Glossary of civil engineering

Short description: List of definitions of terms and concepts related to civil engineering

This glossary of civil engineering terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts pertaining specifically to civil engineering, its sub-disciplines, and related fields. For a more general overview of concepts within engineering as a whole, see Glossary of engineering.

Contents:

* A
* B
* C
* D
* E
* F
* G
* H
* I
* J
* K
* L
* M
* N
* O
* P
* Q
* R
* S
* T
* U
* V
* W
* X
* Y
* Z
* See also
* References

## A

Abney level
An instrument used in surveying which consists of a fixed sighting tube, a movable spirit level that is connected to a pointing arm, and a protractor scale. An internal mirror allows the user to see the bubble in the level while sighting a distant target. It can be used as a hand-held instrument or mounted on a Jacob's staff for more precise measurement.[1][2]
Abrams' law

Also Abrams' water-cement ratio law.[3]

A law which states that the strength of a concrete mix is inversely related to the mass ratio of water to cement.[3][4][5][6] As the water content increases, the strength of the concrete decreases.
abrasion
The process of scuffing, scratching, wearing down, marring, or rubbing away a substance or substrate. It can be intentionally imposed in a controlled process using an abrasive. Abrasion may also be an undesirable effect of exposure to normal use or exposure to the elements.
abrasion resistance

absolute electrode potential
In electrochemistry, according to an IUPAC definition,[7] is the electrode potential of a metal measured with respect to a universal reference system (without any additional metal–solution interface).
absolute pressure
The pressure of a system that is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so that it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
absolute zero
The theoretical lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum values, taken as 0. Absolute zero is the point at which the fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units),[8][9] which equals −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units).[10] The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.
absorbance

Also decadic absorbance.

In chemistry, the common logarithm of the ratio of incident to transmitted radiant power through a material. Spectral absorbance or spectral decadic absorbance is the common logarithm of the ratio of incident to transmitted spectral radiant power through a material.[11] Absorbance is a dimensionless quantity, and in particular is not a length, though it is a monotonically increasing function of path length, and approaches zero as the path length approaches zero.
abutment
The substructure at either end of a bridge span or dam whereon the structure's superstructure rests or contacts.[12]
AC power
A type of electric power in alternating current circuits, wherein energy storage elements such as inductors and capacitors may result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow. Contrast DC power.
acceleration
In physics, the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time. An object's acceleration is the net result of any and all forces acting on the object, as described by Newton's second law.[13] The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (m s−2). Accelerations are vector quantities (they have magnitude and direction) and add according to the parallelogram law.[14][15] As a vector, the calculated net force is equal to the product of the object's mass (a scalar quantity) and its acceleration.
acid
A molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H+), or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid).[16]
acid-base reaction
A chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base, which can be used to determine pH. Several theoretical frameworks provide alternative conceptions of the reaction mechanisms and their application in solving related problems; these are called the acid–base theories, for example, Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory.
acid strength
The tendency of an acid, symbolised by the chemical formula HA, to dissociate into a proton, H+, and an anion, A−.
acoustic board
A special kind of board made of sound-absorbing materials, designed to provide sound insulation.[17][18] Between two outer walls sound-absorbing material is inserted and the wall is porous. Thus, when sound passes through an acoustic board, the intensity of the sound is decreased. The loss of sound energy is typically balanced by the production of heat energy.
acoustics
The branch of physics that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound.
activated sludge
A type of wastewater treatment process for treating sewage or industrial wastewaters using aeration and a biological floc composed of bacteria and protozoa.
activated sludge model
A generic name for a group of mathematical methods to model activated sludge systems. The research in this area is coordinated by a task group of the International Water Association (IWA). Activated sludge models are used in scientific research to study biological processes in hypothetical systems. They can also be applied on full scale wastewater treatment plants for optimisation, when carefully calibrated with reference data for sludge production and nutrients in the effluent.
active transport
In cellular biology, the movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration—against the concentration gradient. Active transport requires cellular energy to achieve this movement. There are two types of active transport: primary active transport that uses ATP, and secondary active transport that uses an electrochemical gradient.
actuator
A mechanism by which a control system acts upon an environment. The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any other input.[19]
acute angle
An angle that is smaller than a right angle, i.e. less than 90 degrees. See also obtuse angle.
adhesion
The tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another (cohesion refers to the tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to cling to one another). The forces that cause adhesion and cohesion can be divided into several types. The intermolecular forces responsible for the function of various kinds of stickers and sticky tape fall into the categories of chemical adhesion, dispersive adhesion, and diffusive adhesion. In addition to the cumulative magnitudes of these intermolecular forces, there are also certain emergent mechanical effects.
adiabatic process
In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process is one that occurs without transfer of heat or mass of substances between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings. In an adiabatic process, energy is transferred to the surroundings only as work.[20][21] The adiabatic process provides a rigorous conceptual basis for the theory used to expound the first law of thermodynamics, and as such it is a key concept in thermodynamics.
aerobic digestion
A process in sewage treatment designed to reduce the volume of sewage sludge and make it suitable[22] for subsequent use.[23] More recently, technology has been developed that allows the treatment and reduction of other[24] organic waste, such as food, cardboard and horticultural waste.
aerodynamics
The study of the motion of air, particularly its interactions with solid objects such as airplane wings. Aerodynamics is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are common to these fields.
afocal system
In optics, an optical system without focus, i.e. one that produces no net convergence or divergence of a beam of light, and which therefore has an infinite effective focal length.[25]
agricultural engineering
The engineering discipline that studies agricultural production and processing. Agricultural engineering combines the disciplines of mechanical, civil, electrical and chemical engineering principles with a knowledge of agricultural principles according to technological principles. A key goal of this discipline is to improve the efficacy and sustainability of agricultural practices.[5]
albedo
A measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation received by an astronomical body (e.g. a planet like Earth). It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation).
algebra
A broad area of mathematics, together with number theory, geometry and analysis. In its most general form, algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols;[26] it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics.[27] It includes everything from elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions such as groups, rings, and fields. The more basic parts of algebra are called elementary algebra; the more abstract parts are called abstract algebra or modern algebra. Elementary algebra is generally considered to be essential for any study of mathematics, science, or engineering, as well as such applications as medicine and economics. Abstract algebra is a major area in advanced mathematics, studied primarily by professional mathematicians.
algorithm
An unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing and automated reasoning tasks.
alkane

Also paraffin.

In organic chemistry, an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon–carbon bonds are single.[28] Alkanes have the general chemical formula CnH2n+2.
alkene
In organic chemistry, an unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains at least one carbon–carbon double bond.[29]
alkyne
In organic chemistry, an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon—carbon triple bond.[30]
alloy
A combination of metals or of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character.[31]
alternating current (AC)
A type of electric current which periodically reverses direction, in contrast to direct current (DC) which flows only in one direction. Alternating current is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and residences, and it is the form of electrical energy that consumers typically use when they plug kitchen appliances, televisions, fans and electric lamps into a wall socket. A common source of DC power is a battery cell in a flashlight. The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when they modify current or voltage.[32][33]
ammeter
A measuring instrument used to measure the current in a circuit.
amino acid
A class of organic compound containing amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid.[34][35][36] The key elements of an amino acid are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N), although other elements are found in the side chains of certain amino acids.
amorphous solid

Also non-crystalline solid.

In condensed matter physics and materials science, a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal.
ampere
often shortened to "amp",[37] is the base unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI).[38][39] It is named after André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of electrodynamics.
amphoterism
In chemistry, an amphoteric compound is a molecule or ion that can react both as an acid and as a base.[40] Many metals (such as copper, zinc, tin, lead, aluminium, and beryllium) form amphoteric oxides or hydroxides. Amphoterism depends on the oxidation states of the oxide. Al2O3 is an example of an amphoteric oxide.
amplifier
An electronic device that can increase the power of a signal (a time-varying voltage or current). It is a two-port electronic circuit that uses electric power from a power supply to increase the amplitude of a signal applied to its input terminals, producing a proportionally greater amplitude signal at its output. The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain: the ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input. An amplifier is a circuit that has a power gain greater than one.[41][42][43]
amplitude

anaerobic digestion

angular acceleration
The rate of change of angular velocity. In three dimensions, it is a pseudovector. In SI units, it is measured in radians per second squared (rad/s2), and is usually denoted by the Greek letter alpha (α).[44]
Anion
is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge (since electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged).[45]
annealing

anode

ANSI

Archimedes' principle
states that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid.[46] Archimedes' principle is a law of physics fundamental to fluid mechanics. It was formulated by Archimedes of Syracuse.[47]
architecture
The process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or any other structures.[48] Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.
architectural engineering

Also building engineering or architecture engineering.

The application of engineering principles and technology to building design and construction.
Arrhenius equation

atom

austenitization

automation
The technology by which a process or procedure is performed with minimal human assistance.[49] Automation [50] or automatic control is the use of various control systems for operating equipment such as machinery, processes in factories, boilers and heat treating ovens, switching on telephone networks, steering and stabilization of ships, aircraft and other applications and vehicles with minimal or reduced human intervention.
automaton
Any self-operating machine, or a machine or control mechanism designed to automatically follow a predetermined sequence of operations, or respond to predetermined instructions.[51]
autonomous vehicle

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## B

balance sheet

Also statement of financial position.

In financial accounting, a summary of the financial balances of an individual or organization, whether it be a sole proprietorship, a business partnership, a corporation, private limited company or other organization such as a government or not-for-profit entity. Assets, liabilities and ownership equity are listed as of a specific date, such as the end of its financial year. A balance sheet is often described as a "snapshot of a company's financial condition".[52] Of the four basic financial statements, the balance sheet is the only statement which applies to a single point in time of a business' calendar year.
barometer
A scientific instrument used to measure air pressure.
battery
A device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric cars.[53] When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode.[54] The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy.[citation needed] Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.[55]
base

beam
A structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to its axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam, which in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), length, and material.
Beer–Lambert law

belt

belt friction

bending

benefit–cost analysis

bending moment
The reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend.[56][57]
Bernoulli differential equation

Bernoulli's equation

Bernoulli's principle
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.[58]: Ch.3 [59]: 156–164, § 3.5 The principle is only applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be neglected.
beta particle

block and tackle

boiling point

boiling-point elevation

Boltzmann constant

boson

Boyle's law

Bravais lattice

Brayton cycle

break-even analysis

Brewster's angle

brittleness
A physical property of a material such that, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant plastic deformation. Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength.
Brownian motion

bulk modulus
A measure of how resistant to compression a substance is, defined as the ratio of the infinitesimal pressure increase to the resulting relative decrease in volume. It is one of three standard moduli used to describe a material's response to stress, along with the shear modulus and Young's modulus.
buoyancy

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## C

calculus
The mathematical study of continuous change.
capacitance
The ratio of the change in an electric charge in a system to the corresponding change in its electric potential.
capillary action

Also sometimes capillarity, capillary motion, capillary effect, or wicking.

The ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like gravity.
casting

center of gravity

center of mass

center of pressure

central force motion

centripetal force

chain reaction

Charles's law

circular motion

civil engineering
The professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, railways, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural components of buildings, and infrastructure for civic utilities.
Clausius–Clapeyron relation

Clausius inequality

Clausius theorem

coastal engineering

coefficient of performance

coefficient of variation

coherence

cohesion

compensation

compressive strength

computational fluid dynamics

computer-aided design (CAD)

computer-aided engineering

computer-aided manufacturing

construction engineering

construction surveying

control engineering

control systems engineering

corrosion

crystallization

crystallography

curvilinear motion

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## D

Dalton's law

Also called Dalton's law of partial pressures.

In chemistry and physics, a law which states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.[60] This empirical law was first observed by John Dalton in 1801 and published in 1802,[61] and is closely related to the ideal gas laws.
damped vibration

Darcy–Weisbach equation

DC motor

decibel

definite integral

deflection

deformation (engineering)

deformation (mechanics)

degrees of freedom

delta robot

delta-wye transformer

density

derivative

design engineer
An engineer whose profession focuses on the engineering design process in any of the various disciplines of engineering, e.g. civil engineering. Design engineers tend to work on products and systems that involve adapting and using complex scientific and mathematical techniques in order to develop solutions for human society.
differential pulley

dispersion

displacement (fluid)

displacement (vector)

Doppler effect

drag

ductility

dynamics

dyne

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## E

earthquake engineering

elastic modulus

elasticity

electric charge

electric circuit

electric current

electric displacement field

electric generator

electric field

electric field gradient

electric motor

electric potential

electrical potential energy

electric power

electrical and electronics engineering

electrical conductor

electrical insulator

electrical network
Any interconnection of electrical components (e.g. batteries, resistors, inductors, capacitors, switches, etc.), or a model of such an interconnection consisting of electrical elements (e.g. voltage sources, current sources, resistances, inductances, and capacitances).
electrical resistance

electrodynamics

electromagnet

electromagnetic field

electromechanics

electronegativity

electronics

endothermic

engine

engineering

engineering economics

engineering ethics

environmental engineering

engineering physics

Also called engineering science.

The study of the combined disciplines of physics, mathematics and engineering, particularly computer, nuclear, electrical, electronic, materials or mechanical engineering. By focusing on the scientific method as a rigorous basis, it seeks ways to apply, design, and develop new solutions in engineering.[62][63][64][65]
estimator

Euler–Bernoulli beam equation

exothermic

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## F

falling bodies

farad

faraday

Faraday constant

Fermat's principle

finite element method

fission

fluid

fluid mechanics

fluid physics

fluid statics

flywheel
A mechanical device which uses the conservation of angular momentum to store rotational energy. Flywheels are therefore a type of accumulator, analogous to electrical inductors, in that they store energy for later use. They are commonly used to smooth deviations in the power output of an energy source, to deliver stored energy at rates that exceed the ability of the energy source, and to control the orientation of mechanical systems.
focus

foot-pound

fracture toughness

free fall

frequency modulation

freezing point

friction

function

fundamental frequency

fundamental interaction

fundamental theorem of calculus

fusion

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## G

galvanic cell

gas

Geiger counter

general relativity

geometric mean

geophysics

geotechnical engineering

gluon

Graham's law of diffusion

gravitation

gravitational constant

gravitational energy

gravitational potential

gravity

ground state

## H

half-life

haptic

hardness

harmonic mean

heat

heat transfer

height above ground level

Helmholtz free energy

Henderson–Hasselbalch equation

Henry's law

Hertz

hoist

horsepower

housewrap

Also house wrap.

A synthetic material used to insulate and protect buildings. Housewrap functions as a weather-resistant barrier, preventing rain from getting into the wall assembly while allowing water vapor to pass to the exterior. If moisture from either direction is allowed to build up within stud or cavity walls, mold and rot can set in and fiberglass or cellulose insulation will lose its R-value due to heat-conducting moisture. House wrap may also serve as an air barrier if it is sealed carefully at seams.[66]
Huygens–Fresnel principle

hydraulic engineering

hydraulics

## I

ice point

ideal gas

ideal gas constant

ideal gas law

inclinometer

indefinite integral

inertia

infrasound

integral

integral transform

International System of Units

interval estimation

ion

ionic bond

ionization

impedance

inclined plane

industrial engineering

inorganic chemistry

invert level

isotope

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## J

joule (J)
The derived unit of energy in the International System of Units.[67] It is equal to the energy transferred to (or work done on) an object when a force of one newton acts on that object in the direction of its motion through a distance of one metre (1 newton metre or N⋅m). It is also the energy dissipated as heat when an electric current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818–1889).[68][69][70]

## K

Kalman filter

kelvin

kinematics

Kirchhoff's circuit laws

Kirchhoff's equations

## L

laminar flow

Laplace transform

LC circuit

lever

L'Hôpital's rule

linear actuator

linear elasticity

## M

Mach number

machine

machine element

Maclaurin series

magnetic field

magnetism

manufacturing engineering

mass balance

mass density

mass moment of inertia

material properties

materials science

mathematical optimization

mathematical physics

matrix

Maxwell's equations

measures of central tendency

mechanical advantage

mechanical engineering

mechanical filter

mechanical wave

mechanics

mechanism

metal alloy

mid-range

midhinge

mining engineering

Miller indices

mobile robot

modulus of elasticity

molding

molecular physics

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<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">multidisciplinary design optimization

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## N

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<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">nanotechnology
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Navier–Stokes equations
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Newtonian fluid
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<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">nuclear engineering
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## O

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<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Ohm's law
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## P

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<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">parity (mathematics)
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<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">phase (matter)
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<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">physical chemistry
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">physical quantity
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">physics
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">plasma physics
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">plasticity
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">pneumatics
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">point estimation
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">polyphase system
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">power (electric)
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">power
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">power factor
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">pressure
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">probability
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">probability distribution
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">probability theory
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">pulley

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* X
* Y
* Z
* See also
* References
* External links

## R

<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">raised floor
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">regelation
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">relative density
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">relative velocity
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">reliability engineering
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Reynolds number
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">rheology
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">rigid body
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">robotics
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">root-mean-square
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">root-mean-square speed
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">rotational energy
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">rotational speed

## S

<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">sanitary engineering
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">saturated compound
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">scalar (mathematics)
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">scalar
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">scalar multiplication
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">screw
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">series circuit
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">servo
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">servomechanism
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">shadow matter
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">shear strength
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">shear stress
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">shortwave radiation
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">SI units
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">signal processing
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">simple machine
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">siphon
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">solid mechanics
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">solid-state physics
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">solid solution strengthening
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">solubility
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">sound
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">special relativity
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">specific heat
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">specific gravity
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">specific volume
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">specific weight
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">spontaneous combustion
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">state of matter
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">statics
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">statistics
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Stefan–Boltzmann law
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Stewart platform
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">stiffness
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">stoichiometry
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">strain
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">strain hardening
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">strength of materials
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">stress
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">stress–strain analysis
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">stress–strain curve
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">structural analysis
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">structural engineering
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">structural load
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">sublimation
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">subsumption architecture
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">surface tension
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">superconductor
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">superhard material
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">surveying

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## T

<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">technical standard     An established norm or requirement for a repeatable technical task, especially when written in a formal document that establishes uniform criteria, methods, processes, and practices. A technical standard may be developed privately or unilaterally by edict, or by groups such as trade associations, industry standards organizations, or governments, often according to the formal consensus of experts in the discipline.
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">temperature
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">tensile force
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">tensile modulus
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">tensile strength
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">tensile testing
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">tension member
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">thermal conduction
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">thermal equilibrium
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">thermal radiation
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">thermodynamics
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Thévenin's theorem
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">three-phase
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">torque
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">torsional vibration
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">toughness
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">trajectory
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">transducer
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">transportation engineering
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">trimean
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">triple point
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Trouton's rule
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">truncated mean
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">truss     An assembly of two-force structural members such as beams, connected at nodes, where the members are organized such that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single, rigid object.[71]
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">turbine
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">turbomachinery
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">turbulence

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* Z
* See also
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* External links

## U

<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

The maximum stress that a material under tension can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. Ultimate tensile strength is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the stress versus strain; the highest point of the stress–strain curve is the ultimate tensile strength. Tensile strengths are often important in the design of brittle members. Contrast compressive strength.
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">uncertainty principle
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Unicode
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">unit vector
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">unsaturated compound
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">urban engineering
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">utility frequency     The nominal frequency of the oscillations of alternating current (AC) in a wide area synchronous grid transmitted from a power station to an end-user. In much of the world the utility frequency is standardized at 50 Hz, although in the Americas and parts of Asia it is typically 60 Hz.

## V

<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">vacuum
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">valve
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">van der Waals equation
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">van der Waals force
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">van 't Hoff equation
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">van 't Hoff factor
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Venturi effect
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">vibration
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">viscoelasticity
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">viscosity
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">volt-ampere
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">volt-ampere reactive
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Volta potential
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">voltage
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">volumetric flow rate
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">von Mises yield criterion

## W

<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">wastewater engineering
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">watt (W)
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">wave
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">wavelength
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">wedge
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">weighted mean
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">wet-bulb temperature
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">wheel and axle
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">winsorized mean

## X

<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">X-coordinate

## Y

<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Y-coordinate
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">yield
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Young's modulus

## Z

<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">Zero Defects (ZD)     A management-led program to eliminate defects in industrial production that enjoyed brief popularity in American industry from 1964[72] to the early 1970s. Quality expert Philip Crosby later incorporated it into his "Absolutes of Quality Management" and it enjoyed a renaissance in the American automobile industry—as a performance goal more than as a program—in the 1990s. Although applicable to any type of enterprise, it has been primarily adopted within supply chains wherever large volumes of components are being purchased (common items such as nuts and bolts are good examples).
<dt class="glossary " id="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"." style="margin-top: 0.4em;">zeroth law of thermodynamics     States that if two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third one, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Accordingly, thermal equilibrium between systems is a transitive relation. Two systems are said to be in the relation of thermal equilibrium if they are linked by a wall permeable only to heat and they do not change over time.[73] As a convenience of language, systems are sometimes also said to be in a relation of thermal equilibrium if they are not linked so as to be able to transfer heat to each other, but would still not do so (even) if they were connected by a wall permeable only to heat.

Contents:

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* See also
* References
* External links

## See also

* Glossary of engineering
* Glossary of mechanical engineering
* Glossary of structural engineering
* Glossary of prestressed concrete terms
* Glossary of architecture
* Glossary of physics
* National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying
* Fundamentals of Engineering Examination
* Principles and Practice of Engineering Examination
* Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering

## References

1. ↑ Smaller Instruments and Appliances: The Abney Level and Clinometer, A Manual of the Principal Instruments used in American Engineering and Surveying, W. & L. E. Gurley, Troy, NY, 1891; page 219.
2. ↑ George William Usill, Clinometers: The Abney Level, Practical Surveying, Crosby Lockwood and Son, London, 1889; page 33.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Punmia, Dr B. C.; Jain, Ashok Kumar; Jain, Arun Kr (2003-05-01). Basic Civil Engineering. Firewall Media. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
4. ↑ Abrams law, air and high water-to-cement ratios by ELSEVIER
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "ASABE" (in en-us). http://www.asabe.org/.
6. ↑ Scott, John S. (1992-10-31) (in en). Dictionary Of Civil Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9780412984211. https://books.google.com/books?id=C7oIHQDDrxsC.
7. ↑ IUPAC Gold Book – absolute electrode potential
8. ↑ "Unit of thermodynamic temperature (kelvin)". SI Brochure, 8th edition. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 13 March 2010. Section 2.1.1.5. http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/kelvin.html. Note: The triple point of water is 0.01 °C, not 0 °C; thus 0 K is −273.15 °C, not −273.16 °C.
9. ↑ Arora, C. P. (2001). Thermodynamics. Tata McGraw-Hill. Table 2.4 page 43. ISBN 978-0-07-462014-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=w8GhW3J8RHIC&pg=PA43.
10. ↑ Zielinski, Sarah (1 January 2008). "Absolute Zero". Smithsonian Institution. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/absolute-zero-200801.html.
11. ↑ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version:  (2006-) "Absorbance". doi:10.1351/goldbook.A00028Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
12. ↑ "Glossary - "Abutment"". U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. http://www.usbr.gov/library/glossary/.
13. ↑ Crew, Henry (2008). The Principles of Mechanics. BiblioBazaar, LLC. pp. 43. ISBN 978-0-559-36871-4.
14. ↑ Bondi, Hermann (1980). Relativity and Common Sense. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 3. ISBN 978-0-486-24021-3. https://archive.org/details/relativitycommon0000bond/page/3.
15. ↑ Lehrman, Robert L. (1998). Physics the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. pp. 27. ISBN 978-0-7641-0236-3. https://archive.org/details/physicseasyway00lehr_0/page/27.
16. ↑ IUPAC Gold Book - acid
17. ↑ Dictionary of architectural and building technology. London: E & F N Spon. 1998. pp. 3. ISBN 0-419-22280-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgm6J9UOB3MC&q="acoustic+board"&pg=PA3.
18. ↑ Derek Butterfield; Alf Fulcher; Rhodes, Brian; Stewart, Bill; Derick Tickle; Windsor, John C. (2005). Painting and Decorating: An Information Manual. Blackwell/Futura. pp. 145. ISBN 1-4051-1254-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=DyHKWxQD0NQC&q="acoustic+board"&pg=PA145.
19. ↑ "About Actuators". http://www.thomasnet.com/about/actuators-301168.html.
20. ↑ Carathéodory, C. (1909). "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Thermodynamik". Mathematische Annalen 67 (3): 355–386. doi:10.1007/BF01450409. https://zenodo.org/record/1428268. . A translation may be found here. Also a mostly reliable translation is to be found in Kestin, J. (1976). The Second Law of Thermodynamics. Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
21. ↑ Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics. New York, NY: American Institute of Physics Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-88318-797-3.
22. ↑ "Aerobic Diestion". Water Environment Federation. http://www.wefnet.org/mopnew/Operation_of_Municipal_Wastewater_Treatment_Plants/Chapter 20.173-20.188 Revised_6th Edition.pdf.
23. ↑ "Handbook Biological Wastewater Treatment - Design of Activated Sludge Systems". http://www.wastewaterhandbook.com/webpg/th_sludge_82aerobic_digestion.htm.
24. ↑ "Aerobic Waste Digesters". http://www.garbageguzzler.com.
25. ↑ Daniel Malacara, Zacarias Malacara, Handbook of optical design. Page 379
26. ↑ See Herstein, I. N. (1964). Topics in Algebra. Ginn and Company. ISBN 0-471-02371-X. , page 1: "An algebraic system can be described as a set of objects together with some operations for combining them".
27. ↑ See (Herstein 1964) , page 1: "...it also serves as the unifying thread which interlaces almost all of mathematics".
28. ↑ "IUPAC Gold Book - alkanes". IUPAC. March 27, 2017. doi:10.1351/goldbook.A00222. http://goldbook.iupac.org/A00222.html.
29. ↑ Wade, L.G. (2006). Organic Chemistry (6th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 279. ISBN 978-1-4058-5345-3.
30. ↑ Alkyne. Encyclopædia Britannica
31. ↑ Callister, W. D. "Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction" 2007, 7th edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, Section 4.3 and Chapter 9.
32. ↑ N. N. Bhargava; D. C. Kulshreshtha (1983). Basic Electronics & Linear Circuits. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-07-451965-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=C5bt-oRuUzwC&pg=PA90.
33. ↑ National Electric Light Association (1915). Electrical meterman's handbook. Trow Press. p. 81. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZEpWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA81.
34. ↑ "Amino". Dictionary.com. 2015. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/amino. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
35. ↑ "amino acid". Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Cambridge University Press. 2015. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/british/amino-acid. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
36. ↑ "amino". FreeDictionary.com. Farlex. 2015. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/amino. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
37. ↑ SI supports only the use of symbols and deprecates the use of abbreviations for units."Bureau International des Poids et Mesures". 2006. p. 130. http://www.bipm.fr/utils/common/pdf/si_brochure_8_en.pdf.
38. ↑ "2.1. Unit of electric current (ampere)", SI brochure (8th ed.), BIPM, http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter2/2-1/ampere.html, retrieved 19 November 2011
39. ↑ Base unit definitions: Ampere Physics.nist.gov. Retrieved on 2010-09-28.
40. ↑ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version:  (2006-) "amphoteric". doi:10.1351/goldbook.A00306Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
41. ↑ Crecraft, David; Gorham, David (2003). Electronics, 2nd Ed.. CRC Press. pp. 168. ISBN 978-0748770366. https://books.google.com/books?id=Yq66DDW4f8IC&q=amplifier+power&pg=PA168.
42. ↑ Agarwal, Anant; Lang, Jeffrey (2005). Foundations of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits. Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 331. ISBN 978-0080506814. https://books.google.com/books?id=lGgP7FDEv3AC&q=amplifier+power&pg=PA331.
43. ↑ Glisson, Tildon H. (2011). Introduction to Circuit Analysis and Design. Springer Science and Business Media. ISBN 978-9048194438. https://books.google.com/books?id=7nNjaH9B0_0C&q=amplifier+power&pg=PA197.
44. ↑ "Angular Velocity and Acceleration". Theory.uwinnipeg.ca. http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/circ/node3.html.
45. ↑ University of Colorado Boulder (November 21, 2013). "Atoms and Elements, Isotopes and Ions". colorado.edu. http://ruby.colorado.edu/~smyth/G101-2.html.
46. ↑ "What is buoyant force? (Article) | Fluids". https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/fluids/buoyant-force-and-archimedes-principle/a/buoyant-force-and-archimedes-principle-article.
47. ↑ Acott, Chris (1999). "The diving "Law-ers": A brief resume of their lives.". South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal 29 (1). ISSN 0813-1988. OCLC 16986801. http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/5990. Retrieved 2009-06-13.
48. ↑ "architecture". Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/architecture.
49. ↑ Groover, Mikell (2014). Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems.
50. ↑ Rifkin, Jeremy (1995). The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era. Putnam Publishing Group. pp. 66, 75. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
51. ↑ Automaton - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/automaton
52. ↑ Williams, Jan R.; Susan F. Haka; Mark S. Bettner; Joseph V. Carcello (2008). Financial & Managerial Accounting. McGraw-Hill Irwin. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-07-299650-0.
53. ↑ Crompton, T.R. (2000-03-20). Battery Reference Book (third ed.). Newnes. p. Glossary 3. ISBN 978-0-08-049995-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=QmVR7qiB5AUC&q=battery one or more cells&pg=PA11. Retrieved 2016-03-18.
54. ↑ Pauling, Linus (1988). "15: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions; Electrolysis.". General Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.. p. 539. ISBN 978-0-486-65622-9. https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry00paul_0.
55. ↑ Pistoia, Gianfranco (2005-01-25). Batteries for Portable Devices. Elsevier. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-08-045556-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=XMe1EnEMuMEC&q=battery two or more cells&pg=PA1. Retrieved 2016-03-18.
56. ↑ Gere, J.M.; Timoshenko, S.P. (1996), Mechanics of Materials:Forth edition, Nelson Engineering, ISBN 0534934293, https://archive.org/details/mechanicsofmater00gere
57. ↑ Beer, F.; Johnston, E.R. (1984), Vector mechanics for engineers: statics, McGraw Hill, pp. 62–76
58. ↑ Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-15837-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=zaNTAAAAMAAJ.
59. ↑ Batchelor, G. K. (2000). An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge: University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66396-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=Rla7OihRvUgC&pg=PA156.
60. ↑ Silberberg, Martin S. (2009). Chemistry: the molecular nature of matter and change (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. p. 206. ISBN 9780073048598.
61. ↑ J. Dalton (1802), "Essay IV. On the expansion of elastic fluids by heat," Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, vol. 5, pt. 2, pages 595–602; see page 600.
62. ↑ "Major: Engineering Physics". The Princeton Review: p. 01. 2017. https://www.princetonreview.com/college-majors/439/engineering-physics.
63. ↑ "Introduction" (online). Princeton University. http://engineeringphysics.princeton.edu/.
64. ↑ Khare, P.; A. Swarup (26 January 2009). Engineering Physics: Fundamentals & Modern Applications (13th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp. xiii - Preface. ISBN 978-0-7637-7374-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=UfztNNnSFckC&q=engineering+physics.
65. ↑ Mukherji, Uma (2003) (online). Engineering Physics. Alpha Science. ISBN 9781842650646. https://archive.org/details/engineeringphysi0000mukh. Retrieved June 26, 2011. "Engineering Physics."
66. ↑ Krigger, John; Chris Dorsi (2004). Residential Energy: Cost Savings and Comfort for Existing Buildings. Helena, Montana: Saturn Resource Management. p. 110. ISBN 1-880120-12-7. OCLC 56315804.
67. ↑ International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (8th ed.), p. 120, ISBN 92-822-2213-6, http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si_brochure_8_en.pdf
68. ↑ American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Online Edition (2009). Houghton Mifflin Co., hosted by Yahoo! Education.
69. ↑ The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition (1985). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., p. 691.
70. ↑ McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Physics, Fifth Edition (1997). McGraw-Hill, Inc., p. 224.
71. ↑ Plesha, Michael E.; Gray, Gary L.; Costanzo, Francesco (2013). Engineering Mechanics: Statics (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.. pp. 364–407. ISBN 978-0-07-338029-2.
72. ↑ A Guide to Zero Defects: Quality and Reliability Assurance Handbook. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower Installations and Logistics). 1965. p. 3. 4155.12-H. OCLC 7188673. http://www.dtic.mil/docs/citations/ADA950061. Retrieved May 29, 2014. "Early in 1964 the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Installations and Logistics) invited the attention of the Military Departments and the Defense Supply Agency to the potential of Zero Defects. This gave the program substantial impetus. Since that time Zero Defects has been adopted by numerous industrial and Department of Defense activities."
73. ↑ Carathéodory, C. (1909).

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