Executive order

Short description: Federal administrative instruction issued by a head of state or government

Not to be confused with Presidential proclamation (United States), Presidential memorandum, or State executive order.

US Executive Order 9981 (1948) which led to the re-integration of the armed services  Example from 2017

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An executive order is a directive issued by the head of state or government that manages the operations of a nation's federal administration. While the structure and authority of executive orders vary by country, they generally allow leaders to direct government agencies, implement policies, or respond to emergencies without new legislation. In many systems, the legality of such orders is subject to constitutional or legislative limits and judicial oversight. The term is most prominently associated with presidential systems such as that of the United States, where executive orders carry legal weight within the president's administration.

In the United States, an executive order is a directive by the president of the United States that manages operations of the federal government.[1] Executive orders are only binding on the federal government's executive branch. The legal or constitutional basis for executive orders has multiple sources. Article Two of the United States Constitution gives presidents broad executive and enforcement authority to use their discretion to determine how to enforce the law or to otherwise manage the resources and staff of the federal government's executive branch. The delegation of discretionary power to make such orders is required to be supported by either an expressed or implied congressional law, or the constitution itself.[2] The vast majority of executive orders are proposed by federal agencies before being issued by the president.[3]

Like both legislative statutes and the regulations promulgated by government agencies, executive orders are subject to judicial review and may be overturned if the orders lack support by statute or the Constitution. Some policy initiatives require approval by the legislative branch, but executive orders have significant influence over the internal affairs of government, deciding how and to what degree legislation will be enforced, dealing with emergencies, waging wars, and in general fine-tuning policy choices in the implementation of broad statutes. As the head of state and head of government of the United States, as well as commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces, only the president of the United States can issue an executive order.

Presidential executive orders, once issued, remain in force until they are canceled, revoked, adjudicated unlawful, or expire on their terms. At any time, the president may revoke, modify or make exceptions from any executive order, whether the order was made by the current president or a predecessor. Typically, a new president reviews in-force executive orders in the first few weeks in office.

Many countries have mechanisms for executive orders, though their structure and legal authority differ by country. In the United Kingdom and Canada, executive actions, known as Orders in Council, are issued by the Monarch or Governor General on ministerial advice and can be based on statutory or prerogative powers. In France, India, and Russia, the executive is granted temporary legislative powers or the ability to issue decrees, often for urgent or administrative purposes, subject to approval or judicial review.

## Contents

* 1 Basis in the United States Constitution
* 2 Format
* 3 History and use
* 3.1 Franklin Roosevelt
* 4 Table of U.S. presidents using executive orders
* 5 Reaction
* 5.1 Legal conflicts
* 6 State executive orders
* 7 Presidential proclamation
* 8 Other countries
* 8.1 Canada
* 8.2 France
* 8.3 Hong Kong
* 8.4 India
* 8.5 Russia
* 8.6 United Kingdom
* 9 See also
* 10 References
* 11 Further reading
* 12 External links

## Basis in the United States Constitution

The United States Constitution does not have a provision that explicitly permits the use of executive orders. Article II, Section 1, Clause 1 of the Constitution simply states: "The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America." Sections 2 and 3 describe the various powers and duties of the president, including "He shall take care that the Laws be faithfully executed".[4]

The U.S. Supreme Court has held[5] that all executive orders from the president of the United States must be supported by the Constitution, whether from a clause granting specific power, or by Congress delegating such to the executive branch.[6] Specifically, such orders must be rooted in Article II of the US Constitution or enacted by the Congress in statutes. Attempts to block such orders have been successful at times, when such orders either exceeded the authority of the president or could be better handled through legislation.[7]

The Office of the Federal Register is responsible for assigning the executive order a sequential number, after receipt of the signed original from the White House and printing the text of the executive order in the daily Federal Register and eventually in Title 3 of the Code of Federal Regulations.[8]

## Format

In the United States, executive orders are generally written in the first person, including pronouns such as "I" and "me".[1] Each order has a title, a date of issue, and a unique numeric identifier,[1] with orders being numbered consecutively.[9] These three elements usually appear at the beginning of the document, although the date or numeric identifier sometimes appear at the end of historical documents.[1] The introductory text of the order usually starts with a phrase indicating the issuer's authority.[1] For example: "By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and the laws of the United States of America, it is hereby ordered [...]"[10] Sometimes the introduction will be longer, and may include the issuer's legal rationale for the order.[1]

The body of the document is generally broken into numbered or lettered sections and subsections. According to the American Bar Association, "[sections] spell out the orders, action steps to realize the orders, and other directives, such as study or evaluation, and subsections add additional details, including any relevant definitions."[1] The last section of an order is usually administrative, including a directive to publish the order in the Federal Register.[1]

## History and use

With the exception of William Henry Harrison, all presidents since George Washington in 1789 have issued orders that in general terms can be described as executive orders. Initially, they took no set form and so they varied as to form and substance.[11]

The first executive order was issued by Washington on June 8, 1789; addressed to the heads of the federal departments, it instructed them "to impress [him] with a full, precise, and distinct general idea of the affairs of the United States" in their fields.[12][13]

According to political scientist Brian R. Dirck, the most famous executive order was by President Abraham Lincoln when he issued the Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, which in part contained explicit directions to the Army, the Navy, and other Executive departments:

> The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order, itself a rather unusual thing in those days. Executive orders are simply presidential directives issued to agents of the executive department by its boss.[14]

Until the early 1900s, executive orders were mostly unannounced and undocumented, and seen only by the agencies to which they were directed.

That changed when the US Department of State instituted a numbering scheme in 1907, starting retroactively with United States Executive Order 1, issued on October 20, 1862, by President Lincoln.[15] The documents that later came to be known as "executive orders" apparently gained their name from that order issued by Lincoln, which was captioned "Executive Order Establishing a Provisional Court in Louisiana".[16] That court functioned during the military occupation of Louisiana during the American Civil War, and Lincoln also used Executive Order 1 to appoint Charles A. Peabody as judge and designate the salaries of the court's officers.[15]

President Harry Truman's Executive Order 10340 placed all the country's steel mills under federal control, which was found invalid in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 US 579 (1952), because it attempted to make law, rather than to clarify or to further a law put forth by the Congress or the Constitution. Presidents since that decision have generally been careful to cite the specific laws under which they act when they issue new executive orders; likewise, when presidents believe that their authority for issuing an executive order stems from within the powers outlined in the Constitution, the order instead simply proclaims "under the authority vested in me by the Constitution".

Wars have been fought upon executive order, including the 1999 Kosovo War during President Bill Clinton's second term in office; however, all such wars have also had authorizing resolutions from Congress. The extent to which the president may exercise military power independently of Congress and the scope of the War Powers Resolution remain unresolved constitutional issues, but all presidents since the passage of the resolution have complied with its terms, while also maintaining that they are not constitutionally required to do so.

Harry S. Truman issued 907 executive orders, with 1,081 orders made by Theodore Roosevelt, 1,203 orders made by Calvin Coolidge, and 1,803 orders made by Woodrow Wilson. Franklin D. Roosevelt has the distinction of making a record 3,721 executive orders.[17]

In 2021, President Joe Biden issued 42 executive orders in the first 100 days of his presidency, more than any other president since Harry Truman.[18] However, in 2025, Donald Trump became the president to issue the most executive orders in his first 100 days with 143, surpassing Franklin Roosevelt's 99.[19]

### Franklin Roosevelt

Before 1932, uncontested executive orders had determined such issues as national mourning on the death of a president and the lowering of flags to half-staff.

President Franklin Roosevelt issued the first of his 3,721 executive orders on March 6, 1933, declaring a bank holiday, and forbidding banks to release gold coin or bullion. Executive Order 6102 forbade the hoarding of gold coin, bullion and gold certificates. A further executive order required all newly mined domestic gold be delivered to the Treasury.[20]

By Executive Order 6581, the president created the Export-Import Bank of the United States. On March 7, 1934, he established the National Recovery Review Board (Executive Order 6632). On June 29, the president issued Executive Order 6763 "under the authority vested in me by the Constitution", thereby creating the National Labor Relations Board.

In 1934, while Charles Evans Hughes was Chief Justice of the United States (the period being known as the Hughes Court), the Court found that the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) was unconstitutional. The president then issued Executive Order 7073 "by virtue of the authority vested in me under the said Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935", re-establishing the National Emergency Council to administer the functions of the NIRA in carrying out the provisions of the Emergency Relief Appropriations Act. On June 15, he issued Executive Order 7075, which terminated the NIRA and replaced it with the Office of Administration of the National Recovery Administration.[21]

In the years that followed, Roosevelt replaced outgoing justices of the Supreme Court with people more in line with his views: Hugo Black, Stanley Reed, Felix Frankfurter, William O. Douglas, Frank Murphy, Robert H. Jackson and James F. Byrnes. Historically, only George Washington has had equal or greater influence over Supreme Court appointments (as he chose all its original members).

Justices Frankfurter, Douglas, Black, and Jackson dramatically checked presidential power by invalidating the executive order at issue in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer: in that case Roosevelt's successor, Harry S. Truman, had ordered private steel production facilities seized in Executive Order 10340 to support the Korean War effort: the Court held that the executive order was not within the power granted to the president by the Constitution.

## Table of U.S. presidents using executive orders

President  | Number
issued[20][22] | Starting with
EO no.[20][22]

|
|

George Washington | 8  | N/A
John Adams | 1  | N/A
Thomas Jefferson | 4  | N/A
James Madison | 1  | N/A
James Monroe | 1  | N/A
John Quincy Adams | 3  | N/A
Andrew Jackson | 12  | N/A
Martin Van Buren | 10  | N/A
William Henry Harrison | 0  | N/A
John Tyler | 17  | N/A
James K. Polk | 18  | N/A
Zachary Taylor | 5  | N/A
Millard Fillmore | 12  | N/A
Franklin Pierce | 35  | N/A
James Buchanan | 16  | N/A
Abraham Lincoln | 48  | 1
Andrew Johnson | 79  | 3
Ulysses S. Grant | 217  | 8
Rutherford B. Hayes | 92  | N/A
James A. Garfield | 6  | N/A
Chester A. Arthur | 96  | 21
Grover Cleveland (first term)  | 113  | 24
Benjamin Harrison | 143  | 28
Grover Cleveland (second term)  | 140  | 30
William McKinley | 185  | 97
Theodore Roosevelt | 1,081  | 141
William Howard Taft | 724  | 1051
Woodrow Wilson | 1,803  | 1744
Warren G. Harding | 522  | 3416
Calvin Coolidge | 1,203  | 3886
Herbert Hoover | 968  | 5075
Franklin D. Roosevelt | 3,721  | 6071
Harry S. Truman | 907  | 9538
Dwight D. Eisenhower | 484  | 10432
John F. Kennedy | 214  | 10914
Lyndon B. Johnson | 325  | 11128
Richard Nixon | 346  | 11452
Gerald R. Ford | 169  | 11798
Jimmy Carter | 320  | 11967
Ronald Reagan | 381  | 12287
George H. W. Bush | 166  | 12668
Bill Clinton | 364  | 12834
George W. Bush | 291  | 13198
Barack Obama | 276  | 13489
Donald Trump (first term)  | 220  | 13765
Joe Biden | 162  | 13985
Donald Trump (second term) (incumbent)  | 232[lower-alpha 1] | 14147

1. ↑ As of January 27, 2026[update].

## Reaction

Large policy changes with wide-ranging effects have been implemented by executive order, including the racial integration of the armed forces under President Truman.

Two extreme examples of an executive order are Franklin Roosevelt's Executive Order 6102 "forbidding the hoarding of gold coin, gold bullion, and gold certificates within the continental United States", and Executive Order 9066, which delegated military authority to remove any or all people in a military zone (used to target Japanese Americans, non-citizen Germans, and non-citizen Italians in certain regions). The order was then delegated to General John L. DeWitt, and it subsequently paved the way for all Japanese-Americans on the West Coast to be incarcerated in ten specially built prison camps for the duration of World War II.

President George W. Bush issued Executive Order 13233 in 2001, which restricted public access to the papers of former presidents. The order was criticized by the Society of American Archivists and other groups, who say it "violates both the spirit and letter of existing U.S. law on access to presidential papers as clearly laid down in 44 USC 2201–07", and adding that the order "potentially threatens to undermine one of the very foundations of our nation". President Barack Obama subsequently revoked Executive Order 13233 in January 2009.[23]

### Legal conflicts

In 1935, the Supreme Court overturned five of Franklin Roosevelt's executive orders (6199, 6204, 6256, 6284a and 6855).[24][25]

Executive Order 12954, issued by President Bill Clinton in 1995, attempted to prevent the federal government from contracting with organizations that had strike-breakers on the payroll: a federal appeals court ruled that the order conflicted with the National Labor Relations Act and overturned the order.[26][27]

Congress has the power to overturn an executive order by passing legislation that invalidates it, and can also refuse to provide funding necessary to carry out certain policy measures contained with the order or legitimize policy mechanisms.

In the case of the former, the president retains the power to veto such a decision; however, Congress may override a veto with a two-thirds majority to end an executive order. It has been argued that a congressional override of an executive order is a nearly impossible event, because of the supermajority vote required, and the fact that such a vote leaves individual lawmakers vulnerable to political criticism.[28]

On July 30, 2014, the US House of Representatives approved a resolution authorizing Speaker of the House John Boehner to sue President Obama over claims that he exceeded his executive authority in changing a key provision of the Affordable Care Act ("Obamacare") on his own[29] and over what Republicans claimed had been "inadequate enforcement of the health care law", which Republican lawmakers opposed. In particular, Republicans "objected that the Obama administration delayed some parts of the law, particularly the mandate on employers who do not provide health care coverage".[30] The suit was filed in the US District Court for the District of Columbia on November 21, 2014.[31]

Part of President Donald Trump's executive order Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States, which temporarily banned entry to the US of citizens of seven Muslim-majority countries, including for permanent residents, was stayed by a federal court on January 28, 2017.[32] However, on June 26, 2018, the US Supreme Court overturned the lower court order in Trump v. Hawaii and affirmed that the executive order was within the president's constitutional authority.[33]

The degree to which the president has the power to use executive orders to set policy for independent federal agencies is disputed.[34] Many orders specifically exempt independent agencies, but some do not.[35] Executive Order 12866 has been a particular matter of controversy; it requires cost-benefit analysis for certain regulatory actions.[36][37][38][39]

## State executive orders

Main article: Social:State executive order

Executive orders issued by state governors are not the same as statutes passed by state legislatures. State executive orders are usually based on existing constitutional or statutory powers of the governor and do not require any action by the state legislature to take effect.[40][41][42][43][44]

Executive orders may, for example, demand budget cuts from state government when the state legislature is not in session, and economic conditions take a downturn, thereby decreasing tax revenue below what was forecast when the budget was approved. Depending on the state constitution, a governor may specify by what percentage each government agency must reduce and may exempt those that are already particularly underfunded or cannot put long-term expenses (such as capital expenditures) off until a later fiscal year. The governor may also call the legislature into special session.

There are also other uses for gubernatorial executive orders. In 2007, for example, Sonny Perdue, the governor of Georgia, issued an executive order for all its state agencies to reduce water use during a major drought. The same was demanded of its counties' water systems as well, but it was unclear whether the order would have the force of law.

## Presidential proclamation

According to political expert Phillip J. Cooper, a presidential proclamation "states a condition, declares a law and requires obedience, recognizes an event or triggers the implementation of a law (by recognizing that the circumstances in law have been realized)".[45] Presidents define situations or conditions on situations that become legal or economic truth. Such orders carry the same force of law as executive orders, the difference between being that executive orders are aimed at those inside government, but proclamations are aimed at those outside government.

The administrative weight of those proclamations is upheld because they are often specifically authorized by congressional statute, making them "delegated unilateral powers". Presidential proclamations are often dismissed as a practical presidential tool for policy making because of the perception that proclamations are largely ceremonial or symbolic in nature. However, the legal weight of presidential proclamations suggests their importance to presidential governance.[46]

## Other countries

Many jurisdictions have mechanisms for executive orders, though their form, scope, and legal basis vary according to constitutional and administrative systems.

### Canada

Canada uses Orders-in-Council, which are formal decisions by the Governor General of Canada acting on Cabinet advice. They are used to implement legislation, authorize regulations, and manage public appointments. Orders may be based on enabling legislation or prerogative powers and are subject to judicial review.

### France

The French government may issue ordonnances under Article 38 of the Constitution of France. These allow the executive to adopt measures normally reserved for Parliament, following prior authorization. Ordonnances take immediate effect but must be ratified by Parliament to retain full legal status. They are often used to accelerate administrative or economic reforms.

### Hong Kong

Article 48(4) of Hong Kong's Basic Law empowers the Chief Executive to make executive orders but does not elaborate on the scope of this power or how it can be exercised,[47] though the concept has been clarified by the courts in the years since 1997. Executive orders in Hong Kong are not legislation or law; they cannot create criminal offences, amend legislation, or impose obligations on members of the public, but they can bind civil servants and can be enforced through disciplinary action.[48]

Executive orders are used sparingly in Hong Kong; the first executive order, the Public Service (Administration) Order 1997 (cited as Executive Order No. 1 of 1997), was issued in 1997 shortly after the Handover to replace the role of the Colonial Regulations in relation to the appointment, dismissal and discipline of public servants,[49] with statutory references to the Colonial Regulations replaced with references to the Public Service (Administration) Order.[50]

Given the status of the Colonial Regulations as imperial instruments made under the royal prerogative, there is some doubt as to whether executive orders are equivalent in scope and authority to the Colonial Regulations. While the Court of First Instance held in The Association of Expatriate Civil Servants of Hong Kong v Chief Executive [1998] 1 HKLRD 615 that executive orders are not law,[48] it did not rule on whether executive orders are equivalent to the Colonial Regulations. If executive orders were to be considered law, it would confer on the Chief Executive a plenary legislative power, a breach of the principle of separation of powers.[49]

A second controversy in relation to executive orders arose in 2005, when Chief Executive Donald Tsang issued the Law Enforcement (Covert Surveillance Procedures) Order to regulate covert surveillance conducted by law enforcement agencies, which had previously been regulated only by internal guidelines and was potentially in breach of the Basic Law Article 30 requirement that surveillance must be conducted "in accordance with legal procedures". While it was settled that executive orders were not law, the government asserted that an executive order would satisfy the "legal procedure" requirement laid down in the Basic Law.[48]

### India

The President of India can issue ordinances under Article 123 when Parliament is not in session. These have the force of law but must be approved within six weeks of reassembly. They are intended for urgent matters and are also available to governors under Article 213. The President may also issue presidential orders under specific constitutional provisions. These are used to apply, adapt, or clarify parts of the Constitution in certain contexts.

### Russia

In Russia, the President may issue decrees (ukazy) to direct executive agencies, make appointments, and implement policy. Decrees have legal force unless they conflict with the Constitution or federal laws.

### United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, executive decisions may be issued as Orders in Council. These are made by the Monarch on the advice of ministers and may be based on statutory authority or the royal prerogative. Orders issued under statute serve as delegated legislation. Those issued under the prerogative are generally limited to matters such as overseas territories, defense, or civil service appointments.

## See also

* Decree
* Delegated legislation
* List of United States federal executive orders
* Military fiat
* Order in Council
* Ordonnance
* Presidential determination
* Presidential directive
* Presidential memorandum
* Presidential proclamation
* Signing statement (United States)

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 "What is an Executive Order?". Insights on Law and Society (American Bar Association) 17 (1). Fall 2016. ISSN 1531-2461. https://www.americanbar.org/groups/public_education/publications/teaching-legal-docs/what-is-an-executive-order-/. Retrieved August 11, 2025.
2. ↑ John Contrubis, Executive Orders and Proclamations, CRS Report for Congress #95-722A, March 9, 1999, Pp. 1-2
3. ↑ Rudalevige, Andrew (2021) (in en). By Executive Order: Bureaucratic Management and the Limits of Presidential Power. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20371-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=yhICEAAAQBAJ.
4. ↑ SCOTUS, Myers v. United States, 272 U.S. 52 (1926), Majority Opinion.
5. ↑ Southern Reporter: Cases argued and determined in the courts of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi. West Publishing Company. 1986. p. 723. https://books.google.com/books?id=deyZAAAAIAAJ.
6. ↑ Antieau, Chester James; Rich, William J. (1997). Modern Constitutional Law. 3. West Group. p. 528. ISBN 978-0-7620-0194-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=hjdDAQAAIAAJ.
7. ↑ Wozencraft, Frank M. (1971). "OLC: the Unfamiliar Acronym". American Bar Association Journal 57 (January): 33 at 35. ISSN 0747-0088. https://books.google.com/books?id=E-3OrbDw5o8C&pg=PA35.
8. ↑ President of the United States (August 15, 2016). "Executive Orders". Office of the Federal Register. https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/. Template:NARA
9. ↑ "3.1 Executive Orders (EOs)" (in en). https://www.cio.gov/handbook/other-it-authorities/executive-orders/.
10. ↑ Trump, Donald J. (2025-06-06). "Unleashing American Drone Dominance" (in en-US). https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/06/unleashing-american-drone-dominance/.
11. ↑ 93rd Cong., 2nd sess. (1974). Executive Orders in Times of War and National Emergency: Report of the Special Committee on National Emergencies and Delegated Emergency Powers, United States Senate. U.S. Govt. Print. Off. p. 23.
12. ↑ DiBacco, Thomas V. (August 14, 2014). "DiBACCO: George Washington had a pen, but no phone, for executive orders" (in en-US). The Washington Times. http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/aug/14/dibacco-the-first-president-had-a-pen-but-no-phone/.
13. ↑ "Founders Online: From George Washington to John Jay, 8 June 1789" (in en). http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-02-02-0335.
14. ↑ Brian R. Dirck (2007). The Executive Branch of Federal Government: People, Process, and Politics. ABC-CLIO. p. 102. https://books.google.com/books?id=wjSieiqLHzoC&pg=PA102.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Lord, Clifford et al. Presidential Executive Orders, p. 1 (Archives Publishing Company, 1944).
16. ↑ Relyea, Harold C. (November 26, 2008). "Presidential Directives: Background and Overview". Congressional Research Service. p. 1. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/98-611.pdf#page=4.
17. ↑ "Executive Orders". https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/statistics/data/executive-orders.
18. ↑ Breslow, Jason (April 27, 2021). "Biden's 1st 100 Days: A Look By The Numbers". NPR. https://www.npr.org/2021/04/27/988822340/bidens-1st-100-days-a-look-by-the-numbers. "he's far outpacing them on executive orders. Biden has issued 42 to date, more than any president going back to Harry Truman"
19. ↑ "2025 Donald J. Trump Executive Orders". Federal Register. https://www.federalregister.gov/presidential-documents/executive-orders/donald-trump/2025.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Gerhard Peters. "The American Presidency Project / Executive Orders". http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data/orders.php.
21. ↑ American Presidency Project, Executive Order 7075 (May 29, 2009).
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 "Executive Orders". Office of the Federal Register. National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.federalregister.gov/presidential-documents/executive-orders.
23. ↑ "Executive Order 13489 of January 21, 2009 – Presidential Records". https://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/ExecutiveOrderPresidentialRecords/. , Federal Register publication page and date: 74 FR 4669, January 26, 2009.
24. ↑ "Panama Refining Company v. Ryan". https://www.oyez.org/cases/1900-1940/293us388.
25. ↑ "A. L. A. Schechter Poultry Corporation v. United States". https://www.oyez.org/cases/1900-1940/293us388.
26. ↑ Catherine Edwards, "Emergency Rule, Abuse of Power?" Insight on the News, August 23, 1999, p. 18
27. ↑ "Chamber of Commerce of the United States, et al, v. Reich, 74 F.3d 1322 (D.C. Cir. 1996)". Public.Resource.org. https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F3/074/74.F3d.1322.95-5242.html.
28. ↑ Harold Hongju Koh, The National Security Constitution: Sharing Power after the Iran-Contra Affair, 1990, p. 118–19
29. ↑ Deirdre Walsh, "GOP-led House authorizes lawsuit against Obama" . CNN, July 30, 2014
30. ↑ Michael McAuliff and Sam Levine, "House Authorizes Lawsuit Against President Obama" Huff Post: Politics, July 30, 2014,
31. ↑ Parker, Ashley (November 21, 2014). "House G.O.P. Files Lawsuit in Battling Health Law". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/22/us/politics/obamacare-lawsuit-filed-by-republicans.html.
32. ↑ Patel, Nilay (January 28, 2017). "Federal court halts Trump's immigration ban". The Verge. https://www.theverge.com/2017/1/28/14427086/federal-court-halts-trumps-immigration-ban.
33. ↑ "Trump, President of the United States, Et Al v. Hawaii Et Al ", U.S. Supreme Court Docket No. 17-965, Argued April 25, 2018 - Decided June 26, 2018.
34. ↑ Dan Bosch (May 29, 2020). "The Administration's View of Its Ability to Direct Independent Agencies". https://www.americanactionforum.org/insight/the-administrations-view-of-its-ability-to-direct-independent-agencies/.
35. ↑ Cass R. Sunstein; Adrian Vermeul (2021). "Presidential Review: The President's Statutory Authority over Independent Agencies". Georgetown Law Journal 109: 637–664. https://www.law.georgetown.edu/georgetown-law-journal/wp-content/uploads/sites/26/2021/03/Sunstein_Vermeule_Presidential-Review-The-Presidents-Statutory-Authority-over-Independent-Agencies.pdf.
36. ↑ Copeland CW. (2013). "Economic Analysis and Independent Regulatory Agencies ". Administrative Conference of the United States.
37. ↑ "Benefit-Cost Analysis at Independent Regulatory Agencies". http://www.acus.gov/research-projects/benefit-cost-analysis-independent-regulatory-agencies.
38. ↑ "Extending Executive Order 12866 to Independent Regulatory Agencies". February 3, 2021. https://regulatorystudies.columbian.gwu.edu/extending-executive-order-12866-independent-regulatory-agencies.
39. ↑ "Independent Regulatory Agency". The Regulatory Group. 2002. https://www.regulationwriters.com/library/Independent regulatory agency.html.
40. ↑ About Executive Orders of the State of Colorado, https://www.colorado.gov/governor/executive-orders, retrieved May 29, 2018
41. ↑ About Executive Orders of the State of Georgia, https://gov.georgia.gov/executive-action/executive-orders, retrieved July 11, 2025
42. ↑ About Executive Orders of the State of Washington, https://www.governor.wa.gov/office-governor/official-actions/executive-orders
43. ↑ About Executive Orders of the State of Florida, https://www.flgov.com/all-executive-orders, retrieved May 29, 2018
44. ↑ About Executive Orders of the State of Utah, https://rules.utah.gov/executive-documents
45. ↑ Phillip J. Cooper. 2002. By Order of The President. University of Kansas Press. Page 116.
46. ↑ Presidential Proclamations Project, University of Houston, Political Science Dept.
47. ↑ "Basic Law - Basic Law - Chapter IV (EN)". https://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclaw/chapter4.html.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 Legislative Council Panel on Security (15 August 2005). "Law Enforcement (Covert Surveillance Procedures) Order Supplementary Paper". https://www.legco.gov.hk/yr04-05/english/panels/se/papers/se0815cb2-2436-1e.pdf.
49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Legislative Council Secretariat (16 April 1999). "Report of the Bills Committee on Adaptation of Laws Bill 1998". https://www.legco.gov.hk/yr98-99/english/bc/bc55/reports/1762e.pdf.
50. ↑ "Hong Kong e-Legislation". https://www.elegislation.gov.hk/checkconfig/checkClientConfig.jsp?applicationId=RA001.

## Further reading

Library resources about
Executive order

* * *

* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* Bush, Ann M., "Executive Disorder: The Subversion of the United States Supreme Court, 1914-1940" [Amazon], 2010.
* Mayer, Kenneth R., With the Stroke of a Pen: Executive Orders and Presidential Power, Princeton University Press, 2002.
* Warber, Adam L., Executive Orders and the Modern Presidency: Legislating from the Oval Office, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2006.

## External links

* Archive of U.S. Executive Orders
* Executive Orders: Issuance and Revocation
* Executive Orders at The American Presidency Project
* Executive Orders and Other Presidential Documents: Sources and Explanations
* Presidential Proclamations Project
* Governor of Missouri's executive orders 2012-1982
* Federal Register: The Daily Register of the United States Government
* White House: List of executive orders of the current US administration shortly after issue

Template:United States federal executive actions

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive order. Read more

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