian stronghold in Cyprus, Famagusta. The Venetian defenders held out for 11 months against a force that at its peak numbered 200,000 men with 145 cannons; 163,000 cannonballs struck the walls of Famagusta before it fell to the Ottomans in August 1571. The Siege of Famagusta claimed 50,000 Ottoman casualties.[88]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Meanwhile, the Holy League consisting of mostly Spanish and Venetian fleets won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571), off southwestern Greece; Catholic forces killed over 30,000 Turks and destroyed 200 of their ships.[89]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". It was a startling, if mostly symbolic,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the Knights of Malta over the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 siege of Malta had recently set about eroding.[90] The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.[91]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defenses.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Long Turkish War against Habsburg Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of Ottoman infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited, and on demobilisation turned to brigandage in the Celali rebellions (1590–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.[92]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". With the Empire's population reaching 30 million people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exceptions were campaigns against the Safavid dynasty of Persia, where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This 1603–1618 war eventually resulted in the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha, which ceded the entire Caucasus, except westernmost Georgia, back into the possession of Safavid Iran.[93] The treaty ending the Cretan War cost Venice much of Dalmatia, its Aegean island possessions, and Crete.[94]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

During his brief majority reign, Murad IV (1623–1640) reasserted central authority and recaptured Iraq (1639) from the Safavids.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The resulting Treaty of Zuhab of that same year decisively divided the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya.[95][96]

The Sultanate of Women (1533–1656) was a period in which the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The most prominent women of this period were Kösem Sultan and her daughter-in-law Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". During the Köprülü era (1656–1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of grand viziers from the Köprülü family. The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of Crete completed in 1669, and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine, with the strongholds of Khotyn, and Kamianets-Podilskyi and the territory of Podolia ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

The Second Siege of Vienna in 1683, by Frans Geffels (1624–1694)

This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in 1683 when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the Great Turkish War of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German, and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king John III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna. The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Mustafa II (1695–1703) led the counterattack of 1695–1696 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

#### Military defeats

Aside from the loss of the Banat and the temporary loss of Belgrade (1717–1739), the Ottoman border on the Danube and Sava remained stable during the 18th century. Russian expansion, however, presented a large and growing threat.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Accordingly, King Charles XII of Sweden was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Poltava of 1709 in central Ukraine (part of the Great Northern War of 1700–1721).Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III to declare war on Russia, which resulted in an Ottoman victory in the Pruth River Campaign of 1710–1711, in Moldavia.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

Austrian troops led by Prince Eugene of Savoy capture Belgrade in 1717. Austrian control in Serbia lasted until the Turkish victory in the Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739). With the 1739 Treaty of Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire regained northern Bosnia, Habsburg Serbia (including Belgrade), Oltenia and the southern parts of the Banat of Temeswar.

After the Austro-Turkish War, the Treaty of Passarowitz confirmed the loss of the Banat, Serbia, and "Little Walachia" (Oltenia) to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739), which was ended by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739, resulted in the Ottoman recovery of northern Bosnia, Habsburg Serbia (including Belgrade), Oltenia and the southern parts of the Banat of Temeswar; but the Empire lost the port of Azov, north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace in Europe, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of Prussia.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

Educational and technological reforms came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the Istanbul Technical University.[97] In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of theodicy.[98] In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis.[98] In 1726, Ibrahim Muteferrika convinced the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha, the Grand Mufti, and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some calligraphers and religious leaders).[99] Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.[99][100]

In North Africa, Spain conquered Oran from the autonomous Deylik of Algiers. The Bey of Oran received an army from Algiers, but it failed to recapture Oran; the siege caused the deaths of 1,500 Spaniards, and even more Algerians. The Spanish also massacred many Muslim soldiers.[101] In 1792, Spain abandoned Oran, selling it to the Deylik of Algiers.

Ottoman troops attempting to halt the advancing Russians during the Siege of Ochakov in 1788

In 1768 Russian-backed Ukrainian Haidamakas, pursuing Polish confederates, entered Balta, an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia in Ukraine, massacred its citizens, and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom of worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". By the late 18th century, after a number of defeats in the wars with Russia, some people in the Ottoman Empire began to conclude that the reforms of Peter the Great had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.[98]

Selim III receiving dignitaries during an audience at the Gate of Felicity, Topkapı Palace. Painting by Konstantin Kapıdağlı.

Selim III (1789–1807) made the first major attempts to modernise the army, but his reforms were hampered by the religious leadership and the Janissary corps. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, the Janissary revolted. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who eliminated the Janissary corps in 1826.

The siege of the Acropolis in 1826–1827 during the Greek War of Independence

The Serbian revolution (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of national awakening in the Balkans during the Eastern Question. In 1811, the fundamentalist Wahhabis of Arabia, led by the al-Saud family, revolted against the Ottomans. Unable to defeat the Wahhabi rebels, the Sublime Porte had Muhammad Ali Pasha of Kavala, the vali (governor) of the Eyalet of Egypt, tasked with retaking Arabia, which ended with the destruction of the Emirate of Diriyah in 1818. The suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own dynasty was acknowledged de jure in 1830.[102][103] In 1821, the Greeks declared war on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the Peloponnese, which, along with the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth, became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). In 1830, the French invaded the Deylik of Algiers. The campaign took 21 days, and resulted in over 5,000 Algerian military casualties,[104] and about 2,600 French ones.[104][105] Before the French invasion the total population of Algeria was most likely between 3,000,000 and 5,000,000.[106] By 1873, the population of Algeria (excluding several hundred thousand newly arrived French settlers) had decreased to 2,172,000.[107] In 1831, Muhammad Ali of Egypt revolted against Sultan Mahmud II due to the latter's refusal to grant him the governorships of Greater Syria and Crete, which the Sultan had promised him in exchange for sending military assistance to put down the Greek revolt (1821–1829) that ultimately ended with the formal independence of Greece in 1830. It was a costly enterprise for Muhammad Ali, who had lost his fleet at the Battle of Navarino in 1827. Thus began the first Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833), during which the French-trained army of Muhammad Ali, under the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha, defeated the Ottoman Army as it marched into Anatolia, reaching the city of Kütahya within Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". of the capital, Constantinople.[108]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In desperation, Sultan Mahmud II appealed to the empire's traditional arch-rival Russia for help, asking Emperor Nicholas I to send an expeditionary force to assist him.[108]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In return for signing the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi, the Russians sent the expeditionary force which deterred Ibrahim Pasha from marching any further towards Constantinople.[108]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Under the terms of the Convention of Kütahya, signed on 5 May 1833, Muhammad Ali agreed to abandon his campaign against the Sultan, in exchange for which he was made the vali (governor) of the vilayets (provinces) of Crete, Aleppo, Tripoli, Damascus and Sidon (the latter four comprising modern Syria and Lebanon), and given the right to collect taxes in Adana.[108]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Had it not been for the Russian intervention, Sultan Mahmud II could have faced the risk of being overthrown and Muhammad Ali could have even become the new Sultan. These events marked the beginning of a recurring pattern where the Sublime Porte needed the help of foreign powers to protect itself.[108]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

In 1839, the Sublime Porte attempted to take back what it lost to the de facto autonomous, but de jure still Ottoman Eyalet of Egypt, but its forces were initially defeated, which led to the Oriental Crisis of 1840. Muhammad Ali had close relations with France, and the prospect of him becoming the Sultan of Egypt was widely viewed as putting the entire Levant into the French sphere of influence.[108]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". As the Sublime Porte had proved itself incapable of defeating Muhammad Ali,[109][110] the British Empire and Austrian Empire provided military assistance, and the second Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841) ended with Ottoman victory and the restoration of Ottoman suzerainty over Egypt Eyalet and the Levant.[108]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man of Europe". Three suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia – moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s.

### Decline and modernisation (1828–1908)

Opening ceremony of the First Ottoman Parliament at the Dolmabahçe Palace in 1876. The First Constitutional Era lasted only two years until 1878. The Ottoman Constitution and Parliament were restored 30 years later with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908.

During the Tanzimat period (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law,[111] and guilds with modern factories. The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul in 1840. American inventor Samuel Morse received an Ottoman patent for the telegraph in 1847, issued by Sultan Abdülmecid, who personally tested the invention.[112] The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn-u Esâsî. The empire's First Constitutional era was short-lived. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it.

The empire's Christian population, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment.[113] In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians, with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.[113] Author Norman Stone suggests that the Arabic alphabet, in which Turkish was written until 1928, was ill-suited to reflect the sounds of Turkish (which is a Turkic as opposed to Semitic language), which imposed further difficulty on Turkish children.[113] In turn, Christians' higher educational levels allowed them to play a larger role in the economy, with the rise in prominence of groups such as the Sursock family indicative of this.[114][113] In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.[113] In many cases, Christians and Jews gained protection from European consuls and citizenship, meaning they were protected from Ottoman law and not subject to the same economic regulations as their Muslim counterparts.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

Ottoman troops storming Fort Shefketil during the Crimean War of 1853–1856

The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue foreign loans amounting to 5Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854.[115]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". [116]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The war caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.[117]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were ethnically cleansed[118] and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus, fleeing to the Ottoman Empire,[119] resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in the Ottoman Empire.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Ottoman education and in first promoting both Pan-Turkism and a sense of Turkish nationalism.[120]

Error creating thumbnail: The monarchs of Europe in Paris (Napoleon III is at the centre, Sultan Abdulaziz is second from right), fictional representation of the opening of the Universal Exposition of 1867.

In this period, the Ottoman Empire spent only small amounts of public funds on education; for example, in 1860–1861 only 0.2% of the total budget was invested in education.[121]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". As the Ottoman state attempted to modernize its infrastructure and army in response to outside threats, it opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. As the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the 19th century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to ensure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

The Ottoman Empire in 1875 under Sultan Abdulaziz

The Ottoman bashi-bazouks suppressed the Bulgarian uprising of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people in the process.[122]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) ended with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply: Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire; Romania achieved full independence; and Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar.

British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli advocated restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, and in return, Britain assumed the administration of Cyprus in 1878.[123]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Britain later sent troops to Egypt in 1882 to put down the Urabi Revolt (Sultan Abdul Hamid II was too paranoid to mobilize his own army, fearing this would result in a coup d'état), effectively gaining control in both territories. Abdul Hamid II was so fearful of a coup that he did not allow his army to conduct war games, lest this serve as cover for a coup, but he did see the need for military mobilization. In 1883, a German military mission under General Baron Colmar von der Goltz arrived to train the Ottoman Army, leading to the so-called "Goltz generation" of German-trained officers, who played a notable role in the politics of the empire's last years.[124]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres.[125]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

In 1897 the population was 19Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".million, of whom 14Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".million (74%) were Muslim. An additional 20Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".million lived in provinces that remained under the sultan's nominal suzerainty but were entirely outside his actual power. One by one the Porte lost nominal authority. They included Egypt, Tunisia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Lebanon.[126]

As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank, 7–9Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".million Muslims from its former territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace.[127][128][129][130] After the Empire lost the First Balkan War (1912–1913), it lost all its Balkan territories except East Thrace (European Turkey). This resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies (with many dying from cholera brought by the soldiers), and 400,000 non-Muslims fled territory still under Ottoman rule.[131] Justin McCarthy estimates that from 1821 to 1922, 5.5Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".million Muslims died in southeastern Europe, with the expulsion of 5Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".million.[132][133] In addition the Ottoman state encouraged transnational migration, including Circassians, Bosnians, and Russian Jews resettled in the southern Levant. These communities, alongside internal Arab resettlement, reshaped rural society and land use in ways that reflected broader imperial patterns of demographic engineering and agrarian expansion.[134][135]

### Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922)

#### Young Turk movement

Declaration of the Young Turk Revolution by the leaders of the Ottoman millets in 1908

The defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922) began with the Second Constitutional Era, a moment of hope and promise established with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the Constitution of the Ottoman Empire and brought in multi-party politics with a two-stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire's citizens to modernise the state's institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place.[136] Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire.

Members of Young Turks movement who had once gone underground now established their parties.[137] Among them "Committee of Union and Progress", and "Freedom and Accord Party" were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties, which included Poale Zion, Al-Fatat, and Armenian national movement organised under Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The last of the Ottoman censuses was performed in 1914. Despite military reforms which reconstituted the Ottoman Modern Army, the Empire lost its North African territories and the Dodecanese in the Italo-Turkish War (1911) and almost all of its European territories in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). The Empire faced continuous unrest in the years leading up to World War I, including the 31 March Incident and two further coups in 1912 and 1913.

#### World War I

Admiral Wilhelm Souchon, who commanded the Black Sea raid on 29 October 1914, and his officers in Ottoman naval uniforms

The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated.[138] The Ottoman participation in the war began with the combined German-Ottoman surprise attack on the Black Sea coast of the Russian Empire on 29 October 1914. Following the attack, the Russian Empire (2 November 1914)[139] and its allies France (5 November 1914)[139] and the British Empire (5 November 1914)[139] declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Also on 5 November 1914, the British government changed the status of the Khedivate of Egypt and Cyprus, which were de jure Ottoman territories prior to the war, to British protectorates.

The Ottomans successfully defended the Dardanelles strait during the Gallipoli campaign (1915–1916) and achieved initial victories against British forces in the first two years of the Mesopotamian campaign, such as the Siege of Kut (1915–1916); but the Arab Revolt (1916–1918) turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East. In the Caucasus campaign, however, the Russian forces had the upper hand from the beginning, especially after the Battle of Sarikamish (1914–1915). Russian forces advanced into northeastern Anatolia and controlled the major cities there until retreating from World War I with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk following the Russian Revolution in 1917.

#### Genocides

The Armenian genocide was the result of the Ottoman government's deportation and ethnic cleansing policies regarding its Armenian citizens after the Battle of Sarikamish (1914–1915) and the collapse of the Caucasus Front against the Imperial Russian Army and Armenian volunteer units during World War I. An estimated 600,000[140] to more than 1 million,[140] or up to 1.5 million[141][142][143] people were killed.

In 1915 the Ottoman government and Kurdish tribes in the region started the extermination of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the deaths of up to 1.5Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".million Armenians in the Armenian genocide.[144][145][146] The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and systematic massacre.[147][148] Large-scale massacres were also committed against the Empire's Greek and Assyrian minorities as part of the same campaign of ethnic cleansing.[149]

#### Arab Revolt

The Arab Revolt began in 1916 with British support. It turned the tide against the Ottomans on the Middle Eastern front, where they seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. On the basis of the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, an agreement between the British government and Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, the revolt was officially initiated at Mecca on 10 June 1916.[lower-alpha 16] The Arab nationalist goal was to create a single unified and independent Arab state stretching from Aleppo, Syria, to Aden, Yemen, which the British promised to recognise.

The Sharifian Army, led by Hussein and the Hashemites, with military backing from the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force, successfully fought and expelled the Ottoman military presence from much of the Hejaz and Transjordan. The rebellion eventually took Damascus and set up a short-lived monarchy led by Faisal, a son of Hussein.

Following the terms of the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement, the British and French later partitioned the Middle East into mandate territories. There was no unified Arab state, much to Arab nationalists' anger. Palestine, Iraq, Lebanon and Syria became British and French mandates.[151]

#### Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence

Mehmed VI, the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leaving the country after the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate, 17 November 1922

Defeated in World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918. Istanbul was occupied by combined British, French, Italian, and Greek forces. In May 1919, Greece also took control of the area around Smyrna (now İzmir).

The partition of the Ottoman Empire was finalized under the terms of the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, as designed in the Conference of London, allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. Anatolia's status was problematic given the occupied forces.

A nationalist opposition arose in the Turkish national movement. It won the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI (reigned 1918–1922), left the country on 17 November 1922. The Republic of Turkey was established in its place on 29 October 1923, in the new capital city of Ankara. The caliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924.[152][153]

## Historiographical debate on the Ottoman state

Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Template:History of Turkey Several historians, such as British historian Edward Gibbon and the Greek historian Dimitri Kitsikis, have argued that after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman state took over the machinery of the Byzantine (Roman) state and that the Ottoman Empire was in essence a continuation of the Byzantine Empire under a Turkish Muslim guise.[154] The American historian Speros Vryonis writes that the Ottoman state centered on "a Byzantine-Balkan base with a veneer of the Turkish language and the Islamic religion".[155] Kitsikis and the American historian Heath Lowry posit that the early Ottoman state was a predatory confederacy open to both Byzantine Christians and Turkish Muslims whose primary goal was attaining booty and slaves, rather than spreading Islam, and that Islam only later became the empire's primary characteristic.[156][157][158] Other historians have followed the lead of the Austrian historian Paul Wittek, who emphasizes the early Ottoman state's Islamic character, seeing it as a "jihad state" dedicated to expanding the Muslim world.[155] Many historians led in 1937 by the Turkish historian Mehmet Fuat Köprülü championed the Ghaza thesis, according to which the early Ottoman state was a continuation of the way of life of the nomadic Turkic tribes who had come from East Asia to Anatolia via Central Asia and the Middle East on a much larger scale. They argued that the most important cultural influences on the Ottoman state came from Persia.[159]

The British historian Norman Stone suggests many continuities between the Byzantine and Ottoman empires, such as that the zeugarion tax of Byzantium became the Ottoman Resm-i çift tax, that the pronoia land-holding system that linked the amount of land one owned with one's ability to raise cavalry became the Ottoman timar system, and that the Ottoman land measurement the dönüm was the same as the Byzantine stremma. Stone also argues that although Sunni Islam was the state religion, the Ottoman state supported and controlled the Eastern Orthodox Church, which in return for accepting that control became the Ottoman Empire's largest land-holder. Despite the similarities, Stone argues that a crucial difference is that the land grants under the timar system were not hereditary at first. Even after they became inheritable, land ownership in the Ottoman Empire remained highly insecure, and the sultan revoked land grants whenever he wished. Stone argued this insecurity in land tenure strongly discouraged Timariots from seeking long-term development of their land, and instead led them to adopt a strategy of short-term exploitation, which had deleterious effects on the Ottoman economy.[160]

## Government

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Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a system with two main dimensions, the military administration, and the civil administration. The Sultan was in the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The state had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran remained important in Ottoman administrative circles.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.[161]

The Ottoman Empire, or as a dynastic institution, the House of Osman, was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration.[162] In Europe, only the House of Habsburg had a similarly unbroken line of sovereigns (kings/emperors) from the same family who ruled for so long, and during the same period, between the late 13th and early 20th centuries. The Ottoman dynasty was Turkish in origin. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed (replaced by another sultan of the Ottoman dynasty, who were either the former sultan's brother, son or nephew) because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Ottoman dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability.[161] As such, the last Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI (r. 1918 – 1922) was a direct patrilineal (male-line) descendant of the first Ottoman sultan Osman I (d. 1323/4), which was unparalleled in both Europe (e.g., the male line of the House of Habsburg became extinct in 1740) and in the Islamic world. The primary purpose of the Imperial Harem was to ensure the birth of male heirs to the Ottoman throne and secure the continuation of the direct patrilineal (male-line) power of the Ottoman sultans in the future generations.

Ambassadors at the Topkapı Palace

The highest position in Islam, caliph, was claimed by the sultans starting with Selim I,[19] which was established as the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, pâdişâh or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the valide sultan. On occasion, the valide sultan became involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the palace school was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which also educated the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the Madrasa (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income.[163] The second track was a free boarding school for the Christians, the Enderûn,[164] which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in Rumelia or the Balkans, a process known as Devshirme (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".).[165] The Devshirme falls within modern definitions of genocide.[166][167]

Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as Divan. The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal, and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the de facto head of state.[168]

File:Yusuf Ziya Paşa.jpgYusuf Ziya Pasha, Ottoman ambassador to the United States, in Washington, D.C., 1913

Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire.

This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language to the west.[169]

The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, "ever victorious", was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish calligraphy.

### Law

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An unhappy wife complaining to the Qadi about her husband's impotence, as depicted in an Ottoman miniature. Divorce is allowed in Islamic law and can be initiated by either the husband or the wife.[170]

The Ottoman legal system accepted the religious law over its subjects. At the same time the Qanun (or Kanun), dynastic law, co-existed with religious law or Sharia.[171][172] The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local jurisprudence. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority.[173] Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority to develop the needs of the local millet.[173] The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups.[173] The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Qanun, i.e., laws, a system based upon the Turkic Yassa and Töre, which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.[174][175]

These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive; for instance, the Islamic courts, which were the Empire's primary courts, could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'an; the Hadīth, or words of Muhammad; ijmā', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in Istanbul and Bursa.

The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. Presiding over Islamic courts was a Qadi, or judge. Since the closing of the ijtihad, or 'Gate of Interpretation', Qadis throughout the Ottoman Empire focused less on legal precedent, and more with local customs and traditions in the areas that they administered.[173] However, the Ottoman court system lacked an appellate structure, leading to jurisdictional case strategies where plaintiffs could take their disputes from one court system to another until they achieved a ruling that was in their favour.

An Ottoman trial, 1877

In the late 19th century, the Ottoman legal system saw substantial reform. This process of legal modernisation began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839.[176] These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion", the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil", and the validation of testimony on non-Muslims.[177] Specific land codes (1858), civil codes (1869–1876), and a code of civil procedure also were enacted.[177]

These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to as Nizamiye, this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the Mecelle, a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status.[177] In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.[177]

### Military

File:Józef Brandt - Fight for a Turkish Standard - MNK II-a-1318 - National Museum Kraków.jpgOttoman sipahis in battle, holding the crescent banner, by Józef Brandt

The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the Ottoman Army included Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottoman Turks began using falconets, which were short but wide cannons, during the Siege of Constantinople. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armor, using bows and short swords on fast Turkoman and Arabian horses (progenitors of the Thoroughbred racing horse),[178][179] and often applied tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The Ottoman army continued to be an effective fighting force throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries,[180][181] falling behind the empire's European rivals only during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768.[65]

Modernised Ertugrul Cavalry Regiment crossing the Galata Bridge in 1901

The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the Young Turks movement began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education.

The Ottoman fleet in the Bosphorous near Ortaköy

The Ottoman Navy vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of Algeria and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Greece in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan Abdülaziz (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first submarine in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.[182]

However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for long. Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist Midhat Pasha and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.

Ottoman pilots in early 1912

The establishment of Ottoman military aviation dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911.[183][184] The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (Tayyare Mektebi) in Yeşilköy on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913, the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School, and the first separate reconnaissance division was established. In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi) was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The Ottoman Aviation Squadrons fought on many fronts during World War I, from Galicia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south.

## Administrative divisions

Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire in 1899 (year 1317 Hijri)

The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.[185]

The eyalet (also pashalik or beylerbeylik) was the territory of office of a beylerbey ("lord of lords" or governor), and was further subdivided into Sanjaks.[186]

The vilayets were introduced with the promulgation of the "Vilayet Law" (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".)[187] in 1864, as part of the Tanzimat reforms.[188] Unlike the previous eyalet system, the 1864 law established a hierarchy of administrative units: the vilayet, liva/sanjak/mutasarrifate, kaza and village council, to which the 1871 Vilayet Law added the nahiye.[189]

## Economy

File:AydınArchaeologicalMuseum (117).JPGCoins of the Sultanate of Rûm and the Ottoman Empire at Aydın Archaeological Museum

Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centers, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis.[190] To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain, after the conclusion of the Reconquista. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants.

File:Mehmed the Conqueror (1432 –1481).jpgA European bronze medal from the period of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, 1481

The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous.[191] The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact. The Ottoman economy greatly expanded during the early modern period, with particularly high growth rates during the first half of the 18th century. The empire's annual income quadrupled between 1523 and 1748, adjusted for inflation.[192]

The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries.[168] This organisation developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body.[168] The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.[193]

The Ottoman Bank was founded in 1856 in Constantinople. On 26 August 1896, the bank was occupied by members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation.

Modern Ottoman studies indicate that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and the Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself.[194] The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Balta Liman that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, can be seen as one of the staging posts along with this development.

By developing commercial centers and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this, the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in, Ottoman administrators could not see the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.[195]

Economic historian Paul Bairoch argues that free trade contributed to deindustrialisation in the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the protectionism of China, Japan, and Spain, the Ottoman Empire had a liberal trade policy, open to foreign imports. This has origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673 and 1740, which lowered duties to 3% for imports and exports. The liberal Ottoman policies were praised by British economists, such as John Ramsay McCulloch in his Dictionary of Commerce (1834), but later criticized by British politicians such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 Corn Laws debate.[196]

## Demographics

İzmir under Ottoman rule in 1900

A population estimate for the empire of 11,692,480 for the 1520–1535 period was obtained by counting the households in Ottoman tithe registers, and multiplying this number by 5.[197] For unclear reasons, the population in the 18th century was lower than that in the 16th century.[198] An estimate of 7,230,660 for the first census held in 1831 is considered a serious undercount, as this census was meant only to register possible conscripts.[197]

Censuses of Ottoman territories only began in the early 19th century. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".[197] For earlier periods estimates of size and distribution of the population are based on observed demographic patterns.[199]

File:Aerial view of the Galata Bridge, Istanbul LCCN2003677084.jpgView of Galata (Karaköy) and the Galata Bridge on the Golden Horn, c. 1880–1893Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

However, it began to rise to reach 25–32 million by 1800, with around 10 million in the European provinces (primarily in the Balkans), 11 million in the Asiatic provinces, and around 3 million in the African provinces. Population densities were higher in the European provinces, double those in Anatolia, which in turn were triple the population densities of Iraq and Syria and five times the population density of Arabia.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

Towards the end of the empire's existence life expectancy was 49 years, compared to the mid-twenties in Serbia at the beginning of the 19th century.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Epidemic diseases and famine caused major disruption and demographic changes. In 1785 around one-sixth of the Egyptian population died from the plague and Aleppo saw its population reduced by twenty percent in the 18th century. Six famines hit Egypt alone between 1687 and 1731 and the last famine to hit Anatolia was four decades later.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The 1812–1819 Ottoman plague epidemic would cost the lives of at least 300,000 individuals.[200]

The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".[201] Some regions conversely had population falls—Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

The town of Safranbolu is one of the best-preserved Ottoman villages.

Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the Russian and Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees—200,000 Crimean Tatars fleeing to Dobruja.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7 million refugees arrived into the Ottoman Empire. Between the 1850s and World War I, about a million North Caucasian Muslims arrived in the Ottoman Empire as refugees.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g., Turkey and Bulgaria), whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted by the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers, and agriculturists.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are called Muhacir.[202] By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.[113]

### Language

1911 Ottoman calendar shown in several different languages such as: Ottoman Turkish, Greek, Armenian, Hebrew, Bulgarian and French

Ottoman Turkish was the official language of the Empire.[203] It was an Oghuz Turkic language highly influenced by Persian and Arabic, though lower registries spoken by the common people had fewer influences from other languages compared to higher varieties used by upper classes and governmental authorities.[204] Turkish, in its Ottoman variation, was a language of military and administration since the nascent days of the Ottomans. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 did officially cement the official imperial status of Turkish.[205]

The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except some regions such as Albania, Bosnia[206] and the Megleno-Romanian-inhabited Nânti;[207] Persian, only spoken by the educated;[206] Arabic, spoken mainly in Egypt, the Levant, Arabia, Iraq, North Africa, Kuwait and parts of the Horn of Africa and Berber in North Africa. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated,[206] while Arabic was used for Islamic prayers. In the post-Tanzimat period French became the common Western language among the educated.[18]

Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of the 19th century), ordinary people had to hire scribes as "special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis) to be able to communicate with the government.[208] Some ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages, though many non-Muslim minorities such as Greeks and Armenians only spoke Turkish.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants often spoke each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; in some cities, many of those who were not ethnic Turks spoke Turkish as a second language. However, not all cities used Turkish as a lingua franca [209].

### Religion

Abdülmecid II was the last caliph of Islam and a member of the Ottoman dynasty.

Sunni Islam was the prevailing Dīn (customs, legal traditions, and religion) of the Ottoman Empire; the official Madh'hab (school of Islamic jurisprudence) was Hanafi.[210] From the early 16th century until the early 20th century, the Ottoman sultan also served as the caliph, or politico-religious leader, of the Muslim world. Most of the Ottoman Sultans adhered to Sufism and followed Sufi orders, and believed Sufism was the correct way to reach God.[211]

Non-Muslims, particularly Christians and Jews, were present throughout the empire's history. The Ottoman imperial system was charactised by an intricate combination of official Muslim hegemony over non-Muslims and a wide degree of religious tolerance. While religious minorities were never equal under the law, they were granted recognition, protection, and limited freedoms under both Islamic and Ottoman tradition.[212]

Until the second half of the 15th century, the majority of Ottoman subjects were Christian.[173] Non-Muslims remained a significant and economically influential minority, albeit declining significantly by the 19th century, due largely to migration and secession.[212] The proportion of Muslims amounted to 60% in the 1820s, gradually increasing to 69% in the 1870s and 76% in the 1890s.[212] By 1914, less than a fifth of the empire's population (19.1%) was non-Muslim, mostly made up of Jews and Christian Greeks, Assyrians, and Armenians.[212]

#### Islam

Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Turkic peoples practiced a form of shamanism before adopting Islam. The Muslim conquest of Transoxiana under the Abbasids facilitated the spread of Islam into the Turkic heartland of Central Asia. Many Turkic tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam and brought religion to Anatolia through their migrations beginning in the 11th century. From its founding, the Ottoman Empire officially supported the Maturidi school of Islamic theology, which emphasized human reason, rationality, the pursuit of science and philosophy (falsafa).[213][214] The Ottomans were among the earliest and most enthusiastic adopters of the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence,[215] which was comparatively more flexible and discretionary in its rulings.[216][217]

The Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey

The Ottoman Empire had a wide variety of Islamic sects, including Druze, Ismailis, Alevis, and Alawites.[218] Sufism, a diverse body of Islamic mysticism, found fertile ground in Ottoman lands; many Sufi religious orders (tariqa), such as the Bektashi and Mevlevi, were either established, or saw significant growth, throughout the empire's history.[219] However, some heterodox Muslim groups were viewed as heretical and even ranked below Jews and Christians in terms of legal protection; Druze were frequent targets of persecution,[220] with Ottoman authorities often citing the controversial rulings of Ibn Taymiyya, a member of the conservative Hanbali school.[221] In 1514, Sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash), whom he considered a fifth column for the rival Safavid Empire.

During Selim's reign, the Ottoman Empire saw an unprecedented and rapid expansion into the Middle East, particularly the conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt on the early 16th century. These conquests further solidified the Ottoman claim of being an Islamic caliphate, although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the reign of Murad I (1362–1389).[19] The caliphate was officially transferred from the Mamluks to the Ottoman sultanate in 1517, whose members were recognized as caliphs until the office's abolition on 3 March 1924 by the Republic of Turkey (and the exile of the last caliph, Abdülmecid II, to France).

#### Christianity and Judaism

Mehmed the Conqueror and Patriarch Gennadius II

In accordance with the Muslim dhimmi system, the Ottoman Empire guaranteed limited freedoms to Christians, Jews, and other "people of the book", such as the right to worship, own property, and be exempt from the obligatory alms (zakat) required of Muslims. However, non-Muslims (or Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) were subject to various legal restrictions, including being forbidden to carry weapons, ride on horseback, or have their homes overlook those of Muslims; likewise, they were required to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects, including the jizya, which was a key source of state revenue.[222][223] Many Christians and Jews converted to Islam to secure full social and legal status, though most continued to practice their faith without restriction.

The Ottomans developed a unique sociopolitical system known as the millet, which granted non-Muslim communities a large degree of political, legal, and religious autonomy; in essence, members of a millet were subjects of the empire but not subject to the Muslim faith or Islamic law. A millet could govern its own affairs, such as raising taxes and resolving internal legal disputes, with little or no interference from Ottoman authorities, so long as its members were loyal to the sultan and adhered to the rules concerning dhimmi. A quintessential example is the ancient Orthodox community of Mount Athos, which was permitted to retain its autonomy and was never subject to occupation or forced conversion; even special laws were enacted to protect it from outsiders.[224]

The Rum Millet, which encompassed most Eastern Orthodox Christians, was governed by the Byzantine-era Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". (Code of Justinian), with the Ecumenical Patriarch designated the highest religious and political authority (millet-bashi, or ethnarch). Likewise, Ottoman Jews came under the authority of the Haham Başı, or Ottoman Chief Rabbi, while Armenians were under the authority of the chief bishop of the Armenian Apostolic Church.[225] As the largest group of non-Muslim subjects, the Rum Millet enjoyed several special privileges in politics and commerce; however, Jews and Armenians were also well represented among the wealthy merchant class, as well as in public administration.[226][227]

Some modern scholars consider the millet system to be an early example of religious pluralism, as it accorded minority religious groups official recognition and tolerance.[228]

### Social-political-religious structure

Ethnic map of the Ottoman Empire in 1917. Black = Bulgars and Turks, Red = Greeks, Light yellow = Armenians, Blue = Kurds, Orange = Lazes, Dark Yellow = Arabs, Green = Nestorians

Beginning in the early 19th century, society, government, and religion were interrelated in a complex, overlapping way that was deemed inefficient by Atatürk, who systematically dismantled it after 1922.[229][230] In Constantinople, the Sultan ruled two distinct domains: the secular government and the religious hierarchy. Religious officials formed the Ulama, who had control of religious teachings and theology, and also the Empire's judicial system, giving them a major voice in day-to-day affairs in communities across the Empire (but not including the non-Muslim millets). They were powerful enough to reject the military reforms proposed by Sultan Selim III. His successor Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) first won ulama approval before proposing similar reforms.[231] The secularisation program brought by Atatürk ended the ulema and their institutions. The caliphate was abolished, madrasas were closed down, and the sharia courts were abolished. He replaced the Arabic alphabet with Latin letters, ended the religious school system, and gave women some political rights. Many rural traditionalists never accepted this secularisation, and by the 1990s they were reasserting a demand for a larger role for Islam.[232]

File:Istanbul asv2021-11 img71 StAnthony of Padua Church.jpgThe original Church of St. Anthony of Padua, Istanbul was built in 1725 by the local Italian community of Istanbul.

The Janissaries were a highly formidable military unit in the early years, but as Western Europe modernized its military organization technology, the Janissaries became a reactionary force that resisted all change. Steadily the Ottoman military power became outdated, but when the Janissaries felt their privileges were being threatened, or outsiders wanted to modernize them, or they might be superseded by the cavalrymen, they rose in rebellion. The rebellions were highly violent on both sides, but by the time the Janissaries were suppressed, it was far too late for Ottoman military power to catch up with the West.[233][234] The political system was transformed by the destruction of the Janissaries, a powerful military/governmental/police force, which revolted in the Auspicious Incident of 1826. Sultan Mahmud II crushed the revolt, executed the leaders and disbanded the large organization. That set the stage for a slow process of modernization of government functions, as the government sought, with mixed success, to adopt the main elements of Western bureaucracy and military technology.

The Janissaries had been recruited from Christians and other minorities; their abolition enabled the emergence of a Turkish elite to control the Ottoman Empire. A large number of ethnic and religious minorities were tolerated in their own separate segregated domains called millets.[235] They were primarily Greek, Armenian, or Jewish. In each locality, they governed themselves, spoke their own language, ran their own schools, cultural and religious institutions, and paid somewhat higher taxes. They had no power outside the millet. The Imperial government protected them and prevented major violent clashes between ethnic groups.

Ethnic nationalism, based on distinctive religion and language, provided a centripetal force that eventually destroyed the Ottoman Empire.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In addition, Muslim ethnic groups, which were not part of the millet system, especially the Arabs and the Kurds, were outside the Turkish culture and developed their own separate nationalism. The British sponsored Arab nationalism in the First World War, promising an independent Arab state in return for Arab support. Most Arabs supported the Sultan, but those near Mecca believed in and supported the British promise.[236]

Hemdat Israel Synagogue of Istanbul

At the local level, power was held beyond the control of the Sultan by the ayans or local notables. The ayan collected taxes, formed local armies to compete with other notables, took a reactionary attitude toward political or economic change, and often defied policies handed down by the Sultan.[237]

After the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was shrinking, as Russia put on heavy pressure and expanded to its south; Egypt became effectively independent in 1805, and the British later took it over, along with Cyprus. Greece became independent, and Serbia and other Balkan areas became highly restive as the force of nationalism pushed against imperialism. The French took over Algeria and Tunisia. The Europeans all thought that the empire was a sick man in rapid decline. Only the Germans seemed helpful, and their support led to the Ottoman Empire joining the central powers in 1915, with the result that they came out as one of the heaviest losers of the First World War in 1918.[238]

## Culture

Depiction of a hookah shop in Lebanon

The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art, and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure, and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who developed them into new forms, resulting in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Although the predominant literary language of the Ottoman Empire was Turkish, Persian was the preferred vehicle for the projection of an imperial image.[239]

Slavery was part of Ottoman society,[240] with most slaves employed as domestic servants or in the case of female slaves as concubines (sexual slaves). Agricultural slavery, like that in the Americas, was relatively rare. The child of a slave was born a slave, unless the male slave owner acknowledged the child of his female slave as his, in which case the child would be automatically free by law.[241] Female slaves were still sold in the Empire as late as 1908.[242] During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the Ottoman slave trade but slavery had centuries of religious backing and sanction and so was never abolished in the Empire.[225]

Ottomans adopted Persian bureaucratic traditions and culture. The sultans also made an important contribution in the development of Persian literature.[243]

Language was not an obvious sign of group connection and identity in the 16th century among the rulers of the Ottoman Empire, Safavid Iran and Abu'l-Khayrid Shibanids of Central Asia.[244] Hence the ruling classes of all three polities were bilingual in varieties of Persian and Turkic.[244] But in the century's final quarter, linguistic adjustments occurred in the Ottoman and Safavid realms defined by a new rigidity that favoured Ottoman Turkish and Persian, respectively.[244]

### Education

The Beyazıt State Library was founded in 1884.

In the Ottoman Empire, each millet established a schooling system serving its members.[245] Education was therefore largely divided on ethnic and religious lines: few non-Muslims attended schools for Muslim students, and vice versa. Most institutions that served all ethnic and religious groups taught in French or other languages.[246]

Several "foreign schools" (Frerler mektebleri) operated by religious clergy primarily served Christians, although some Muslim students attended.[245] Garnett described the schools for Christians and Jews as "organised upon European models", with "voluntary contributions" supporting their operation and most of them "well attended" and with "a high standard of education".[247]

### Literature

The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and prose. Poetry was by far the dominant stream. The earliest work of Ottoman historiography for example, the İskendernâme, was composed by the poet Taceddin Ahmedi.[248] Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European romance, short story, or novel. Analog genres did exist, though, in both Turkish folk literature and in Divan poetry.

Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the Persian poetry that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". / Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) and opposition (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was lyric in nature: either gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. But there were other common genres, especially the mesnevî, a kind of verse romance and thus a variety of narrative poetry; the two most notable examples of this form are the Leyli and Majnun of Fuzuli and the Hüsn ü Aşk of Şeyh Gâlib. The Seyahatnâme of Evliya Çelebi (1611–1682) is an outstanding example of travel literature.

File:Nedim (divan edb.şairi).JPGAhmet Nedîm Efendi, one of the most celebrated Ottoman poets

Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"., also transliterated as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".), or rhymed prose,[249] a type of writing descended from the Arabic saj' that prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though it was exclusively nonfictional. One apparent exception was Muhayyelât (Fancies) by Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi, a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was Vartan Pasha's 1851 The Story of Akabi (Turkish: Akabi Hikyayesi). It was written in Turkish but with Armenian script.[250][251][252][253]

Due to historically close ties with France, French literature constituted the major Western influence on Ottoman literature in the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period had Ottoman equivalents; in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of Romanticism can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the Realist and Naturalist movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, the influence of the Symbolist and Parnassian movements was paramount.

Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously. This diversity was, in part, due to Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structures.[254]

### Media

The media of the Ottoman Empire was diverse, with newspapers and journals published in languages including French,[255] Greek,[256] and German.[225] Many of these publications were centered in Constantinople,[257] but there were also French-language newspapers produced in Beirut, Salonika, and Smyrna.[258] Non-Muslim ethnic minorities in the empire used French as a lingua franca and used French-language publications,[255] while some provincial newspapers were published in Arabic.[259] The use of French in the media persisted until the end of the empire in 1923 and for a few years thereafter in the Republic of Turkey.[255]

### Architecture

File:Cour mosquee Suleymaniye Istanbul.jpgSüleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, designed by Mimar Sinan in the 16th century and a major example of the classical Ottoman style

The architecture of the empire developed from earlier Seljuk Turkish architecture, with influences from Byzantine and Iranian architecture and other architectural traditions in the Middle East.[260][261][262] Early Ottoman architecture experimented with multiple building types over the course of the 13th to 15th centuries, progressively evolving into the classical Ottoman style of the 16th and 17th centuries, which was also strongly influenced by the Hagia Sophia.[262][263] The most important architect of the Classical period is Mimar Sinan, whose major works include the Şehzade Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, and Selimiye Mosque.[264][265] The second half of the 16th century also saw the apogee of some types of decoration, most notably in the production of Iznik tiles.[266]

File:Mihrisah Sultan Complex Eyup DSCF7829.jpgSebil (water distribution kiosk) of the Mihrişah Sultan Complex in Istanbul, from the late 18th century, an example of the Ottoman Baroque style

Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was opened to external influences, particularly from Baroque architecture in Western Europe, which eventually gave rise to the Ottoman Baroque style that emerged in the 1740s.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Nuruosmaniye Mosque is one of the most important examples from this period.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". During the 19th century, influences from Western Europe became more prominent, brought in by architects such as those from the Balyan family.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Empire style and Neoclassical motifs were introduced and a trend towards eclecticism was evident in many types of buildings, such as the Dolmabaçe Palace.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The last decades of the Ottoman Empire also saw the development of a new architectural style called neo-Ottoman or Ottoman revivalism, also known as the First National Architectural Movement,[267] by architects such as Mimar Kemaleddin and Vedat Tek.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

Ottoman dynastic patronage was concentrated in the historic capitals of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul (Constantinople), as well as in several other important administrative centers such as Amasya and Manisa. It was in these centers that most important developments in Ottoman architecture occurred and that the most monumental Ottoman architecture can be found.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Major religious monuments were typically architectural complexes, known as a külliye, that had multiple components providing different services or amenities. In addition to a mosque, these could include a madrasa, a hammam, an imaret, a sebil, a market, a caravanserai, a primary school, or others.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". These complexes were governed and managed with the help of a vakıf agreement (Arabic waqf).Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ottoman constructions were still abundant in Anatolia and in the Balkans (Rumelia), but in the more distant Middle Eastern and North African provinces older Islamic architectural styles continued to hold strong influence and were sometimes blended with Ottoman styles.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

### Decorative arts

Ottoman miniature lost its function with the Westernization of Ottoman culture.

The tradition of Ottoman miniatures, painted to illustrate manuscripts or used in dedicated albums, was heavily influenced by the Persian art form, though it also included elements of the Byzantine tradition of illumination and painting.[268] A Greek academy of painters, the Nakkashane-i-Rum, was established in the Topkapi Palace in the 15th century, while early in the following century a similar Persian academy, the Nakkashane-i-Irani, was added. Surname-i Hümayun (Imperial Festival Books) were albums that commemorated celebrations in the Ottoman Empire in pictorial and textual detail.

Ottoman illumination covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in muraqqa or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the Ottoman miniature. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (taswir), calligraphy (hat), Islamic calligraphy, bookbinding (cilt) and paper marbling (ebru). In the Ottoman Empire, illuminated and illustrated manuscripts were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working in Nakkashane, the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also, sheets for albums levha consisted of illuminated calligraphy (hat) of tughra, religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings.

The art of carpet weaving was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters.[269] The weaving of such carpets originated in the nomadic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs, and kilims not just on the floors of a room but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.[270]

### Music and performing arts

File:Musicians and dancers from ottoman empire.jpgMusicians and dancers entertaining the crowds, from the Surname-i Hümayun, 1720

Ottoman classical music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite. A number of the Ottoman sultans have accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Armenian music, Arabic music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organized around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes.

The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: Janissary music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music.

The traditional shadow play called Karagöz and Hacivat was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire and featured characters representing all of the major ethnic and social groups in that culture.[271][272] It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by tambourine (def). Its origins are obscure, deriving perhaps from an older Egyptian tradition, or possibly from an Asian source.

### Cuisine

Turkish women baking bread, 1790

Ottoman cuisine is the cuisine of the capital, Constantinople (Istanbul), and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at the Yalıs of the Pashas, and from there on spread to the rest of the population.

Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially Turkish, and including Greek, Balkan, Armenian, and Middle Eastern cuisines.[273]

### Sports

Members of Beşiktaş J.K. in 1903

The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were Turkish wrestling, hunting, Turkish archery, horseback riding, equestrian javelin throw, arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of football matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club (1903), Galatasaray Sports Club (1905), Fenerbahçe Sports Club (1907), MKE Ankaragücü (formerly Turan Sanatkarangücü) (1910) in Constantinople. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as Karşıyaka Sports Club (1912), Altay Sports Club (1914) and Turkish Fatherland Football Club (later Ülküspor) (1914) of İzmir.

## Science and technology

File:Istambul observatory in 1577.jpgThe Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din in 1577

Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts.[60] A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th century. Sultan Mehmet II ordered Georgios Amiroutzes, a Greek scholar from Trabzon, to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book of Ptolemy. Another example is Ali Qushji – an astronomer, mathematician and physicist originally from Samarkand – who became a professor in two madrasas and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years in Constantinople before his death.[274]

Taqi al-Din built the Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din in 1577, where he carried out observations until 1580. He calculated the eccentricity of the Sun's orbit and the annual motion of the apogee.[275] However, the observatory's primary purpose was almost certainly astrological rather than astronomical, leading to its destruction in 1580 due to the rise of a clerical faction that opposed its use for that purpose.[276] He also experimented with steam power in Ottoman Egypt in 1551, when he described a steam jack driven by a rudimentary steam turbine.[277]

File:Young woman reading (1880), by Osman Hamdi Bey.jpgGirl Reciting the Qurān (Kuran Okuyan Kız), an 1880 painting by the Ottoman polymath Osman Hamdi Bey, whose works often showed women engaged in educational activities[278]

Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu was the author of the first surgical atlas and the last major medical encyclopaedia from the Islamic world.[279] The Ottoman Empire is credited with the invention of several surgical instruments in use such as forceps, catheters, scalpels and lancets as well as pincers.[280] In the early 19th century, Egypt under Muhammad Ali began using steam engines for industrial manufacturing, with industries such as ironworks, textile manufacturing, paper mills and hulling mills moving towards steam power.[281] Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions existed in Egypt for the adoption of oil as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.[281]

## See also

* 16 Great Turkic Empires - Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". - Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
* Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire
* Empire of the Sultans - Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". - Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
* Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire
* Gunpowder empires - Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". - Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
* Historiography of the Ottoman Empire
* List of battles involving the Ottoman Empire
* List of foreigners who were in the service of the Ottoman Empire
* List of Ottoman conquests, sieges and landings
* List of wars involving the Ottoman Empire
* Ottoman wars in Europe - Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". - Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
* Outline of the Ottoman Empire - Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". - Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
* Turkic history - Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". - Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
* Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire

## References

### Footnotes

1. ↑ İslâm Ansiklopedisi: "It is disputed when the Ottomans conquered this place; various dates have been put forward in this regard, such as 1361, 1362, 1367 and 1369. Among these, the opinion that Edirne was captured in 1361 as a result of a systematic conquest policy by Murad and Lala Şahin, while Orhan Gazi was still alive, gains prominence. However, it has also been stated that the date of conquest may have occurred after 1366 (1369), based on an elegy showing that the city metropolitan Polykarpos was in Edirne in this capacity until 1366."[4]
2. ↑ In Ottoman Turkish, the city was known by various names, among which were Ḳosṭanṭīnīye (قسطنطينيه) (replacing the suffix -polis with the Arabic suffix), Istanbul (استنبول) and Islambol (اسلامبول, lit. full of Islam); see Names of Istanbul). Ḳosṭanṭīnīye became obsolete in Turkish after the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923,[5] and after Turkey's transition to Latin script in 1928,[6] the Turkish government in 1930 requested that foreign embassies and companies use Istanbul, and that name became widely accepted internationally.[7]
3. ↑ Liturgical language, coinage, and scientific literature[8]
4. ↑ Court, diplomacy, poetry, historiographical works, literary works, taught in state schools, and offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some madrasas.[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]
5. ↑ Among Greek-speaking community; spoken by some sultans.
6. ↑ Decrees in the 15th century.[17]
7. ↑ Foreign language among educated people in the post-Tanzimat/late imperial period.[18]
8. ↑ The sultan from 1512 to 1520.
9. ↑ In 1922, the Ottoman Empire came to an end with the abolition of the sultanate, and Abdülmecid, a member of the Ottoman dynasty, was elected caliph by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey to replace the last sultan Mehmed VI and held the title under the Ankara Government (1922–1923) and the Republic (1923–1924).
10. ↑ 1 November 1922 marks the formal ending of the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed VI departed Constantinople on 17 November 1922.
11. ↑ The Treaty of Sèvres (10 August 1920) afforded a small existence to the Ottoman Empire. On 1 November 1922, the Grand National Assembly (GNAT) abolished the sultanate and declared that all the deeds of the Ottoman regime in Constantinople were null and void as of 16 March 1920, the date of the occupation of Constantinople under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. The international recognition of the GNAT and the Government of Ankara was achieved through the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey promulgated the Republic on 29 October 1923.
12. ↑ /ˈɒtəmən/ (listen); Ottoman Turkish: دولت عليه عثمانیه, romanized: Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿOs̱mānīye, lit. 'Sublime Ottoman State'; Turkish: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti; French: Empire ottoman[18]
13. ↑ The Ottoman dynasty also held the title "caliph" from the Ottoman victory over the Mamluk Sultanate in Ridaniya (1517) to the abolition of the Caliphate (1924) by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.
14. ↑ [25][26][lower-alpha 13]
15. ↑ A lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is often cited as a primary motivation for Isabella I of Castile to fund Christopher Columbus's westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia and, more generally, for European seafaring nations to explore alternative trade routes (e.g., K.D. Madan, Life and travels of Vasco Da Gama (1998), 9; I. Stavans, Imagining Columbus: the literary voyage (2001), 5; W.B. Wheeler and S. Becker, Discovering the American Past. A Look at the Evidence: to 1877 (2006), 105). This traditional viewpoint has been attacked as unfounded in an influential article by A.H. Lybyer ("The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade", English Historical Review, 120 (1915), 577–588), who sees the rise of Ottoman power and the beginnings of Portuguese and Spanish explorations as unrelated events. His view has not been universally accepted (cf. K.M. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. 2: The Fifteenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 127) (1978), 335).
16. ↑ Though the revolt was officially initiated on 10 June, bin Ali's sons 'Ali and Faisal had already initiated operations at Medina starting on 5 June.[150]

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### Citations

1. ↑ McDonald, Sean; Moore, Simon (20 October 2015). "Communicating Identity in the Ottoman Empire and Some Implications for Contemporary States". Atlantic Journal of Communication 23 (5): 269–283. doi:10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439. ISSN 1545-6870. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
2. ↑ Shaw, Stanford; Shaw, Ezel (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. I. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-521-29166-8.
3. ↑ Atasoy & Raby 1989, p. 19–20.
4. ↑ Template:TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi
5. ↑ Edhem, Eldem (21 May 2010). "Istanbul". in Gábor, Ágoston. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase. p. 286. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7. "With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, all previous names were abandoned and Istanbul came to designate the entire city."
6. ↑ History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808–1975. Cambridge University Press. 1977b. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511614972. ISBN 9780511614972.
7. ↑
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
* Robinson, Richard D. (1963) (in English). The First Turkish Republic. 2. Harvard University Press. p. 298. ISBN 0674304500.
* Society (4 March 2014). "Mar 28, 1930 CE: Istanbul, not Constantinople" (in en). National Geographic Society. http://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople. )
8. ↑ Ihsanoglu, Ekmeleddin (2024-10-28) (in en). Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire: Western Influence, Local Institutions, and the Transfer of Knowledge. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-040-24461-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=inMhEQAAQBAJ&dq=science+language+in+ottoman+empire&pg=PT63.
9. ↑ Inan, Murat Umut (2019). "Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian Learning in the Ottoman World". in Green, Nile. The Persianate World: The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca. University of California Press. pp. 88–89. "As the Ottoman Turks learned Persian, the language and the culture it carried seeped not only into their court and imperial institutions but also into their vernacular language and culture. The appropriation of Persian, both as a second language and as a language to be steeped together with Turkish, was encouraged notably by the sultans, the ruling class, and leading members of the mystical communities."
10. ↑ Tezcan, Baki (2012). "Ottoman Historical Writing". in Rabasa, José. The Oxford History of Historical Writing. 3: 1400–1800. Oxford University Press. pp. 192–211. "Persian served as a 'minority' prestige language of culture at the largely Turcophone Ottoman court."
11. ↑ Flynn, Thomas O. (2017) (in en). The Western Christian Presence in the Russias and Qājār Persia, c. 1760 – c. 1870. Brill. p. 30. ISBN 978-90-04-31354-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=cOAzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
12. ↑ Fortna, B. (2012). Learning to Read in the Late Ottoman Empire and the Early Turkish Republic. Springer. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-230-30041-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=2Bh_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50. Retrieved 21 October 2022. "Although in the late Ottoman period Persian was taught in the state schools ..."
13. ↑ Spuler, Bertold (2003). Persian Historiography and Geography. Pustaka Nasional. p. 68. ISBN 978-9971-77-488-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA68. Retrieved 21 October 2022. "On the whole, the circumstance in Turkey took a similar course: in Anatolia, the Persian language had played a significant role as the carrier of civilization. [...] where it was at time, to some extent, the language of diplomacy [...] However Persian maintained its position also during the early Ottoman period in the composition of histories and even Sultan Salim I, a bitter enemy of Iran and the Shi'ites, wrote poetry in Persian. Besides some poetical adaptations, the most important historiographical works are: Idris Bidlisi's flowery 'Hasht Bihist', or Seven Paradises, begun in 1502 by the request of Sultan Bayazid II and covering the first eight Ottoman rulers ..."
14. ↑ Fetvacı, Emine (2013). Picturing History at the Ottoman Court. Indiana University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-253-00678-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=f67qIxJrpTMC&pg=PA31. Retrieved 21 October 2022. "Persian literature, and belles-lettres in particular, were part of the curriculum: a Persian dictionary, a manual on prose composition; and Sa'dis 'Gulistan', one of the classics of Persian poetry, were borrowed. All these titles would be appropriate in the religious and cultural education of the newly converted young men."
15. ↑ Yarshater, Ehsan, ed (2012). Persian Historiography: A History of Persian Literature. 10. Bloomsbury. p. 437. ISBN 978-0-85773-657-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=s6SmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT359. Retrieved 21 October 2022. "Persian held a privileged place in Ottoman letters. Persian historical literature was first patronized during the reign of Mehmed II and continued unabated until the end of the 16th century."
16. ↑ Inan, Murat Umut (2019). "Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian learning in the Ottoman World". in Green, Nile. The Persianate World The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca. University of California Press. p. 92 (note 27). "Though Persian, unlike Arabic, was not included in the typical curriculum of an Ottoman madrasa, the language was offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some madrasas. For those Ottoman madrasa curricula featuring Persian, see Cevat İzgi, Osmanlı Medreselerinde İlim, 2 vols. (Istanbul: İz, 1997),1: 167–169."
17. ↑ Ayşe Gül Sertkaya (2002). "Şeyhzade Abdurrezak Bahşı". in György Hazai. Archivum Ottomanicum. 20. pp. 114–115. https://books.google.com/books?id=h11pAAAAMAAJ&q="As+a+result,+we+can". Retrieved 23 October 2022. "As a result, we can claim that Şeyhzade Abdürrezak Bahşı was a scribe lived in the palaces of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and his son Bayezid-i Veli in the 15th century, wrote letters (bitig) and firmans (yarlığ) sent to Eastern Turks by Mehmed II and Bayezid II in both Uighur and Arabic scripts and in East Turkestan (Chagatai) language."
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Strauss, Johann (2010). "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the Kanun-ı Esasi and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages". in Herzog, Christoph. The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy. Würzburg: Orient-Institut Istanbul. pp. 21–51. https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true. Retrieved 15 September 2019. (info page on book at Martin Luther University) // CITED: p. 26 (PDF p. 28): "French had become a sort of semi-official language in the Ottoman Empire in the wake of the Tanzimat reforms. [...] It is true that French was not an ethnic language of the Ottoman Empire. But it was the only Western language which would become increasingly widespread among educated persons in all linguistic communities."
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Lambton, Ann; Lewis, Bernard (1995). The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-521-22310-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C. Retrieved 25 July 2015.
20. ↑ Pamuk, Şevket (2000). A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 30–31. ISBN 0-521-44197-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=Htk3Wn789EQC&pg=PA30. Retrieved 21 October 2022. "The Ottomans began to strike coins in the name of Orhan Bey in 1326. These earliest coins carried inscriptions such as 'the great Sultan, Orhan son of Osman' [...] Ottoman historiography has adopted 1299 as the date for the foundation of the state. 1299 might represent the date at which the Ottomans finally obtained their independence from the Seljuk sultan at Konya. Probably, they were forced at the same time, or very soon thereafter, to accept the overlordship of the Ilkhanids [...] Numismatic evidence thus suggest that independence did not really occur until 1326."
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Taagepera-1997`
22. ↑ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X. http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
23. ↑ Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Scheidel, Walter (2020) (in en). The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience. Oxford University Press. pp. 92–94. ISBN 978-0-19-977311-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=9mkLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92.
24. ↑ Erickson, Edward J. (2003). Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. Greenwood. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-275-97888-4.
25. ↑ P., E. A. (1916). "Review of The Caliph's Last Heritage: A Short History of the Turkish Empire". The Geographical Journal 47 (6): 470–472. doi:10.2307/1779249. ISSN 0016-7398. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
26. ↑ Baykara, Tuncer (2017). "A Study into the Concepts of Turkey and Turkistan which were used for the Ottoman State in XIXth Century". Journal of Atatürk and the History of Turkish Republic 1: 179–190. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/330026. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
27. ↑ Ingrao, Charles, ed (2011-08-12). The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718. Purdue University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt6wq7kw.12. ISBN 978-1-61249-179-0. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq7kw. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
28. ↑ Szabó, János B. (2019). "The Ottoman Conquest in Hungary: Decisive Events (Belgrade 1521, Mohács 1526, Vienna 1529, Buda 1541) and Results" (in en). The Battle for Central Europe. Brill. pp. 263–275. doi:10.1163/9789004396234_013. ISBN 978-90-04-39623-4. https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000013.xml. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
29. ↑ Moačanin, Nenad (2019). "The Ottoman Conquest and Establishment in Croatia and Slavonia" (in en). The Battle for Central Europe. Brill. pp. 277–286. doi:10.1163/9789004396234_014. ISBN 978-90-04-39623-4. https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000014.xml. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
30. ↑
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
31. ↑
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former 'suppressors'. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons"
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, 'only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land ... Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease' (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of 'Muslim migration'."
* Schayegh, Cyrus (2024). "A Late/Post-Imperial Region of Difference: The Ottoman Empire and its Successor Polities in Southeastern Europe, Turkey, and the Arab East, c. 1850s–1940s". Journal of World History 35 (4): 579–622. doi:10.1353/jwh.2024.a943172. "Between 1821 and the 1919–1922 Turko-Greek War, about five and a half million Muslims died of religious-ethnic war-related causes, including disease and hunger during forced migration, in southeastern Europe and the Crimea and Caucasus.".
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher. ... The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries."
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries ..."
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey. ... Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families."
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkans far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans"
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense."
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: "In total, many millions of Turks (or, more precisely, Muslim immigrants, including some from the Caucasus) were involved in this 'repatriation' – sometimes more than once in a lifetime – the last stage of which may have been the immigration of seven hundred thousand Turks from Bulgaria between 1940 and 1990. Most of these immigrants settled in urban north-western Anatolia. Today between a third and a quarter of the Republic's population are descendants of these Muslim immigrants, known as Muhacir or Göçmen"
32. ↑ Ágoston, Gábor (2009). "Introduction". in Ágoston, Gábor. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire.
33. ↑ Imber, Colin (2009). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 3. "By the seventeenth century, literate circles in Istanbul would not call themselves Turks, and often, in phrases such as 'senseless Turks', used the word as a term of abuse."
34. ↑ Kafadar, Cemal (2007). "A Rome of One's Own: Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum". Muqarnas 24.
35. ↑ Soucek, Svat (2015). Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700. Istanbul: The Isis Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-975-428-554-3. "The scholarly community specializing in Ottoman studies has of late virtually banned the use of "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" from acceptable vocabulary, declaring "Ottoman" and its expanded use mandatory and permitting its "Turkish" rival only in linguistic and philological contexts."
36. ↑ A'goston, Ga'bor; Masters, Bruce Alan (2008). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing, NY. p. 444. ISBN 978-0-8160-6259-1. "Osman was simply one among a number Turkoman tribal leaders operating in the Sakarya region."; "Osman I". https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I. Osman I, also called Osman Gazi, (born c. 1258Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".—died 1324 or 1326), ruler of a Turkmen principality in northwestern Anatolia who is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state.
37. ↑ Finkel, Caroline (13 February 2006). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. Basic Books. pp. 2, 7. ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
38. ↑ Kermeli, Eugenia (2009). "Osman I". in Ágoston, Gábor. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7.
39. ↑ Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-5636-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=fAppWuoFv3QC. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
40. ↑ Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State.
41. ↑ Finkel, Caroline (2005). Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00850-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
42. ↑ Lindner, Rudi Paul (2009). "Anatolia, 1300–1451". in Fleet, Kate. The Cambridge History of Turkey. 1, Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
43. ↑ Elsie, Robert (2004). Historical Dictionary of Kosova. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5309-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnbw1wsacSAC&pg=PA95. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
44. ↑ Nicolle, David (1999). Nicopolis 1396: The Last Crusade. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85532-918-8.
45. ↑ Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Alan Masters (2009). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA363. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
46. ↑ Uyar, Mesut; Edward J. Erickson (2009). A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-275-98876-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=JgfNBKHG7S8C&pg=PA29. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
47. ↑ Schmitt, O. J.; Kiprovska, M. (2022). "Ottoman Raiders (Akıncıs) as a Driving Force of Early Ottoman Conquest of the Balkans and the Slavery-Based Economy". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (Brill) 65 (4): 497–582. doi:10.1163/15685209-12341575.
48. ↑ Nükhet Varlik (2015). Plague and Empire in the Early Modern Mediterranean World, The Ottoman Experience, 1347–1600. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139004046. ISBN 978-1-139-00404-6. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plague-and-empire-in-the-early-modern-mediterranean-world/D35B6A9462B1E2849AA2F9A75048DF69. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
49. ↑ Yaron Ayalon (2014). Natural Disasters in the Ottoman Empire, Plague, Famine, and Other Misfortunes. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139680943. ISBN 978-1-139-68094-3. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/natural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire/2F67203808F11027678E583B5CE49C2F. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
50. ↑ "The origin and early spread of the Black Death in Italy: first evidence of plague victims from 14th-century Liguria (northern Italy)". Anthropological Science. 11 October 2016. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/advpub/0/advpub_161011/_pdf.
51. ↑ Quataert, Donald (2005). The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-521-83910-5.
52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Stone, Norman (2005). "Turkey in the Russian Mirror". in Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson. Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-297-84913-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
53. ↑ Hodgkinson 2005, p. 240
54. ↑ Karpat, Kemal H. (1974). The Ottoman state and its place in world history. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-03945-2.
55. ↑ Savory, R. M. (1960). "The Principal Offices of the Ṣafawid State during the Reign of Ismā'īl I (907–930/1501–1524)". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 23 (1): 91–105. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00149006.
56. ↑ Hess, Andrew C. (January 1973). "The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt (1517) and the Beginning of the Sixteenth-Century World War". International Journal of Middle East Studies 4 (1): 55–76. doi:10.1017/S0020743800027276.
57. ↑ "Ottoman Empire". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 6 May 2008. http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3.
58. ↑ Imber, Colin (2002). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-61386-3.
59. ↑ Thompson, Bard (1996). Humanists and Reformers: A History of the Renaissance and Reformation. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 442. ISBN 978-0-8028-6348-5.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Ágoston and Alan Masters, Gábor and Bruce (2009). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing. p. 583. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7.
61. ↑ The Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566, V.J. Parry, A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730, ed. M.A. Cook (Cambridge University Press, 1976), 94.
62. ↑ A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, Vol. II, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010). 516.
63. ↑ Lokman (1588). "Battle of Mohács (1526)". http://warfare.atwebpages.com/Ottoman/Ottoman.htm.
64. ↑ Revival: A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century (1937). Routledge. 2018.
65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Aksan, Virginia (2007). Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged. Pearson Education Ltd.. pp. 130–135. ISBN 978-0-582-30807-7.
66. ↑ Imber, Colin (2002). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-333-61386-3.
67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 Hathaway, Jane (2008). The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800. Pearson Education Ltd.. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-582-41899-8. "historians of the Ottoman Empire have rejected the narrative of decline in favor of one of crisis and adaptation" ; Tezcan, Baki (2010). The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern Period. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-107-41144-9. "Ottomanist historians have produced several works in the last decades, revising the traditional understanding of this period from various angles, some of which were not even considered as topics of historical inquiry in the mid-twentieth century. Thanks to these works, the conventional narrative of Ottoman history – that in the late sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire entered a prolonged period of decline marked by steadily increasing military decay and institutional corruption – has been discarded." ; Woodhead, Christine (2011). "Introduction". in Christine Woodhead. The Ottoman World. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-415-44492-7. "Ottomanist historians have largely jettisoned the notion of a post-1600 'decline'"
68. ↑ Ágoston, Gábor (2009). "Süleyman I". in Masters, Bruce. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire.
69. ↑ Mansel, Philip (1997). Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-026246-9.
70. ↑ Crowley, Roger Empires of the Sea: The siege of Malta, the battle of Lepanto and the contest for the center of the world , Random House, 2008
71. ↑ "The Ottoman 'Discovery' of the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth Century: The Age of Exploration from an Islamic Perspective". https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-ottoman-discovery-of-the-indian-ocean-in-the-sixteenth-century-the-age-of-exploration-from-an-islamic-perspective.
72. ↑ Charles A. Truxillo (2012), Jain Publishing Company, "Crusaders in the Far East: The Moro Wars in the Philippines in the Context of the Ibero-Islamic World War" .
73. ↑ Palabiyik, Hamit (2008). Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age. Ankara.
74. ↑ İsmail Hakkı Göksoy. Ottoman-Aceh Relations According to the Turkish Sources. http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_ismailhakkigoksoy.pdf. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
75. ↑ Review of Pirates of Barbary by Ian W. Toll, The New York Times, 12 December 2010
76. ↑ Deringil, Selim (September 2007). "The Turks and 'Europe': The Argument from History". Middle Eastern Studies 43 (5): 709–723. doi:10.1080/00263200701422600.
77. ↑ "The Historical Galley". 24 November 2021. https://denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr/index.php/en/content/2.
78. ↑ "Liphschitz, N., 2014. The Kadirga galley in Istanbul – The Turkish Sultan's Caique: A dendrohistorical research. In: Environment and Ecology in the Mediterranean Rgion II (eds. R. Efe and M. Ozturk). Cambridge Scholars Pub. Pp.39–48. Cambridge. | Request PDF". https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304623376.
79. ↑ Ágoston, Gábor (2009). "Introduction". in Ágoston, Gábor. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. p. xxxii. ; Faroqhi, Suraiya (1994). "Crisis and Change, 1590–1699". in İnalcık, Halil. An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 553. ISBN 978-0-521-57456-3. "In the past fifty years, scholars have frequently tended to view this decreasing participation of the sultan in political life as evidence for "Ottoman decadence", which supposedly began at some time during the second half of the sixteenth century. But recently, more note has been taken of the fact that the Ottoman Empire was still a formidable military and political power throughout the seventeenth century, and that noticeable though limited economic recovery followed the crisis of the years around 1600; after the crisis of the 1683–1699 war, there followed a longer and more decisive economic upswing. Major evidence of decline was not visible before the second half of the eighteenth century."
80. ↑ Faroqhi, Suraiya (1994). "Crisis and Change, 1590–1699". in İnalcık, Halil. An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57456-3.
81. ↑ Şahin, Kaya (2013). Empire and Power in the Reign of Süleyman: Narrating the Sixteenth-Century Ottoman World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-03442-6.
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83. ↑ Davies, Brian L. (2007). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe: 1500–1700. Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-415-23986-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
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90. ↑ Braudel, Fernand Braudel (1995). The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. II. Berkeley: University of California Press.
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94. ↑ Paoletti, Ciro (2008). A Military History of Italy.
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100. ↑ Watson, William J. (1968). "Ibrahim Muteferrika and Turkish Incunabula". Journal of the American Oriental Society 88 (3): 435–441. doi:10.2307/596868.
101. ↑ Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. 2014. p. 559.
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103. ↑ Berend, Tibor Iván (2003). History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long 19th Century. University of California Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-520-93209-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
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106. ↑ Kateb, Kamel (2001) (in fr). Européens, "indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830–1962): représentations et réalités des populations. INED. ISBN 978-2-7332-0145-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=yEvQZ7bdybgC&pg=PA11.
107. ↑ Guyot, Yves (1885) (in fr). Lettres sur la politique coloniale. C. Reinwald. ISBN 9798862369458. https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2,172,000+algérie&pg=PA41-IA2. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
108. ↑ 108.0 108.1 108.2 108.3 108.4 108.5 108.6 Karsh, Effraim (2006). Islamic Imperialism A History. New Haven: Yale University Press.
109. ↑ "Battle of Konya | Summary" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya.
110. ↑ Fahmy, Khaled (2002) (in en). All The Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, Hisarmy And The Making Of Modern Egypt. American Univ in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-424-696-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha's+Men:+Mehmed+Ali,+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo:+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press,+2002&pg=PR3. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
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112. ↑ Yakup Bektas, "The sultan's messenger: Cultural constructions of ottoman telegraphy, 1847–1880." Technology and Culture 41.4 (2000): 669–696.
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115. ↑ V. Necla Geyikdagi (2011). Foreign Investment in the Ottoman Empire: International Trade and Relations 1854–1914. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-461-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=fGRMOzJZ4aEC&pg=PA32. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
116. ↑ Douglas Arthur Howard (2001). The History of Turkey. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-313-30708-9. https://archive.org/details/historyofturkey00doug. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
117. ↑ Williams, Bryan Glynn (2000). "Hijra and forced migration from nineteenth-century Russia to the Ottoman Empire". Cahiers du Monde Russe 41 (1): 79–108. doi:10.4000/monderusse.39.
118. ↑ Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W. The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, and Future. Routledge. 2008.
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124. ↑ Akmeșe, Handan Nezir. The Birth of Modern Turkey The Ottoman Military and the March to World I. London: I.B Tauris.
125. ↑ Akçam, Taner (2006). A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-7932-6. https://archive.org/details/shamefulactarmen00ak/page/42.
126. ↑ Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire 2:236.
127. ↑ Kemal H Karpat (2004). Studies on Turkish politics and society: selected articles and essays. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-13322-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=cL4Ua6gGyWUC.
128. ↑ Quataert, Donald (1994). "The Age of Reforms, 1812–1914". in İnalcık, Halil. An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 762. ISBN 978-0-521-57456-3.
129. ↑ Shams El-Din, Osama. "A Military History of Modern Egypt from the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War". https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479427.pdf.
130. ↑ Trevor N. Dupuy (1993). The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History. HarperCollins Publishers. pp. 851. ISBN 978-0062700568.
131. ↑ Zürcher, Erik-Jan (January 2003). "Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912–1924". Leiden, Netherlands: Universiteit Leiden. http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf.
132. ↑ Justin McCarthy (1995). Death and exile: the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922. Darwin Press. ISBN 978-0-87850-094-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZntAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
133. ↑ Carmichael, Cathie (2012). Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition. Routledge. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-134-47953-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC. Retrieved 20 June 2015. "During the period from 1821 to 1922 alone, Justin McCarthy estimates that the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims led to the death of several million individuals and the expulsion of a similar number."
134. ↑ Marom, Roy (2024). "Transnational Migrations from Eastern Europe to Ottoman Palestine and the Glocal Origins of the Zionist–Arab Conflict". Middle Eastern Studies 60 (2): 250–270. doi:10.1080/00263206.2023.2183499. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00263206.2023.2183499.
135. ↑ Buturovic, Amila (2010). Islam in the Balkans: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-19-980381-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=Kck_-B7MubIC. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
136. ↑ Reynolds, Michael A. (2011). Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires 1908–1918. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 324. ISBN 978-0521149167.
137. ↑ Erickson, Edward (2013). Ottomans and Armenians: A Study in Counterinsurgency. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 32. ISBN 978-1137362209.
138. ↑ Findley, Carter Vaughn (2010). Turkey, Islam, Nationalism and Modernity: A History, 1789–2007. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-300-15260-9.
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140. ↑ 140.0 140.1 "Armenian Genocide". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide. Retrieved 28 January 2023.
141. ↑ "Fact Sheet: Armenian Genocide". University of Michigan. http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html.
142. ↑ Freedman, Jeri (2009). The Armenian genocide (1st ed.). New York: Rosen Pub. Group. ISBN 978-1-4042-1825-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
143. ↑ Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) Dictionary of Genocide. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
144. ↑ Bijak, Jakub; Lubman, Sarah (2016). "The Disputed Numbers: In Search of the Demographic Basis for Studies of Armenian Population Losses, 1915–1923" (in en). The Armenian Genocide Legacy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-137-56163-3.
145. ↑ Peter Balakian (2009). The Burning Tigris. HarperCollins. p. xvii. ISBN 978-0-06-186017-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
146. ↑ Quataert, Donald (2005). The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition). p. 186. ; Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820.
147. ↑ Walker, Christopher J. (1980). Armenia: The Survival of A Nation. London: Croom Helm. pp. 200–203.
148. ↑ Bryce, Viscount James; Toynbee, Arnold (2000). Sarafian, Ara. ed. The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden (uncensored ed.). Princeton: Gomidas Institute. pp. 635–649. ISBN 978-0-9535191-5-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=H0mfmdThGLAC&pg=PA636.
149. ↑ Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820. http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late Ottoman genocides- the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies(1).pdf. Retrieved 6 June 2013. "The genocidal quality of the murderous campaigns against Greeks and Assyrians is obvious".
150. ↑ Eliezer Tauber, The Arab Movements in World War I, Routledge, 2014 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". p. 80-81
151. ↑ "Sykes-Picot Agreement | Map, History, & Facts" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement.
152. ↑ Hakan Özoğlu (2011). From Caliphate to Secular State: Power Struggle in the Early Turkish Republic. ABC-CLIO. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-313-37957-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
153. ↑ Howard, Douglas A. (2016b). A History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 318. ISBN 978-1-108-10747-1.
154. ↑ Norman Stone, "Turkey in the Russian Mirror", pp. 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 pp. 92–93
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156. ↑ Lowry, Heath W. (2003). The nature of the early Ottoman state. SUNY Press.
157. ↑ Dariusz Kołodziejczyk, "Khan, caliph, tsar and imperator: the multiple identities of the Ottoman sultan" in Peter Fibiger Bang, and Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, eds. Universal Empire: A Comparative Approach to Imperial Culture and Representation in Eurasian History (Cambridge University Press, 2012) pp. 175–193.
158. ↑ Sinan Ed Kuneralp, ed. A Bridge Between Cultures (2006) p. 9.
159. ↑ Ronald C. Jennings, "Some thoughts on the Gazi-thesis." Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 76 (1986): 151–161 online .
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162. ↑ Black, Antony (2001). The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present. Psychology Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-415-93243-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA199. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
163. ↑ Lewis, Bernard (1963). Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-8061-1060-8. https://archive.org/details/istanbulciviliza00bern. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
164. ↑ "The Ottoman Palace School Enderun and the Man with Multiple Talents, Matrakçı Nasuh". Journal of the Korea Society of Mathematical Education, Series D. Research in Mathematical Education 14 (1): 19–31. March 2010. https://tamu.academia.edu/SencerCorlu/Papers/471488/The_Ottoman_Palace_School_Enderun_and_the_Man_with_Multiple_Talents_Matrakci_Nasuh. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
165. ↑ Karpat, Kemal H. (1973). Social Change and Politics in Turkey: A Structural-Historical Analysis. Brill. p. 204. ISBN 978-90-04-03817-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=rlhD9SjavRcC&pg=PA204. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
166. ↑ Baer, M.D. (2021). The Ottomans: Khans, Caesars, and Caliphs. Basic Books. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-5416-7377-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=RSAbEAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 17 January 2025.
167. ↑ Totten, S.; Theriault, H.; von Joeden-Forgey, E. (2017). Controversies in the Field of Genocide Studies. Taylor & Francis. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-351-29499-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmRQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA99. Retrieved 18 January 2025. "Lemkin specifically cited the Ottoman Turkish Empire to illustrate another recurring theme in the history of genocide: "The children can be taken away from a given group for the purpose of educating them within the framework of another human group, racial, national or ethnical" (quoted in Docker, 2008, 12)."
168. ↑ 168.0 168.1 168.2 Black, Antony (2001). The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present. Psychology Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-415-93243-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA197. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
169. ↑ Naim Kapucu; Hamit Palabiyik (2008). Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age. USAK Books. p. 78. ISBN 978-605-4030-01-9. https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
170. ↑ "Islamic Perspective on Divorce". http://www.mwlusa.org/topics/marriage&divorce/divorce.html.
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180. ↑ Murphey, Rhoads (1999). Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700. UCL Press. p. 10.
181. ↑ Ágoston, Gábor (2005). Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 200–02.
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186. ↑ Raymond Detrez; Barbara Segaert (2008). Europe and the historical legacies in the Balkans. Peter Lang. p. 167. ISBN 978-90-5201-374-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=htMUx8qlWCMC&pg=PA167. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
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188. ↑ Maḥmūd Yazbak (1998). Haifa in the Late Ottoman Period 1864–1914: A Muslim Town in Transition. BRILL. p. 28. ISBN 978-90-04-11051-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=DPseCvbPsKsC&pg=PA28. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
189. ↑ Mundy, Martha; Smith, Richard Saumarez (2007). Governing Property, Making the Modern State: Law, Administration and Production in Ottoman Syria. I.B.Tauris. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-84511-291-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=thUKJ53-yyQC&pg=PA50. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
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192. ↑ Darling, Linda (1996). Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy: Tax Collection and Finance Administration in the Ottoman Empire, 1560–1660.. E.J. Brill. pp. 238–239. ISBN 978-90-04-10289-7.
193. ↑ İnalcık, Halil; Quataert, Donald (1971). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. p. 120.
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200. ↑ Chase-Levenson, Alex (2020) (in en). The Yellow Flag: Quarantine and the British Mediterranean World, 1780–1860. Cambridge University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-108-48554-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=zHzUDwAAQBAJ&q=1812++ottoman+plague&pg=PA31. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
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205. ↑ "The Ottoman Constitution, promulgated the seventh Zilbridge, 1293 (11/23 December 1876)". The American Journal of International Law 2 (4): 376. 1908. doi:10.2307/2212668.
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210. ↑ Gunduz, Sinasi Change And Essence: Dialectical Relations Between Change And Continuity in the Turkish Intellectual Traditions Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series IIA, Islam, V. 18, pp. 104–05
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217. ↑ Middle East Institute: "Salafism Infiltrates Turkish Religious Discourse" by Andrew Hammond, 22 July 2015. .
218. ↑ Urban, Mark (4 June 2013). "Why there is more to Syria conflict than sectarianism". BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22770219.
219. ↑ "Sufism in the Ottoman Empire Research Papers". https://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Sufism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire.
220. ↑ C. Tucker, Spencer C. (2019). Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 364–366. ISBN 978-1-4408-5353-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=PkTPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA364. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
221. ↑ S. Swayd, Samy (2009). The Druzes: An Annotated Bibliography. University of Michigan Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-9662932-0-3.
222. ↑ Peri, Oded (1990). "The Muslim waqf and the collection of jizya in late eighteenth-century Jerusalem". In Gilbar, Gad (ed.). Ottoman Palestine, 1800–1914 : Studies in economic and social history. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 287. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. "the jizya was one of the main sources of revenue accruing to the Ottoman state treasury as a whole."
223. ↑ Akçam, Taner (2006). A shameful act: the Armenian genocide and the question of Turkish responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8050-7932-6.
224. ↑ "Greek monastery manuscripts tell new story of Ottoman rule" (in en). NPR. Associated Press. 21 October 2022. https://www.npr.org/2022/10/21/1130424515/greek-monastery-manuscripts-tell-new-story-of-ottoman-rule.
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226. ↑ Krummerich, Sean (1998–1999). "The Divinely-Protected, Well-Flourishing Domain: The Establishment of the Ottoman System in the Balkan Peninsula". The Student Historical Journal (Loyola University New Orleans) 30. http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1998-9/Krummerich.htm. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
227. ↑ "Turkish Toleration". The American Forum for Global Education. http://www.globaled.org/nyworld/materials/ottoman/turkish.html.
228. ↑ Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein (2001). The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism. Oxford University Press. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-0-19-513991-4. https://archive.org/details/islamic_sac_2001_00_4172/page/96. "The millet system in the Muslim world provided the pre-modern paradigm of a religiously pluralistic society by granting each religious community an official status and a substantial measure of self-government."
229. ↑ Philip D. Curtin, The World and the West: The European Challenge and the Overseas Response in the Age of Empire (2002), pp. 173–192.
230. ↑ Fatma Muge Gocek, Rise of the Bourgeoisie, Demise of Empire: Ottoman Westernization and Social Change (1996) pp 138–42
231. ↑ Kemal H. Karpat, "The transformation of the Ottoman State, 1789–1908." International Journal of Middle East Studies 3#3 (1972): 243–281. online
232. ↑ Amit Bein (2011). Ottoman Ulema, Turkish Republic: Agents of Change and Guardians of Tradition. Stanford University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-8047-7311-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=D1xfDfgPJr8C&pg=PA141. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
233. ↑ Peter Mansfield, A History of the Middle East (1991) p. 31.
234. ↑ Oleg Benesch, "Comparing Warrior Traditions: How the Janissaries and Samurai Maintained Their Status and Privileges During Centuries of Peace." Comparative Civilizations Review 55.55 (2006): 6:37–55 Online .
235. ↑ Karen Barkey, and George Gavrilis, "The Ottoman millet system: non-territorial autonomy and its contemporary legacy." Ethnopolitics 15.1 (2016): 24–42.
236. ↑ Youssef M. Choueiri, Arab Nationalism: A History: Nation and State in the Arab World (2001), pp. 56–100.
237. ↑ Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters (2010). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA64. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
238. ↑ Naci Yorulmaz, Arming the Sultan: German Arms Trade and Personal Diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire Before World War I (IB Tauris, 2014).
239. ↑ "HISTORIOGRAPHY xiv. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE". Iranica. https://iranicaonline.org/articles/historiography-xiv. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
240. ↑ Halil Inalcik. "Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire". Michigan State University. http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html.
241. ↑ Erdem, Y. Hakan. Slavery in the Ottoman Empire and its Demise, 1800–1909. London: Macmillan Press, 1996.
242. ↑ "Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml.
243. ↑ Halil İnalcık, "Has-bahçede 'Ayş u Tarab" , İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları (2011)
244. ↑ 244.0 244.1 244.2 Comstock-Skipp, Jaimee (2023). "Turk amongst Tajiks: The Turkic Shāhnāma Translation Located in Tajikistan and Manuscript Production during the Abuʾl-Khayrid Annexation of Khurasan (1588–1598)". in Paskaleva, Elena; van den Berg, Gabrielle. Memory and Commemoration across Central Asia. Brill. p. 54. ISBN 978-90-04-54099-6.
245. ↑ 245.0 245.1 Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the Late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"., 9781317118442. Google Books PT194 -PT195 .
246. ↑ Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"., 9781317118442. Google Books PT195 .
247. ↑ Garnett, Lucy Mary Jane. Turkish Life in Town and Country. G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1904. p. 205.
248. ↑ Kastritsis, Dimitris J. (2007). The sons of Bayezid: empire building and representation in the Ottoman civil war of 1402–1413. The Ottoman empire and its heritage. Leiden; Boston: Brill. pp. 33–37. ISBN 978-90-04-15836-8.
249. ↑ Murat Belge (2005). Osmanlı'da kurumlar ve kültür. İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları. p. 389. ISBN 978-975-8998-03-6.
250. ↑ Mignon, Laurent (2005). Neither Shiraz nor Paris: papers on modern Turkish literature. Istanbul: ISIS. p. 20. ISBN 978-975-428-303-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=AbQZAQAAIAAJ. Retrieved 17 January 2016. "Those words could have been readily adopted by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), the author, who preferred to remain anonymous, of The Story of Akabi (Akabi Hikyayesi), the first novel in Turkish, published with Armenian characters in the same year as Hisarian's novel."
251. ↑ Masters, Bruce; Ágoston, Gábor (2009). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Facts On File. p. 440. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC. Retrieved 20 June 2015. "Written in Turkish using the Armenian alphabet, the Akabi History (1851) by Vartan Pasha is considered by some to be the first Ottoman novel."
252. ↑ Pultar, Gönül (2013). Imagined identities: identity formation in the age of globalism (First ed.). [S.l.]: Syracuse University Press. p. 329. ISBN 978-0-8156-3342-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=KhiQAwAAQBAJ. Retrieved 17 January 2016. "In fact, one of the first Turkish works of fiction in Western-type novel form, Akabi Hikayesi (Akabi's Story), was written in Turkish by Vartan Pasha (born Osep/Hovsep Vartanian/Vartanyan, 1813–1879) and published in Armenian characters in 1851."
253. ↑ Gürçaglar, Şehnaz; Paker, Saliha; Milton, John (2015). Tradition, Tension, and Translation in Turkey. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 5. ISBN 978-90-272-6847-1. "It is interesting that the first Ottoman novel in Turkish, Akabi Hikayesi (1851, Akabi's Story), was written and published in Armenian letters (for Armenian communities who read in Turkish) by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), known as Vartan Paşa, a leading Ottoman man of letters and journalist."
254. ↑ Moran, Berna (1997). Türk Romanına Eleştirel Bir Bakış Vol. 1. İletişim Yayınları. p. 19. ISBN 978-975-470-054-1.
255. ↑ 255.0 255.1 255.2 Baruh, Lorans Tanatar; Sara Yontan Musnik. "Francophone press in the Ottoman Empire". French National Library. https://heritage.bnf.fr/bibliothequesorient/en/francophone-press-ottoman-art.
256. ↑ Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 32 (PDF p. 34)
257. ↑ Kendall, p. 339 .
258. ↑ Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule. Routledge, 7 July 2016. (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".), p. 122 .
259. ↑ Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 25 (PDF p. 27)
260. ↑ "Seljuk architecture", Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture, ed. Cyril M. Harris, (Dover Publications, 1977), 485.
261. ↑ M. Bloom, Jonathan, ed (2009). "Ottoman". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. "Throughout their history the Ottomans remained supporters of art and artists. Under their patronage a distinctive architectural style developed that combined the Islamic traditions of Anatolia, Iran and Syria with those of the Classical world and Byzantium. The result was a rationalist monumentality that favored spatial unity and architectonic expression."
262. ↑ 262.0 262.1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". "The mosques of the classical period are more elaborate than those of earlier times. They derive from a fusion of a native Turkish tradition with certain elements of the plan of Haghia Sophia, the former cathedral of Constantinople, converted into a mosque in 1453 by Mehmet the Conqueror."
263. ↑ Goodwin, Godfrey (1993). Sinan: Ottoman Architecture & its Values Today. London: Saqi Books. ISBN 978-0-86356-172-6.
264. ↑ Gábor Ágoston; Bruce Alan Masters (21 May 2010). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
265. ↑ "Ottoman". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. 2009. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
266. ↑ Carswell, John (2006). Iznik Pottery (Second ed.). British Museum Press. pp. 75. ISBN 978-0-7141-2441-4.
267. ↑ Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair; Sheila S. (2009). "Kemalettin". Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. Oxford University Press. pp. 379. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA379. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
268. ↑ Atil, Esin (1973). "Ottoman Miniature Painting under Sultan Mehmed II". Ars Orientalis 9: 103–120. ISSN 0571-1371. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629273. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
269. ↑ Faroqhi, Suraiya (2005). Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire (New ed.). London: I.B. Tauris. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4.
270. ↑ Faroqhi, Suraiya (2005). Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire (New ed.). London: I.B. Tauris. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4.
271. ↑ "Karagöz and Hacivat, a Turkish shadow play". All About Turkey. 20 November 2006. http://www.allaboutturkey.com/karagoz.htm.
272. ↑ Emin Şenyer. "Karagoz, Traditional Turkish Shadow Theatre". Karagoz.net. http://www.karagoz.net/english/shadowplay.htm.
273. ↑ Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East, London, Prague and New York, p. 52
274. ↑ Ragep, F. J. (2005). "Ali Qushji and Regiomontanus: eccentric transformations and Copernican Revolutions". Journal for the History of Astronomy (Science History Publications Ltd.) 36 (125): 359–371. doi:10.1177/002182860503600401. Bibcode: 2005JHA....36..359R.
275. ↑ Sevim Tekeli (1997). "Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology and medicine in non-western cultures". Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology and medicine in non-western cultures. Kluwer. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9. Bibcode: 2008ehst.book.....S.
276. ↑ El-Rouayheb, Khaled (2015). Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb. Cambridge University Press. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-1-107-04296-4.
277. ↑ Ahmad Y Hassan (1976), Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, p. 34–35, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo
278. ↑ "Artist Feature: Who Was Osman Hamdi Bey?". 27 April 2017. http://www.howtotalkaboutarthistory.com/artist-feature/artist-feature-osman-hamdi-bey.
279. ↑ Bademci, G. (2006). "First illustrations of female Neurosurgeons in the fifteenth century by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu". Neurocirugía 17 (2): 162–165. doi:10.4321/S1130-14732006000200012. PMID 16721484.
280. ↑ "Ottoman Empire". History. 3 November 2017. https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/ottoman-empire. "Additionally, some of the greatest advances in medicine were made by the Ottomans. They invented several surgical instruments that are still used today, such as forceps, catheters, scalpels, pincers and lancets"
281. ↑ 281.0 281.1 Jean Batou (1991). Between Development and Underdevelopment: The Precocious Attempts at Industrialization of the Periphery, 1800–1870. Librairie Droz. pp. 193–196. ISBN 978-2-600-04293-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=HjD4SCOE6IgC&pg=PA193.

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* Atasoy, Nurhan; Raby, Julian (1989). Petsopoulos, Yanni. ed. Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey. Alexandria Press. ISBN 978-0-500-97374-5.
* Biondich, Mark (2011). The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence since 1878. The United States: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199299058.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-929905-8.
* Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995). The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06465-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&pg=PP3. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
* Postcolonial Migrants and Identity Politics: Europe, Russia, Japan and the United States in Comparison. International Studies in Social History. 18. Berghahn Books. 2012. doi:10.1515/9780857453280. ISBN 978-0-85745-328-0.
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* Karpat, K.H. (2001). The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State. Studies in Middle Eastern history. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513618-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=YmZMCAAAQBAJ.
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* The Cambridge History of Turkey. 4: Turkey in the Modern World. Cambridge University Press. 2008. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521620963. ISBN 978-1-139-05421-8.
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* Kaser, Karl (2011). The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History. Berlin Wien: LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-50190-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC.
* Kinross, Lord (1979). The Ottoman Centuries: the Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-688-08093-8. https://archive.org/details/ottomancenturies00kinr/page/n4. popular history espouses old "decline" thesis
* Kuban, Doğan (2010). Ottoman Architecture. Antique Collectors' Club. ISBN 978-1-85149-604-4.
* Pekesen, Berna (7 March 2012). "Expulsion and Emigration of the Muslims from the Balkans". European History Online. Leibniz Institute of European History. http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/forced-ethnic-migration/berna-pekesen-expulsion-and-emigration-of-the-muslims-from-the-balkans. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
* Quataert, Donald (1983). Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire 1881–1908.
* Quataert, Donald; Spivey, Diane M. (2000). Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550–1922. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-4431-3.
* Rogan, Eugene (2011). The Arabs: A History. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-465-03248-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=16U0mEbf4nAC. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
* Rüstem, Ünver (2019). Ottoman Baroque: The Architectural Refashioning of Eighteenth-Century Istanbul. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691181875. https://books.google.com/books?id=O_p0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR1.
* Somel, S.A. (2010). The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire. The A to Z Guide Series. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-1-4617-3176-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=UU8iCY0OZmcC.

## Further reading

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### General surveys

* The Cambridge History of Turkey online
* Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009.
* Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012.
* Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006.
* Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008.
* Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters, eds. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire (2008)
* Faroqhi, Suraiya. The Ottoman Empire: A Short History (2009) 196pp
* Finkel, Caroline (2005). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
* Hathaway, Jane (2008). The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800. Pearson Education Ltd.. ISBN 978-0-582-41899-8.
* Howard, Douglas A. (2017). A History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-72730-3.
* Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
* Koller, Markus (2012), Ottoman History of South-East Europe , EGO – European History Online , Mainz: Institute of European History , retrieved: 25 March 2021 (pdf).
* Imber, Colin (2009). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-57451-9.
* İnalcık, Halil, ed (1994). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57456-3. Two volumes.
* Kia, Mehrdad, ed. The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2017)
* McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923. (1997) The Ottoman Turks : an introductory history to 1923 online
* Mikaberidze, Alexander. Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2011)
* Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
* Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. 2005\. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
* Somel, Selcuk Aksin. Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire (2003). pp. 399 excerpt
* Stavrianos, L. S. The Balkans since 1453 (1968; new preface 1999) online
* Tabak, Faruk. The Waning of the Mediterranean, 1550–1870: A Geohistorical Approach (2008)

### Early Ottomans

* Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. U California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20600-7.
* Lindner, Rudi P. (1983). Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Bloomington: Indiana UP. ISBN 978-0-933070-12-7.
* Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. Albany: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-5636-1.

### Diplomatic and military

* Ágoston, Gábor (2014). "Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800". Journal of World History 25: 85–124. doi:10.1353/jwh.2014.0005.
* Aksan, Virginia (2007). Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged. Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 978-0-582-30807-7.
* Aksan, Virginia H. "Whatever happened to the Janissaries? Mobilization for the 1768–1774 Russo-Ottoman War." War in History 5.1 (1998): 23–36 online.
* Albrecht-Carrié, René. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955 online free to borrow
* Çelik, Nihat. "Muslims, Non-Muslims and Foreign Relations: Ottoman Diplomacy." International Review of Turkish Studies 1.3 (2011): 8–30. online
* Fahmy, Khaled.  All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, His Army and the Making of Modern Egypt (Cambridge University Press. 1997)
* Gürkan, Emrah Safa (2011), Christian Allies of the Ottoman Empire , EHO – European History Online , Mainz: Institute of European History , retrieved: 25 March 2021 (pdf ).
* Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
* Hurewitz, Jacob C. "Ottoman diplomacy and the European state system." Middle East Journal 15.2 (1961): 141–152. online
* Merriman, Roger Bigelow. Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566 (Harvard University Press, 1944) online
* Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
* Minawi, Mustafa. The Ottoman Scramble for Africa Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz (2016) online
* Nicolle, David. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774 (Osprey Publishing, 1983)
* Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1994).
* Rhoads, Murphey (1999). Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-1-85728-389-1.
* Soucek, Svat (2015). Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700. Istanbul: The Isis Press. ISBN 978-975-428-554-3.
* Uyar, Mesut; Erickson, Edward (2009). A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk. Abc-Clio. ISBN 978-0-275-98876-0.

### Specialty studies

* Baram, Uzi and Lynda Carroll, editors. A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire: Breaking New Ground (Plenum/Kluwer Academic Press, 2000)
* Barkey, Karen. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. (2008) Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
* Davison, Roderic H. Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (New York: Gordian Press, 1973)
* Deringil, Selim. The well-protected domains: ideology and the legitimation of power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909 (London: IB Tauris, 1998)
* Findley, Carter V. Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922 (Princeton University Press, 1980)
* Hamed-Troyansky, Vladimir (2024). Empire of Refugees: North Caucasian Muslims and the Late Ottoman State. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-3696-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=c0vpEAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
* McMeekin, Sean. The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power (2010)
* Mikhail, Alan. God's Shadow: Sultan Selim, His Ottoman Empire, and the Making of the Modern World (2020) Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". on Selim I (1470–1529)
* Pamuk, Sevket. A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire (1999). pp. 276
* Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
* Yaycioglu, Ali. Partners of the empire: The crisis of the Ottoman order in the age of revolutions (Stanford University Press, 2016), covers 1760–1820 online review: doi:10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716 Cakir, Burcin (2018). "Ali Yacıoğlu: "Partners of the Empire: The Crisis of the Ottoman Order in the Age of Revolutions" | Middle East – Topics & Arguments". Middle East – Topics & Arguments 10: 109–112. doi:10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716. https://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/ep/0003/2018/192/7716/. Retrieved 1 November 2022. .

### Historiography

* Aksan, Virginia H. "What's Up in Ottoman Studies?" Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 1.1–2 (2014): 3–21. online
* comment by Ehud R. Toledano and reply by Aksan
* Finkel, Caroline. "Ottoman history: whose history is it?." International Journal of Turkish Studies 14.1/2 (2008).
* Gerber, Haim. "Ottoman Historiography: Challenges of the Twenty-First Century." Journal of the American Oriental Society, 138#2 (2018), p. 369+. online
* Hartmann, Daniel Andreas. "Neo-Ottomanism: The Emergence and Utility of a New Narrative on Politics, Religion, Society, and History in Turkey" (PhD Dissertation, Central European University, 2013) online .
* Eissenstat, Howard. "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies" Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 1#1 (2014), pp. 23–35 doi:10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 Eissenstat (2014). "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies". Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 1 (1–2): 23–35. doi:10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
* Kayalı, Hasan (December 2017). "The Ottoman Experience of World War I: Historiographical Problems and Trends" (in en). The Journal of Modern History 89 (4): 875–907. doi:10.1086/694391. ISSN 0022-2801.
* Lieven, Dominic. Empire: The Russian Empire and its rivals (Yale University Press, 2002), comparisons with Russian, British, & Habsburg empires. excerpt
* Mikhail, Alan; Philliou, Christine M. "The Ottoman Empire and the Imperial Turn," Comparative Studies in Society & History (2012) 54#4 pp. 721–745. Comparing the Ottomans to other empires opens new insights about the dynamics of imperial rule, periodisation, and political transformation
* Olson, Robert, "Ottoman Empire" in Kelly Boyd, ed (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2. Taylor & Francis. pp. 892–896. ISBN 978-1-884964-33-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA892. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
* Quataert, Donald. "Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline.'" History Compass 1 (2003): 1–9.

## External links

* Ottoman Text Archive Project
* Ottoman and Turkish Studies Resources – University of Michigan
* Historians of the Ottoman Empire – University of Chicago
* Turkey in Asia, 1920

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*[c.]: circa
*[lit.]: literal translation
*[d.]: <strong class=
*[r]: <strong class=