Extreme weather

Short description: Unusual, severe or unseasonal weather

A tornado is an example of an extreme weather event. Part of the nature series

Weather

Calendar seasons

* Winter
* Spring
* Summer
* Autumn

Tropical seasons

* Dry season
* Harmattan
* Wet season

Storms

* Cloud
* Cumulonimbus cloud
* Arcus cloud
* Downburst
* Microburst
* Heat burst
* Derecho
* Lightning
* Thunderstorm
* Air-mass thunderstorm
* Thundersnow
* Mesocyclone
* Supercell
* Tornado
* Anticyclonic tornado
* Landspout
* Waterspout
* Dust devil
* Fire whirl
* Anticyclone
* Cyclone
* Polar low
* Extratropical cyclone
* European windstorm
* Nor'easter
* Subtropical cyclone
* Tropical cyclone
* Atlantic hurricane
* Typhoon
* Storm surge
* Dust storm
* Simoom
* Haboob
* Monsoon
* Amihan
* Gale
* Sirocco
* Firestorm
* Winter storm
* Ice storm
* Blizzard
* Ground blizzard
* Snowsquall

Precipitation

* Drizzle
* Freezing
* Graupel
* Hail
* Megacryometeor
* Ice pellets
* Diamond dust
* Rain
* Freezing
* Cloudburst
* Snow
* Rain and snow mixed
* Snow grains
* Snow roller
* Slush

Topics

* Air pollution
* Atmosphere

*     * Chemistry
* Convection
* Physics
* River
* Climate
* Cloud
* Physics
* Fog
* Fog season
* Cold wave
* Heat wave
* Jet stream
* Meteorology
* Severe weather
* List
* Extreme

* Weather forecasting
* Weather modification

Glossaries

* Meteorology
* Climate change
* Tornado terms
* Tropical cyclone terms

Extreme weather includes unexpected, unusual, severe, or unseasonal weather; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution—the range that has been seen in the past. Extreme events are based on a location's recorded weather history. The main types of extreme weather include heat waves, cold waves, droughts, and heavy precipitation or storm events, such as tropical cyclones. Extreme weather can have various effects, from natural hazards such as floods and landslides to social costs on human health and the economy. Severe weather is a particular type of extreme weather which poses risks to life and property.

Weather patterns in a given region vary with time, and so extreme weather can be attributed, at least in part, to the natural climate variability that exists on Earth. For example, the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) or the North Atlantic oscillation (NAO) are climate phenomena that impact weather patterns worldwide. Generally speaking, one event in extreme weather cannot be attributed to any one single cause. However, certain system wide changes to global weather systems can lead to increased frequency or intensity of extreme weather events.

Climate change might make some extreme weather events more frequent and more intense.[1]: 1517 This applies in particular to heat waves and cold waves. The extreme event attribution sector looks at possible explanations behind extreme events. Climate models indicate that rising temperatures might make extreme weather events worse worldwide.

Extreme weather has serious impacts on human society and on ecosystems. There is loss of human lives, damage to infrastructure and ecosystem destruction. Some human activities can exacerbate the effects, for example poor urban planning, wetland destruction, and building homes along floodplains.

## Contents

* 1 Definition
* 2 Types
* 2.1 Heat waves
* 2.2 Cold waves
* 2.3 Heavy rain and storms
* 2.3.1 Tropical cyclones
* 2.4 Drought
* 3 Causes and attribution
* 3.1 Attribution research
* 3.2 Natural variability
* 3.3 Climate change
* 3.3.1 Tropical cyclones and climate change
* 3.3.2 Floods
* 3.4 Human activities that exacerbate the effects
* 4 Effects
* 4.1 Economic cost
* 4.2 Casualties
* 4.3 Agriculture
* 5 See also
* 6 Sources
* 7 References
* 8 External links

## Definition

One way of judging which weather events are extreme involves selecting events that exceed a certain threshold of intensity (or frequency, or impact, etc., not shown). This threshold might select events lying above a certain percentile or beyond a certain number of standard deviations above average.[2] In the field of extreme event attribution, climate models then process the climate characteristics underlying the selected events for comparison to models of climates in which man-made climate drivers are excluded.

Extreme weather describes unusual weather events that are at the extremes of the historical distribution for a given area.[3]: 2908 The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines an extreme weather event as follows: "An event that is rare at a particular place and time of year. Definitions of 'rare' vary, but an extreme weather event would normally be as rare as or rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile of a probability density function estimated from observations."[3]: 2908 Aside from being rare, extreme weather can also be determined by the severity, rate or effects of a specific weather episode. In fact, weather can be designated as extreme not only when it is statistically uncommon , but also when it causes substantial disruption to the impacted community or ecosystem.[4]

In contrast, the World Meteorological Organization define severe weather as any aspect of the weather that poses risks to life, property or requires the intervention of authorities.[5] Severe weather is thus a particular type of extreme weather.

## Types

Definitions of extreme weather vary in different parts of the community, changing the outcomes of research from those fields. Types of extreme weather can include, but are not limited to, heavy precipitation, droughts, heat waves, cold waves, tornadoes, and hurricanes.[6][7]

### Heat waves

2003 European heat wave

US heat waves have increased in frequency, average duration, and intensity.[8]

Also, heat wave seasons have grown in length.[8]

Over decades, the average number of days spent in heat waves in the U.S. annually has increased, based on increases in both the average annual number of heat waves and on their average durations.[8]

Main article: Earth:Heat wave

Heat waves are periods of abnormally high temperatures and heat index. Definitions of a heatwave vary because of the variation of temperatures in different geographic locations.[9] Excessive heat is often accompanied by high levels of humidity, but can also be catastrophically dry.[10]

Because heat waves are not visible as other forms of severe weather, like hurricanes, tornadoes, and thunderstorms, they are one of the less known forms of extreme weather.[11] Severely hot weather can damage populations and crops due to potential dehydration or hyperthermia, heat cramps, heat expansion, and heat stroke. Dried soils are more susceptible to erosion, decreasing lands available for agriculture. Outbreaks of wildfires can increase in frequency as dry vegetation has an increased likelihood of igniting. The evaporation of bodies of water can be devastating to marine populations, decreasing the size of the habitats available as well as the amount of nutrition present within the waters. Livestock and other animal populations may decline as well.

During excessive heat, plants shut their leaf pores (stomata), a protective mechanism to conserve water but also curtails plants' absorption capabilities. This leaves more pollution and ozone in the air[citation needed], which leads to higher mortality in the population[citation needed]. It has been estimated that extra pollution during the hot summer of 2006 in the UK, cost 460 lives.[12] The European heat waves from summer 2003 are estimated to have caused 30,000 excess deaths, due to heat stress and air pollution.[13] Over 200 U.S cities have registered new record high temperatures.[14] The worst heat wave in the US occurred in 1936 and killed more than 5000 people directly. The worst heat wave in Australia occurred in 1938–39 and killed 438. The second worst was in 1896.

Power outages can also occur within areas experiencing heat waves due to the increased demand for electricity (i.e. air conditioning use).[15] The urban heat island effect can increase temperatures, particularly overnight.[16]

### Cold waves

Cold wave in continental North America from Dec. 3–10, 2013. Red color means above mean temperature; blue represents below normal temperature.

Main article: Physics:Cold wave

A cold wave is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling of the air. Specifically, as used by the U.S. National Weather Service, a cold wave is a rapid fall in temperature within a 24-hour period requiring substantially increased protection for agriculture, industry, commerce, and social activities. The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by the rate at which the temperature falls, and the minimum to which it falls. This minimum temperature is dependent on the geographical region and time of year.[17] Cold waves generally are capable of occurring at any geological location and are formed by large cool air masses that accumulate over certain regions, caused by movements of air streams.[9]

A cold wave can cause death and injury to livestock and wildlife. Exposure to cold mandates greater caloric intake for all animals, including humans, and if a cold wave is accompanied by heavy and persistent snow, grazing animals may be unable to reach necessary food and water, and die of hypothermia or starvation. Cold waves often necessitate the purchase of fodder for livestock at a considerable cost to farmers.[9] Human populations can be inflicted with frostbite when exposed for extended periods of time to cold and may result in the loss of limbs or damage to internal organs.

Extreme winter cold often causes poorly insulated water pipes to freeze. Even some poorly protected indoor plumbing may rupture as frozen water expands within them, causing property damage. Fires, paradoxically, become more hazardous during extreme cold. Water mains may break and water supplies may become unreliable, making firefighting more difficult.[9]

Cold waves that bring unexpected freezes and frosts during the growing season in mid-latitude zones can kill plants during the early and most vulnerable stages of growth. This results in crop failure as plants are killed before they can be harvested economically. Such cold waves have caused famines. Cold waves can also cause soil particles to harden and freeze, making it harder for plants and vegetation to grow within these areas. One extreme was the so-called Year Without a Summer of 1816, one of several years during the 1810s in which numerous crops failed during freakish summer cold snaps after volcanic eruptions reduced incoming sunlight.

In some cases more frequent extremely cold winter weather – i.e. across parts of Asia and North America including the February 2021 North American cold wave – can be a result of climate change such as due to changes in the Arctic.[18][19] However, conclusions that link climate change to cold waves are considered to still be controversial.[20] [additional citation(s) needed] The JRC PESETA IV project concluded in 2020 that overall climate change will result in a decline in the intensity and frequency of extreme cold spells, with milder winters reducing fatalities from extreme cold,[21][additional citation(s) needed] even if individual cold extreme weather may sometimes be caused by changes due to climate change and possibly even become more frequent in some regions. According to a 2023 study, "weak extreme cold events (ECEs) significantly decrease in frequency, projection area and total area over the north hemisphere with global warming. However, the frequency, projection area and total area of strong ECEs show no significant trend, whereas they are increasing in Siberia and Canada."[22]

### Heavy rain and storms

The amount of water vapor in Earth's atmosphere has risen over recent decades[23] with global warming, making heavy rainfall events more severe.[24]

#### Tropical cyclones

Template:Tropical cyclone terms world map.svg

This section is an excerpt from tropical cyclone[ edit ]

### Drought

A shift in rainfall patterns can lead to greater amounts of precipitation in one area while another experiences much hotter, drier conditions, which can lead to drought.[25] This is because an increase in temperatures also lead to an increase in evaporation at the surface of the earth, so more precipitation does not necessarily mean universally wetter conditions or a worldwide increase in drinking water.[26]

## Causes and attribution

### Attribution research

Generally speaking, one event in extreme weather cannot be attributed to any one cause. However, certain system wide changes to global weather systems can lead to increased frequency or intensity of extreme weather events.[7]

Early research in extreme weather focused on statements about predicting certain events. Contemporary research focuses more on the attribution of causes to trends in events.[7] In particular the field is focusing on climate change alongside other causal factors for these events.[7]

A 2016 report from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, recommended investing in improved shared practices across the field working on attribution research, improving the connection between research outcomes and weather forecasting.[27]

As more research is done in this area, scientists have begun to investigate the connection between climate change and extreme weather events and what future impacts may arise. Much of this work is done through climate modeling. Climate models provide important predictions about the future characteristics of the atmosphere, oceans, and Earth using data collected in the modern day.[28] However, while climate models are vital for studying more complex processes such as climate change or ocean acidification, they are still only approximations.[28] Moreover, weather events are complex and cannot be tied to a singular cause—there are often many atmospheric variables such as temperature, pressure, or moisture to note on top of any influences from climate change or natural variability.[28]

### Natural variability

Aspects of our climate system have a certain level of natural variability, and extreme weather events can occur for several reasons beyond human impact, including changes in pressure or the movement of air. Areas along the coast or located in tropical regions are more likely to experience storms with heavy precipitation than temperate regions, although such events can occur.

The atmosphere is a complex and dynamic system, influenced by several factors such as the natural tilt and orbit of the Earth, the absorption or reflection of solar radiation, the movement of air masses, and the water cycle. Due to this, weather patterns can experience some variation, and so extreme weather can be attributed, at least in part, to the natural climate variability that exists on Earth.

Climatic phenomena such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) or the North Atlantic oscillation (NAO) impact weather patterns in specific regions of the world, influencing temperature and precipitation.[29] The record-breaking extreme weather events that have been catalogued throughout the past two hundred years most likely arise when climate patterns like ENSO or NAO work "in the same direction as human‐induced warming."[29]

### Climate change

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (2021) projects progressively large increases in both the frequency (horizontal bars) and intensity (vertical bars) of extreme weather events, for increasing degrees of global warming—including more than a 5 °C increase in extreme heat events for a 4 °C global average temperature increase.[30]

Climate Central's review of climate attribution studies covered almost 750 extreme weather events and trends, of various event types.[31] The review found that climate change made almost all studied event types substantially more likely or more severe—with cold/snow/ice events being the exception.[31]

Analyzing >250 US cities, all but two experienced fewer freezing days in 2025 than in 1956. In 2025, on average, freezing days began 11 days later and ended 26 days earlier.[32]

Some studies assert a connection between rapidly warming arctic temperatures and thus a vanishing cryosphere to extreme weather in mid-latitudes.[33][34][35][36] In a study published in Nature in 2019, scientists used several simulations to determine that the melting of ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica could affect overall sea level and sea temperature.[37] Other models have shown that modern temperature rise and the subsequent addition of meltwater to the ocean could lead to a disruption of the thermohaline circulation, which is responsible for the movement of seawater and distribution of heat around the globe.[38] A collapse of this circulation in the northern hemisphere could lead to an increase in extreme temperatures in Europe, as well as more frequent storms by throwing off natural climate variability and conditions.[38] Thus, as increasing temperatures cause glaciers to melt, mid-latitudes could experience shifts in weather patterns or temperatures.[38]

There were around 6,681 climate-related events reported during 2000–2019, compared to 3,656 climate-related events reported during 1980–1999.[39] In this report, a 'climate-related event' refers to floods, storms, droughts, landslides, extreme temperatures (like heat waves or freezes), and wildfires; it excludes geophysical events such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, or mass movements.[39] While there is evidence that a changing global climate, such as an increase in temperature, has impacted the frequency of extreme weather events, the most significant effects are likely to arise in the future. This is where climate models are useful, for they can provide simulations of how the atmosphere may behave over time and what steps need to be taken in the present day to mitigate any negative changes.[28]

The increasing probability of record week-long heat extremes occurrence depends on warming rate, rather than global warming level.[40][41]

#### Tropical cyclones and climate change

Worldwide, the average annual number of Category 5 storms has doubled since 1982.[42]

Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes have become much more common in recent decades.[43]

The number of $1 billion Atlantic hurricanes almost doubled since the 1980s, and costs have increased >elevenfold.[44] Increases are attributed to climate change and to people moving to coastal areas.[44]

In 2020, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the U.S. government predicted that, over the 21st Century, the frequency of tropical storms and Atlantic hurricanes would decline by 25 percent while their maximum intensity would rise by 5 percent.[45]

This section is an excerpt from Tropical cyclones and climate change[ edit ]

#### Floods

A California reservoir in 2015 with low water levels due to drought conditions. From 2011 to 2017, California experienced one of its driest periods in recorded history.[46]

Climate change has led to an increase in the frequency and/or intensity of certain types of extreme weather.[47] Storms such as hurricanes or tropical cyclones may experience greater rainfall, causing major flooding events or landslides by saturating soil. This is because warmer air is able to 'hold' more moisture due to the water molecules having increased kinetic energy, and precipitation occurs at a greater rate because more molecules have the critical speed needed to fall as rain drops.[26]

### Human activities that exacerbate the effects

There are plenty of anthropogenic activities that can exacerbate the effects of extreme weather events. Urban planning often amplifies urban flooding impacts, especially in areas that are at increased risk of storms due to their location and climate variability. First, increasing the amount of impervious surfaces, such as sidewalks, roads, and roofs, means that less of the water from incoming storms is absorbed by the land.[48] The destruction of wetlands, which act as a natural reservoir by absorbing water, can intensify the impact of floods and extreme precipitation.[49] This can happen both inland and at the coast. However, wetland destruction along the coast can mean decreasing an area's natural 'cushion,' thus allowing storm surges and flood waters to reach farther inland during hurricanes or cyclones.[50] Building homes below sea level or along a floodplain puts residents at increased risk of destruction or injury in an extreme precipitation event.

More urban areas can also contribute to the rise of extreme or unusual weather events. Tall structures can alter the way that wind moves throughout an urban area, pushing warmer air upwards and inducing convection, creating thunderstorms.[48] With these thunderstorms comes increased precipitation, which, because of the large amounts of impervious surfaces in cities, can have devastating impacts.[48] Impervious surfaces also absorb energy from the sun and warm the atmosphere, causing drastic increases in temperatures in urban areas. This, along with pollution and heat released from cars and other anthropogenic sources, contributes to urban heat islands.[51]

## Effects

In recent decades, new high temperature records have substantially outpaced new low temperature records on a growing portion of Earth's surface.[52]

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (2021) projects progressively large increases in both the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, for increasing degrees of global warming.[53]

Extreme weather can also have serious consequences for public health. Heat waves, floods, cyclones and wildfires can all result in an increased number of cases of illness and death as well as mental health effects. Such disasters can also increase the demand on hospitals, emergency responders and public health agencies in response and recovery efforts.[54]

Extreme weather can also have an impact on ecosystems. Temperature extremes and precipitation extremes may affect the survival of species, the condition of their habitats and ecological processes. These effects may matter outside the natural environment because ecosystems can support agriculture, regulate water flows and help shield humans against certain types of hazards.[55]

### Economic cost

In the face of record breaking extreme weather events, climate change adaptation efforts fall short while economists are confronted with inflation, the cost-of-living crisis, and economic uncertainty.[56] In 2011 the IPCC estimated, that annual losses have ranged since 1980 from a few billion to above US$200 billion, with the highest economic losses occurring in 2005, the year of Hurricane Katrina.[57][58] The global weather-related disaster losses, such as loss of human lives, cultural heritage, and ecosystem services, are difficult to value and monetize, and thus they are poorly reflected in estimates of losses.[59][60] A 2023 study estimated that, the costs of extreme weather caused by climate change totaled about US$2.86 trillion between the years 2000 - 2019; this equates to approximately US$143 billion in losses each year.[61]

The World Economic Forum Global Risks Perception Survey 2023–2024 (GRPS) found that 66 percent of respondents selected extreme weather as top risk. The survey was conducted after the 2023 heat waves. According to the GRPS results, the perception of necessary short and long-term risk management varies. Younger respondents prioritize environmental risks, including extreme weather, in the short-term. Respondents working in the private sector prioritize environmental risks as long-term.[62]

### Casualties

The death toll from natural disasters has declined over 90 percent since the 1920s, according to the International Disaster Database, even as the total human population on Earth quadrupled, and temperatures rose 1.3 °C. In the 1920s, 5.4 million people died from natural disasters while in the 2010s, just 400,000 did.[63]

The most dramatic and rapid declines in deaths from extreme weather events have taken place in south Asia. Where a tropical cyclone in 1991 in Bangladesh killed 135,000 people, and a 1970 cyclone killed 300,000, the similarly-sized Cyclone Ampham, which struck India and Bangladesh in 2020, killed just 120 people in total.[64][65]

On July 23, 2020, Munich Re announced that the 2,900 total global deaths from natural disasters for the first half of 2020 were a record-low, and "much lower than the average figures for both the last 30 years and the last 10 years."[66]

A 2021 study found that 9.4% of global deaths between 2000 and 2019, ~5 million annually, can be attributed to extreme temperatures, with cold-related deaths making up 8.5% and decreasing, and heat-related deaths making up 0.9% and increasing.[67][68]

A 2023 study published in The Lancet Planetary Health estimates that extreme cold events contributed to over 130,000 excess deaths annually and extreme heat events contributed to over 13,000 excess deaths annually in European urban areas between 2000 and 2019.[69]

### Agriculture

Extreme weather events destroy crops through multiple mechanisms, including physical damage from hail, wind and flooding, as well as physiological stress from temperature extremes and moisture deficits. One global study of cereal production between 1964 and 2007 found that a drought and extreme heat lowered national cereal production by 10%. The study also found that a drought impacted both the harvested area yields while extreme head by itself only reduced yield.[70] These primary impacts often trigger secondary effects such as increased pest and disease pressure in weakened plants, creating cascading consequences that extend beyond the initial damage. For instance, increased humidity resulting from flooding can create favorable conditions for fungal pathogens, while stressed plants may exhibit compromised immune responses. Livestock systems experience similar multifaceted impacts, including direct mortality from extreme weather, heat stress.[71]

## See also

* Heat burst
* Lists of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
* List of weather records
* Downburst
* Rogue wave
* Severe weather
* List of severe weather phenomena
* Extreme weather events of 535–536
* Year Without a Summer
* Extreme event attribution

## Sources

This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0 License statement: The Impact of Disasters on Agriculture and Food Security 2025, The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. To learn how to add open license text to HandWiki articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from HandWiki, please see the terms of use.

## References

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23. ↑ "Global Climate Highlights 2024". Copernicus Programme. 10 January 2025. https://climate.copernicus.eu/global-climate-highlights-2024. "Figure 11. Annual anomalies in the average amount of total column water vapour over the 60°S–60°N domain relative to the average for the 1992–2020 reference period. The anomalies are expressed as a percentage of the 1992–2020 average. Data: ERA5. Credit: C3S/ECMWF."
24. ↑ Hawkins, Ed (17 January 2025). "My new dark red climate stripe for 2024 shows it's the hottest year yet". Climate Lab Book. https://climatelabbook.substack.com/p/my-new-dark-red-climate-stripe-for.
25. ↑ US EPA, OAR (2016-06-27). "Climate Change Indicators: Drought" (in en). https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-drought.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 US EPA, OAR (2016-06-27). "Climate Change Indicators: U.S. and Global Precipitation" (in en). https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-us-and-global-precipitation.
27. ↑ ﻿Attribution of Extreme Weather Events in the Context of Climate Change﻿ (Report). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. 2016. pp. 127–136. doi:10.17226/21852. ISBN 978-0-309-38094-2. https://www.nap.edu/read/21852/chapter/7. Retrieved 2020-02-22.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Oreskes, Naomi (2018-02-19), "Why Believe a Computer? Models, Measures, and Meaning in the Natural World", The Earth Around Us (Routledge): pp. 70–82, doi:10.4324/9780429496653-8, ISBN 978-0-429-49665-3
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Trenberth, Kevin E. (November 2011). "Attribution of climate variations and trends to human influences and natural variability: Attribution of the human influence" (in en). Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 2 (6): 925–930. doi:10.1002/wcc.142.
30. ↑ "Climate Change 2021 / The Physical Science Basis / Working Group I contribution to the WGI Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change / Summary for Policymakers". 9 August 2021. Fig. SPM.6 (p. 18), 23. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 McSweeney, Robert; Tandon, Ayesha (18 November 2024). "Mapped: How climate change affects extreme weather around the world". Climate Central. https://interactive.carbonbrief.org/attribution-studies/index.html.
32. ↑ Data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) as presented by Calderon, Ignacio; Padilla, Ramon; Bravo, Veronica; Loehrke, Janet (22 April 2026). "Winter is shorter. See why it matters". USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/graphics/interactives/how-climate-change-is-impacting-winters/.
33. ↑ Francis, Jennifer A.; Vavrus, Stephen J. (2012). "Evidence linking Arctic amplification to extreme weather in mid-latitudes". Geophysical Research Letters 39 (6): L06801. doi:10.1029/2012GL051000. Bibcode: 2012GeoRL..39.6801F.
34. ↑ Vladimir Petoukhov; Vladimir A. Semenov (November 2010). "A link between reduced Barents-Kara sea ice and cold winter extremes over northern continents". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 115 (21): D21111. doi:10.1029/2009JD013568. Bibcode: 2010JGRD..11521111P. http://oceanrep.geomar.de/8738/1/2009JD013568-pip.pdf. Retrieved 2019-09-24.
35. ↑ J A Screen (November 2013). "Influence of Arctic sea ice on European summer precipitation". Environmental Research Letters 8 (4). doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/4/044015. Bibcode: 2013ERL.....8d4015S.
36. ↑ Qiuhong Tang; Xuejun Zhang; Jennifer A. Francis (December 2013). "Extreme summer weather in northern mid-latitudes linked to a vanishing cryosphere". Nature Climate Change 4 (1): 45–50. doi:10.1038/nclimate2065. Bibcode: 2014NatCC...4...45T.
37. ↑ Golledge, Nicholas R.; Keller, Elizabeth D.; Gomez, Natalya; Naughten, Kaitlin A.; Bernales, Jorge; Trusel, Luke D.; Edwards, Tamsin L. (February 2019). "Global environmental consequences of twenty-first-century ice-sheet melt" (in en). Nature 566 (7742): 65–72. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-0889-9. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 30728520. Bibcode: 2019Natur.566...65G. http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-0889-9. Retrieved 2021-05-05.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Caesar, L.; McCarthy, G. D.; Thornalley, D. J. R.; Cahill, N.; Rahmstorf, S. (March 2021). "Current Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation weakest in last millennium" (in en). Nature Geoscience 14 (3): 118–120. doi:10.1038/s41561-021-00699-z. ISSN 1752-0894. Bibcode: 2021NatGe..14..118C. http://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-021-00699-z. Retrieved 2021-05-05.
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Human Cost of Disasters. United Nations. 2020. doi:10.18356/79b92774-en. ISBN 978-92-1-005447-8.
40. ↑ "Extreme heat waves in a warming world don't just break records – they shatter them" (in en-us). PBS NewsHour. 28 July 2021. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/extreme-heat-waves-in-a-warming-world-dont-just-break-records-they-shatter-them.
41. ↑ Fischer, E. M.; Sippel, S.; Knutti, R. (August 2021). "Increasing probability of record-shattering climate extremes" (in en). Nature Climate Change 11 (8): 689–695. doi:10.1038/s41558-021-01092-9. ISSN 1758-6798. PMID 39650282. Bibcode: 2021NatCC..11..689F.
42. ↑ Masters, Jeff (23 February 2026). "Tropical Cyclone Horacio: Earth's first Category 5 tropical cyclone of 2026". Yale Climate Connections. https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2026/02/tropical-cyclone-horacio-earths-first-category-5-tropical-cyclone-of-2026/. "Ratings are from NHC and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center."
43. ↑ Pulver, Dinah Voyles (2 November 2025). "Hurricane Melissa left meteorologists stunned and worried". USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2025/11/02/hurricane-melissa-climate-change-questions/86972221007/. "Source: National Hurricane Center and historical analysis by NOAA's Hurricane Research Division"
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Philbrick, Ian Pasad; Wu, Ashley (2 December 2022). "Population Growth Is Making Hurricanes More Expensive". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/02/briefing/why-hurricanes-cost-more.html. Newspaper states data source: NOAA.
45. ↑ Knutson, Tom. "Global Warming and Hurricanes" (in en-US). https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/global-warming-and-hurricanes/.
46. ↑ "California Is No Stranger to Dry Conditions, but the Drought from 2011-2017 Was Exceptional | Drought.gov" (in en). https://www.drought.gov/california-no-stranger-dry-conditions-drought-2011-2017-was-exceptional.
47. ↑ Seneviratne, Sonia I.; Zhang, Xuebin; Adnan, M.; Badi, W. et al. (2021). "Chapter 11: Weather and climate extreme events in a changing climate". IPCC AR6 WG1 2021. p. 1517. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter_11.pdf. Retrieved 2022-05-13. in IPCC (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A. et al.. eds. Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press (In Press). https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Full_Report.pdf. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 Douglas, Ian; Goode, David; Houck, Michael C. et al., eds (2010). The Routledge Handbook of Urban Ecology. doi:10.4324/9780203839263. ISBN 978-1-136-88341-5.
49. ↑ Rome, Adam (2001). The Bulldozer in the Countryside. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816703. ISBN 978-0-521-80490-5.
50. ↑ "Louisiana Resiliency Assistance Program" (in en-US). https://resiliency.lsu.edu/.
51. ↑ Kleerekoper, Laura; van Esch, Marjolein; Salcedo, Tadeo Baldiri (July 2012). "How to make a city climate-proof, addressing the urban heat island effect" (in en). Resources, Conservation and Recycling 64: 30–38. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.06.004. Bibcode: 2012RCR....64...30K. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921344911001303. Retrieved 2021-05-05.
52. ↑ "Mean Monthly Temperature Records Across the Globe / Timeseries of Global Land and Ocean Areas at Record Levels for July from 1951-2023". National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). August 2023. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/global/202307/supplemental/page-3. (change "202307" in URL to see years other than 2023, and months other than 07=July)
53. ↑ "Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis: Summary for Policymakers". 9 August 2021. p. SPM-23. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf.
54. ↑ Ebi, Kristie L.; Vanos, Jennifer; Baldwin, Jane W.; Bell, Jesse E.; Hondula, David M.; Errett, Nicole A.; Hayes, Katie; Reid, Colleen E. et al. (2021-04-01). "Extreme Weather and Climate Change: Population Health and Health System Implications" (in en). Annual Review of Public Health 42: 293–315. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-012420-105026. ISSN 0163-7525. PMID 33406378.
55. ↑ Ummenhofer, Caroline C.; Meehl, Gerald A. (2017-06-19). "Extreme weather and climate events with ecological relevance: a review" (in en). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 372 (1723). doi:10.1098/rstb.2016.0135. ISSN 0962-8436. PMID 28483866. Bibcode: 2017PTRSB.37260135U.
56. ↑ The Global Risks Report 2024 19th edition. World Economic Forum. January 2024. p. 4. ISBN 978-2-940631-64-3. https://www.marsh.com/content/dam/marsh/Documents/PDF/marsh-tp/World_Economic_Forum_Global_Risks_Report_2024.pdf.
57. ↑ "Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters: Summary Stats". http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/summary-stats.
58. ↑ "Extreme Weather and Climate Change". 2019-08-14. https://www.c2es.org/content/extreme-weather-and-climate-change/.
59. ↑ Smith A.B.; R. Katz (2013). "U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters: Data sources, Trends, Accuracy, and Biases". Natural Hazards 67 (2): 387–410. doi:10.1007/s11069-013-0566-5. Bibcode: 2013NatHa..67..387S. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/docs/smith-and-katz-2013.pdf. Retrieved 2015-03-23.
60. ↑ "IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change". https://www.ipcc.ch/.
61. ↑ Newman, Rebecca; Noy, Ilan (2023-09-29). "The global costs of extreme weather that are attributable to climate change" (in en). Nature Communications 14 (1): 6103. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-41888-1. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 37775690. Bibcode: 2023NatCo..14.6103N.
62. ↑ The Global Risks Report 2024 19th edition. World Economic Forum. January 2024. pp. 13 & 38. ISBN 978-2-940631-64-3. https://www.marsh.com/content/dam/marsh/Documents/PDF/marsh-tp/World_Economic_Forum_Global_Risks_Report_2024.pdf.
63. ↑ "The international disasters database". https://www.emdat.be/.
64. ↑ "The Deadliest Tropical Cyclone on Record Killed 300,000 People" (in en-US). https://weather.com/storms/hurricane/news/2019-05-01-deadliest-tropical-cyclone-bhola-cyclone-bay-of-bengal-bangladesh.
65. ↑ "Amphan's Toll: More Than 100 Killed, billions in Damage, Hundreds of Thousands Homeless" (in en). https://www.wunderground.com/cat6/amphans-toll-more-than-100-killed-billions-in-damage-hundreds-of-thousands-homeless.
66. ↑ "Very high losses from thunderstorms – The natural disaster figures for the first half of 2020" (in en). https://www.munichre.com/en/company/media-relations/media-information-and-corporate-news/media-information/2020/natural-disaster-figures-first-half-2020.html.
67. ↑ "Extreme temperatures kill 5 million people a year with heat-related deaths rising, study finds" (in en). The Guardian. 7 July 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/08/extreme-temperatures-kill-5-million-people-a-year-with-heat-related-deaths-rising-study-finds.
68. ↑ Zhao, Qi et al. (1 July 2021). "Global, regional, and national burden of mortality associated with non-optimal ambient temperatures from 2000 to 2019: a three-stage modelling study" (in English). The Lancet Planetary Health 5 (7): e415–e425. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00081-4. ISSN 2542-5196. PMID 34245712. Bibcode: 2021LanPH...5.e415Z.
69. ↑ Masselot, Pierre; Mistry, Malcolm; Vanoli, Jacopo; Schneider, Rochelle; Iungman, Tamara; Garcia-Leon, David; Ciscar, Juan-Carlos; Feyen, Luc et al. (2023-04-01). "Excess mortality attributed to heat and cold: a health impact assessment study in 854 cities in Europe" (in English). The Lancet Planetary Health 7 (4): e271–e281. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(23)00023-2. ISSN 2542-5196. PMID 36934727. Bibcode: 2023LanPH...7.e271M. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2542519623000232.
70. ↑ Lesk, Corey; Rowhani, Pedram; Ramankutty, Navin (January 2016). "Influence of extreme weather disasters on global crop production" (in en). Nature 529 (7584): 84–87. doi:10.1038/nature16467. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 26738594. Bibcode: 2016Natur.529...84L. https://www.nature.com/articles/nature16467.
71. ↑ FAO (2025) (in English). The Impact of Disasters on Agriculture and Food Security 2025. FAO. doi:10.4060/cd7185en. ISBN 978-92-5-140180-4. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd7185en.

## External links

* Statistics of Weather and Climate Extremes The University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR)
* Research forecasts increased chances for stormy weather , Purdue University study
* Severe world weather overview

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