Cadmium

Cadmium is a chemical element; it has symbol Cd and atomic number 48\. This soft, silvery-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12, zinc and mercury. Like zinc, it demonstrates oxidation state +2 in most of its compounds, and like mercury, it has a lower melting point than the transition metals in groups 3 through 11. Cadmium and its congeners in group 12 are often not considered transition metals, in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states. The average concentration of cadmium in Earth's crust is between 0.1 and 0.5 parts per million (ppm). It was discovered in 1817 simultaneously by Stromeyer and Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in zinc carbonate.

Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and is a byproduct of zinc production. It was used for a long time in the 1900s as a corrosion-resistant plating on steel, and cadmium compounds are used as red, orange, and yellow pigments, to color glass, and to stabilize plastic. Cadmium's use is generally decreasing because it is toxic, and nickel–cadmium batteries have been replaced with nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries. Because it is a neutron poison, cadmium is also used as a component of control rods in nuclear fission reactors. One of its few new uses is in cadmium telluride solar panels.

Although cadmium has no known biological function in higher organisms, a cadmium-dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms.

## Contents

* 1 Characteristics
* 1.1 Physical properties
* 1.2 Chemical properties
* 1.3 Isotopes
* 2 History
* 3 Occurrence
* 4 Production
* 5 Applications
* 5.1 Batteries
* 5.2 Electroplating
* 5.3 Nuclear technology
* 5.4 Televisions
* 5.5 Anticancer drugs
* 5.6 Compounds
* 5.7 Semiconductors
* 5.8 Laboratory uses
* 5.9 Jewelry
* 6 Biological role
* 6.1 Environmental impact
* 7 Safety
* 7.1 Regulations
* 7.2 Product recalls
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 Further reading
* 12 External links

## Characteristics

### Physical properties

Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, silvery-white divalent metal. It is similar in many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds.[1] Unlike most other metals, cadmium is resistant to corrosion and is used as a protective plate on other metals. As a bulk metal, cadmium is insoluble in water[2] and is not flammable; however, in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic fumes.[3]

### Chemical properties

See also: Category:Cadmium compounds

Although cadmium usually has an oxidation state of +2, it also exists in the +1 state. Cadmium and its congeners are not always considered transition metals, in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states.[4] Cadmium burns in air to form brown amorphous cadmium oxide (CdO); the crystalline form of this compound is a dark red which changes color when heated, similar to zinc oxide. Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid dissolve cadmium by forming cadmium chloride (CdCl
2), cadmium sulfate (CdSO
4), and cadmium nitrate (Cd(NO

2) respectively. The oxidation state +1 can be produced by dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and aluminium chloride, forming the Cd2+
2 cation as cadmium(I) tetrachloroaluminate, which is similar to the Hg2+
2 cation in mercury(I) chloride.[1]

Cd + CdCl
2 \+ 2 AlCl
3 → Cd
2(AlCl

The structures of many cadmium complexes with nucleobases, amino acids, and vitamins have been determined.[5]

### Isotopes

Main article: Physics:Isotopes of cadmium

Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of eight isotopes. Two of them are radioactive, and three are expected to decay but have not measurably done so under laboratory conditions. The two natural radioactive isotopes are 113Cd (beta decay, half-life is 8.04×1015 y) and 116Cd (double beta decay, half-life is 2.69×1019 y). The other three are 106Cd, 108Cd (both double electron capture), and 114Cd (double beta decay); only lower limits on these half-lives have been determined. At least three isotopes – 110Cd, 111Cd, and 112Cd – are stable. Among the isotopes that do not occur naturally, the most long-lived are 109Cd with a half-life of 461.3 days, and 115Cd with a half-life of 53.46 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than 7 hours, and the majority have half-lives of less than 5 minutes. Cadmium has 8 known meta states, with the most stable being 113mCd (t1⁄2 = 13.9 years), 115mCd (t1⁄2 = 44.6 days), and 117mCd (t1⁄2 = 3.44 hours).[6]

The known isotopes of cadmium range from 95Cd to 132Cd. For isotopes lighter than 112Cd, the primary decay mode is electron capture and the dominant decay product is element 47 (silver). Heavier isotopes decay mostly through beta emission producing element 49 (indium).[6]

The cadmium-113 total cross section clearly showing the cadmium cut-off

One isotope of cadmium, 113Cd, absorbs neutrons with high selectivity: With very high probability, neutrons with energy below the cadmium cut-off will be absorbed; those higher than the cut-off will be transmitted. The cadmium cut-off is about 0.5 eV, and neutrons below that level are deemed slow neutrons, distinct from intermediate and fast neutrons.[7]

## History

Friedrich Stromeyer

Cadmium (Latin cadmia, Greek καδμεία meaning "calamine", a cadmium-bearing mixture of minerals that was named after the Greek mythological character Κάδμος, Cadmus, the founder of Thebes) was discovered in contaminated zinc compounds sold in pharmacies in Germany[8] in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer.[9] Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann simultaneously investigated the discoloration in zinc oxide and found an impurity, first suspected to be arsenic, because of the yellow precipitate with hydrogen sulfide. Additionally Stromeyer discovered that one supplier sold zinc carbonate instead of zinc oxide.[10] Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate (calamine), and, for 100 years, Germany remained the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine, because it was found in this zinc ore. Stromeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not. He was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and reducing the sulfide. The potential for cadmium yellow as pigment was recognized in the 1840s, but the early scarcity of cadmium limited this application.[11][12][13]

Even though cadmium and its compounds are toxic in certain forms and concentrations, the British Pharmaceutical Codex from 1907 states that cadmium iodide was used as a medication to treat "enlarged joints, scrofulous glands, and chilblains".[14]

In 1907, the International Astronomical Union defined the international ångström in terms of a red cadmium spectral line (1 wavelength = 6438.46963 Å).[15][16] This was adopted by the 7th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1927. In 1960, the definitions of both the metre and ångström were changed to use krypton.[17]

After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s, the major application of cadmium was the coating of iron and steel to prevent corrosion; in 1944, 62% and in 1956, 59% of the cadmium in the United States was used for plating.[10][18] In 1956, 24% of the cadmium in the United States was used for a second application in red, orange and yellow pigments from sulfides and selenides of cadmium.[18]

The stabilizing effect of cadmium chemicals like the carboxylates cadmium laurate and cadmium stearate on PVC led to an increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s. The demand for cadmium in pigments, coatings, stabilizers, and alloys declined as a result of environmental and health regulations in the 1980s and 1990s; in 2006, only 7% of total cadmium consumption was used for plating, and only 10% was used for pigments.[10] At the same time, these decreases in consumption were compensated by a growing demand for cadmium for nickel–cadmium batteries, which accounted for 81% of the cadmium consumption in the United States in 2006.[19]

## Occurrence

Cadmium metal

Cadmium makes up about 0.1 ppm of Earth's crust and is the 65th most abundant element.[20] It is much rarer than zinc, which makes up about 65 ppm.[21] No significant deposits of cadmium-containing ores are known. The only cadmium mineral of importance, greenockite (CdS), is nearly always associated with sphalerite (ZnS). This association is caused by geochemical similarity between zinc and cadmium, with no geological process likely to separate them. Thus, cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct of mining, smelting, and refining sulfidic ores of zinc, and, to a lesser degree, lead and copper. Small amounts of cadmium, about 10% of consumption, are produced from secondary sources, mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap. Production in the United States began in 1907,[13] but wide use began after World War I.[22][23]

Metallic cadmium can be found in the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia.[24]

Rocks mined for phosphate fertilizers contain varying amounts of cadmium, resulting in a cadmium concentration of as much as 300 mg/kg in the fertilizers and a high cadmium content in agricultural soils.[25][26] Coal can contain significant amounts of cadmium, which ends up mostly in coal fly ash.[27]

Cadmium in soil can be absorbed by crops such as rice and cocoa. In 2002, the Chinese ministry of agriculture measured that 28% of rice it sampled had excess lead and 10% had excess cadmium above limits defined by law. Consumer Reports tested 28 brands of dark chocolate sold in the United States in 2022, and found cadmium in all of them, with 13 exceeding the California Maximum Allowable Dose level.[28]

Some plants such as willow trees and poplars have been found to clean both lead and cadmium from soil.[29]

Typical background concentrations of cadmium do not exceed 5 ng/m3 in the atmosphere; 2 mg/kg in soil; 1 μg/L in freshwater and 50 ng/L in seawater.[30] Concentrations of cadmium above 10 μg/L may be stable in water having low total solute concentrations and p H and can be difficult to remove by conventional water treatment processes.[31]

## Production

Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores, and it is most often isolated during the production of zinc. Some zinc ores concentrates from zinc sulfate ores contain up to 1.4% of cadmium.[32] In the 1970s, the output of cadmium was 2.9 kilograms (6.5 lb) per ton of zinc.[32] Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presence of oxygen, converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide. Zinc metal is produced either by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid. Cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate is precipitated from the electrolysis solution.[23][33]

The British Geological Survey reports that in 2001, China was the top producer of cadmium with almost one-sixth of the world's production, closely followed by South Korea and Japan.[34]

* History of the world production of cadmium

* Cadmium production in 2010

## Applications

Cadmium is a common component of electric batteries, pigments,[35] coatings,[36] and electroplating.[37]

### Batteries

Ni–Cd batteries

In 2009, 86% of cadmium was used in batteries, predominantly in rechargeable nickel–cadmium batteries. Nickel–cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 V. The cell consists of a positive nickel hydroxide electrode and a negative cadmium electrode plate separated by an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide).[38] The European Union put a limit on cadmium in electronics in 2004 of 0.01%,[39] with some exceptions, and in 2006 reduced the limit on cadmium content to 0.002%.[40] Another type of battery based on cadmium is the silver–cadmium battery.

### Electroplating

A photograph and representative spectrum of photoluminescence from colloidal CdSe quantum dots

Cadmium electroplating, consuming 6% of the global production, is used in the aircraft industry to reduce corrosion of steel components.[37] This coating is passivated by chromate salts.[36] A limitation of cadmium plating is hydrogen embrittlement of high-strength steels from the electroplating process. Therefore, steel parts heat-treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa (200 ksi) should be coated by an alternative method (such as special low-embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor deposition).

Titanium embrittlement from cadmium-plated tool residues resulted in banishment of those tools (and the implementation of routine tool testing to detect cadmium contamination) in the A-12/SR-71, U-2, and subsequent aircraft programs that use titanium.[41]

### Nuclear technology

Cadmium is used in the control rods of nuclear reactors, acting as a very effective neutron poison to control neutron flux in nuclear fission.[37] When cadmium rods are inserted in the core of a nuclear reactor, cadmium absorbs neutrons, preventing them from creating additional fission events, thus controlling the amount of reactivity. The pressurized water reactor designed by Westinghouse Electric Company uses an alloy consisting of 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.[37]

### Televisions

QLED TVs have been starting to include cadmium in construction. Some companies have been looking to reduce the environmental impact of human exposure and pollution of the material in televisions during production.[42]

### Anticancer drugs

Complexes based on cadmium and other heavy metals have potential for the treatment of cancer, but their use is often limited due to toxic side effects.[43]

### Compounds

Train painted with cadmium orange

Cadmium oxide was used in black and white television phosphors and in the blue and green phosphors of color television cathode ray tubes.[44] Cadmium sulfide (CdS) is used as a photoconductive surface coating for photocopier drums.[45]

Cadmium sulfide

Various cadmium salts are used in paint pigments, with CdS as a yellow pigment being the most common. Cadmium selenide is a red pigment, commonly called cadmium red. To painters who work with the pigment, cadmium provides the most brilliant and durable yellows, oranges, and reds – so much so that during production, these colors are significantly toned down before they are ground with oils and binders or blended into watercolors, gouaches, acrylics, and other paint and pigment formulations. Because these pigments are potentially toxic, for safety users normally use a barrier cream on the hands to prevent absorption through the skin[35] even though the amount of cadmium absorbed into the body through the skin is reported to be less than 1%.[3]

In PVC, cadmium was used as heat, light, and weathering stabilizers.[37][46] Currently, cadmium stabilizers have been completely replaced with barium-zinc, calcium-zinc and organo-tin stabilizers. Cadmium is used in many kinds of solder and bearing alloys, because it has a low coefficient of friction and fatigue resistance.[37] It is also found in some of the lowest-melting alloys, such as Wood's metal.[47]

### Semiconductors

Cadmium is an element in some semiconductor materials. Cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and cadmium telluride are used in some photodetectors and solar cells. HgCdTe detectors are sensitive to mid-infrared light[37] and used in some motion detectors.

### Laboratory uses

Violet light from a helium cadmium metal vapor laser. The highly monochromatic color arises from the 441.563 nm transition line of cadmium.

Helium–cadmium lasers are a common source of blue or ultraviolet laser light. Lasers at wavelengths of 325, 354 and 442 nm are made using this gain medium; some models can switch between these wavelengths. They are notably used in fluorescence microscopy as well as various laboratory uses requiring laser light at these wavelengths.[48][49]

Cadmium selenide quantum dots emit bright luminescence under UV excitation (He–Cd laser, for example). The color of this luminescence can be green, yellow or red depending on the particle size. Colloidal solutions of those particles are used for imaging of biological tissues and solutions with a fluorescence microscope.[50]

In molecular biology, cadmium is used to block voltage-dependent calcium channels from fluxing calcium ions, as well as in hypoxia research to stimulate proteasome-dependent degradation of Hif-1α.[51]

Cadmium-selective sensors based on the fluorophore BODIPY have been developed for imaging and sensing of cadmium in cells.[52] One powerful method for monitoring cadmium in aqueous environments involves electrochemistry. By employing a self-assembled monolayer one can obtain a cadmium selective electrode with a ppt-level sensitivity.[53]

### Jewelry

In August 2025, within the course of a joint project with the European Commission monitoring online marketplaces such as Temu, AliExpress and Shein, the Latvian Consumer Rights Protection Centre, while testing a selection of best-selling jewelry goods, discovered extreme quantities of cadmium in 60% of the tested products.[54] Some of the items were found to consist mostly of cadmium, at a purity of 80% or higher, in one case — a ring from AliExpress shaped like a snake — an impressive 92% cadmium alloy,[55] evidencing that there is at least one jewelry manufacturer that has been using cadmium at some point as the primary material for its products and may still be doing so.

## Biological role

Cadmium has no known function in higher organisms, and is toxic.[56] Cadmium is considered an environmental pollutant hazardous to living organisms.[57] A cadmium-dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in some marine diatoms,[58] which live in environments with low zinc concentrations.[59]

Exposure to cadmium leads to raised levels in the blood cells for a number of months. In vertebrates cadmium is preferentially absorbed in the kidneys but also in the liver and bones. Up to about 30 mg of cadmium is commonly inhaled throughout human childhood and adolescence.[60] Cadmium is eliminated from the body in very small amounts and mainly through urine resulting in a biological half-life of 20 to 40 years.[61]

Cadmium is under research for its potential toxicity to increase the risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and osteoporosis.[62][63][64][65]

### Environmental impact

The biogeochemistry of cadmium and its release to the environment is under research.[66][67]

## Safety

Main article: Medicine:Cadmium poisoning

Cadmium  Hazards

GHS pictograms |
GHS Signal word | Danger

GHS hazard statements

| HH301Script error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors, HH330Script error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors, HH341Script error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors, HH350Script error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors, HH361fdScript error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors, HH372Script error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors, HH410Script error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors

GHS precautionary statements

| PP201Script error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors, PP202Script error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors, PP260Script error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors, PP264Script error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors, PP273Script error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors, PP304 + P340 + P310Script error: No such module "Preview warning".Category:GHS errors
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)  |

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

Infobox references

Individuals and organizations have been reviewing cadmium's bioinorganic aspects for its toxicity.[69] The most dangerous form of occupational exposure to cadmium is inhalation of fine dust and fumes, or ingestion of highly soluble cadmium compounds.[10] Inhalation of cadmium fumes can result initially in metal fume fever, but may progress to chemical pneumonitis, pulmonary edema, necrosis and death.[70]

Cadmium is also an environmental hazard. Human exposure is primarily from fossil fuel combustion, phosphate fertilizers, natural sources, iron and steel production, cement production and related activities, nonferrous metals production, and municipal solid waste incineration.[10] Other sources of cadmium include bread, root crops, and vegetables.[71]

Jinzū River area, which was contaminated with cadmium

There have been a few instances of general population poisoning as the result of long-term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food and water. Research into an estrogen mimicry that may induce breast cancer is ongoing, as of 2012[update].[71] In the decades leading up to World War II, mining operations contaminated the Jinzū River in Japan with cadmium and traces of other toxic metals. As a consequence, cadmium accumulated in the rice crops along the riverbanks downstream of the mines. Some members of the local agricultural communities consumed the contaminated rice and developed itai-itai disease and renal abnormalities, including proteinuria and glucosuria.[72] The victims of this poisoning were almost exclusively post-menopausal women with low iron and low body stores of other minerals. Similar general population cadmium exposures in other parts of the world have not resulted in the same health problems because the populations maintained sufficient iron and other mineral levels. Thus, although cadmium is a major factor in the itai-itai disease in Japan, most researchers have concluded that it was one of several factors.[10]

Cadmium is one of ten substances banned by the European Union's Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive, which regulates hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, but allows for certain exemptions and exclusions from the scope of the law.[73]

The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified cadmium and cadmium compounds as carcinogenic to humans.[74] Although occupational exposure to cadmium is linked to lung and prostate cancer, there is still uncertainty about the carcinogenicity of cadmium in low environmental exposure. Recent data from epidemiological studies suggest that intake of cadmium through diet is associated with a higher risk of endometrial, breast, and prostate cancer as well as with osteoporosis in humans.[75][76][77][78] A recent study has demonstrated that endometrial tissue is characterized by higher levels of cadmium in current and former smoking females.[79]

Cadmium exposure is associated with a large number of illnesses including kidney disease,[80] early atherosclerosis, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases.[81] Although studies show a significant correlation between cadmium exposure and occurrence of disease in human populations, a molecular mechanism has not yet been identified. One hypothesis holds that cadmium is an endocrine disruptor and some experimental studies have shown that it can interact with different hormonal signaling pathways. For example, cadmium can bind to the estrogen receptor alpha,[82][83] and affect signal transduction along the estrogen and MAPK signaling pathways at low doses.[84][85][86]

The tobacco plant absorbs and accumulates heavy metals such as cadmium from the surrounding soil into its leaves. Following tobacco smoke inhalation, these are readily absorbed into the body of users.[87] Tobacco smoking is the most important single source of cadmium exposure in the general population. An estimated 10% of the cadmium content of a cigarette is inhaled through smoking. Absorption of cadmium through the lungs is more effective than through the gut. As much as 50% of the cadmium inhaled in cigarette smoke may be absorbed.[88] On average, cadmium concentrations in the blood of smokers is 4 to 5 times greater than non-smokers and in the kidney, 2–3 times greater than in non-smokers. Despite the high cadmium content in cigarette smoke, there seems to be little exposure to cadmium from passive smoking.[89]

In a non-smoking population, food accounts for around 90% of cadmium uptake.[90] High quantities of cadmium can be found in crustaceans, mollusks, offal, frog legs, cocoa solids, bitter and semi-bitter chocolate, seaweed, fungi and algae products. However, grains, vegetables, and starchy roots and tubers are consumed in much greater quantity in the U.S., and are the source of the greatest dietary exposure there.[91]

Most plants bio-accumulate metal toxins such as cadmium and when composted to form organic fertilizers, yield a product that often can contain high amounts (e.g., over 0.5 mg) of metal toxins for every kilogram of fertilizer. Fertilizers made from animal dung (e.g., cow dung) or urban waste can contain similar amounts of cadmium. The cadmium added to the soil from fertilizers (rock phosphates or organic fertilizers) become bio-available and toxic only if the soil pH is low (i.e., acidic soils). In the European Union, an analysis of almost 22,000 topsoil samples with LUCAS survey concluded that 5.5% of samples have concentrations higher than 1 mg kg−1.[92]

Zinc, copper, calcium, and iron ions, and selenium with vitamin C are used to treat cadmium intoxication, although it is not easily reversed.[80]

### Regulations

Because of the adverse effects of cadmium on the environment and human health, the supply and use of cadmium is restricted in Europe under the REACH Regulation.

The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain specifies that 2.5 μg/kg body weight is a tolerable weekly intake for humans.[91] The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives has declared 7 μg/kg body weight to be the provisional tolerable weekly intake level.[93] The state of California requires a food label to carry a warning about potential exposure to cadmium on products such as cocoa powder.[94] The European Commission has put in place the EU regulation (2019/1009) on fertilizing products (EU, 2019), adopted in June 2019 and fully applicable as of July 2022. It sets a Cd limit value in phosphate fertilizers to 60 mg kg−1 of P

The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit (PEL) for cadmium at a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.005 ppm. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has not set a recommended exposure limit (REL) and has designated cadmium as a known human carcinogen. The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) level for cadmium is 9 mg/m3.[95]

Lethal dose[96] | Organism  | Route  | Time

|
|
|

LD50: 225 mg/kg  | rat  | oral  | n/a
LD50: 890 mg/kg  | mouse  | oral  | n/a
LC50: 25 mg/m3 | rat  | airborne  | 30 min

In addition to mercury, the presence of cadmium in some batteries has led to the requirement of proper disposal (or recycling) of batteries.

### Product recalls

In May 2006, a sale of the seats from Arsenal F.C.'s old stadium, Highbury in London, England was cancelled when the seats were discovered to contain trace amounts of cadmium.[97] Reports of high levels of cadmium use in children's jewelry in 2010 led to a US Consumer Product Safety Commission investigation.[98] The U.S. CPSC issued specific recall notices for cadmium content in jewelry sold by Claire's[99] and Wal-Mart[100] stores.

In June 2010, McDonald's voluntarily recalled more than 12 million promotional Shrek Forever After 3D Collectible Drinking Glasses because of the cadmium levels in paint pigments on the glassware.[101] The glasses were manufactured by Arc International, of Millville, New Jersey, USA.[102]

## See also

* Red List building materials
* Toxic heavy metal

## Notes

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E.; Wiberg, Nils (1985). "Cadmium" (in de). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie, 91–100. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1056–1057. ISBN 978-3-11-007511-3.
2. ↑ "Cadmium 3.2.6 Solubility". PubChem. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/cadmium#section=Solubility.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM) Cadmium". Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/cadmium/cdcontents.html.
4. ↑ Cotton, F. A. (1999). "Survey of Transition-Metal Chemistry". Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.). John Wiley and Sons. p. 633. ISBN 978-0-471-19957-1.
5. ↑ Carballo, Rosa; Castiñeras, Alfonso; Domínguez-Martin, Alicia; García-Santos, Isabel; Niclós-Guttiérrez, Juan (2013). "Solid State Structures of Cadmium Complexes with Relevance for Biological Systems". in Sigel, Astrid; Sigel, Helmut; Sigel, Roland K. O.. Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 11. Springer. pp. 145–189. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_7. ISBN 978-94-007-5178-1.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties". Chinese Physics C 45 (3). doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae. https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf.
7. ↑ Knoll, G. F. (2000). Radiation Detection and Measurement. Wiley. p. 505. ISBN 978-0-471-07338-3.
8. ↑ Rolof (1795). "Wichtige Nachricht für Aerzte und Apoteker – Entdeckung eines Arsenikgehalts in der Zinkblume und des Zinkvitriols in Tartarus vitriolis". Journal des practischen Arzneykunde und Wundarzneykunst (Hufelands Journal) (2 Februar Stück): 110. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015011938910&view=1up&seq=224.
9. ↑ Hermann, C. S. (1818). "Noch ein schreiben über das neue Metall". Annalen der Physik 59 (5): 113–116. doi:10.1002/andp.18180590511. Bibcode: 1818AnP....59..113H. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k150680/f125.chemindefer.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Morrow, H. (2010). "Cadmium and Cadmium Alloys". Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–36. doi:10.1002/0471238961.0301041303011818.a01.pub3. ISBN 978-0-471-23896-6.
11. ↑ Waterston, W.; Burton, J. H. (1844). Cyclopædia of commerce, mercantile law, finance, commercial geography and navigation. H. G. Bohn. p. 122. https://books.google.com/books?id=84VAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA122.
12. ↑ Rowbotham, T.; Rowbotham, T. L. (1850). The Art of Landscape Painting in Water Colours. Windsor and Newton. p. 10. https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-cHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA10.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Ayres, R. U.; Ayres, L.; Råde, I. (2003). The Life Cycle of Copper, Its Co-Products and Byproducts. Springer. pp. 135–141. ISBN 978-1-4020-1552-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=gGHOz1G3AqwC&pg=PA135.
14. ↑ Dunglison, R. (1866). Medical Lexicon: A Dictionary of Medical Science. Henry C. Lea. pp. 159. https://archive.org/details/medicallexicona02dunggoog.
15. ↑ "International Angstrom". 2013-09-14. http://thesciencedictionary.org/international-angstrom/.
16. ↑ "angstrom or ångström". 2010-10-28. http://www.sizes.com/units/angstrom.htm.
17. ↑ Burdun, G. D. (1958). "On the new determination of the meter". Measurement Techniques 1 (3): 259–264. doi:10.1007/BF00974680. Bibcode: 1958MeasT...1..259B.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Lansche, A. M. (1956). "Cadmium". Minerals Yearbook, Volume I: Metals and Minerals (Except Fuels). United States Geological Survey. http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/EcoNatRes/EcoNatRes-idx?type=turn&entity=EcoNatRes.MinYB1956v1.p0289&id=EcoNatRes.MinYB1956v1&isize=XL&q1=cadmium. Retrieved 21 April 2008.
19. ↑ "USGS Mineral Information: Cadmium". United States Geological Survey. https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cadmium/.
20. ↑ Emsley, John (2003) (in en). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850340-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&dq=“65th+most+abundant+element”&pg=PA78.
21. ↑ Wedepohl, K. H. (1995). "The composition of the continental crust". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59 (7): 1217–1232. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(95)00038-2. Bibcode: 1995GeCoA..59.1217W.
22. ↑ Plachy, J. (1998). "Annual Average Cadmium Price". U.S. Geological Survey. pp. 17–19. https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cadmium/140798.pdf.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Fthenakis, V. M. (2004). "Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe PV production". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 8 (4): 303–334. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2003.12.001. Bibcode: 2004RSERv...8..303F. https://zenodo.org/record/1259335.
24. ↑ Fleischer, M.; Cabri, L. J.; Chao, G. Y.; Pabst, A. (1980). "New Mineral Names". American Mineralogist 65: 1065–1070. http://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM65/AM65_1065.pdf.
25. ↑ Grant, C. A.; Sheppard, S. C. (2008). "Fertilizer impacts on cadmium availability in agricultural soils and crops". Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 14 (2): 210–228. doi:10.1080/10807030801934895. Bibcode: 2008HERA...14..210G.
26. ↑ Jiao, Y.; Grant, C. A.; Bailey, L. D. (2004). "Effects of phosphorus and zinc fertilizer on cadmium uptake and distribution in flax and durum wheat". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 84 (8): 777–785. doi:10.1002/jsfa.1648. Bibcode: 2004JSFA...84..777J.
27. ↑ Bettinelli, M.; Baroni, U.; Pastorelli, N. (1988). "Determination of arsenic, cadmium, lead, antimony, selenium and thallium in coal fly ash using the stabilised temperature platform furnace and Zeeman-effect background correction". Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 3 (7): 1005–1011. doi:10.1039/JA9880301005.
28. ↑ Dark chocolate is high in cadmium and lead. How much is safe to eat?
29. ↑ "The most neglected threat to public health in China is toxic soil". The Economist. 2017-06-08. https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21723128-and-fixing-it-will-be-hard-and-costly-most-neglected-threat-public-health-china.
30. ↑ Rieuwerts, J. (2015). The Elements of Environmental Pollution. Routledge. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-415-85920-2.
31. ↑ Hem, John D. (1972). "Chemistry and occurrence of cadmium and zinc in surface water and groundwater" (in en). Water Resources Research 8 (3): 661–679. doi:10.1029/WR008i003p00661. ISSN 1944-7973. Bibcode: 1972WRR.....8..661H.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Golberg, D. C. (1969). Trends in Usage of Cadmium: Report. US NRC/NAS/NAE. pp. 1–3. https://books.google.com/books?id=okArAAAAYAAJ.
33. ↑ Scoullos, M. J. (2001). Mercury, Cadmium, Lead: Handbook for Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy and Regulation. Springer. pp. 104–116. ISBN 978-1-4020-0224-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=9yzN-QGag_8C&pg=PA104.
34. ↑ Hetherington, L. E. (2008). "Production of Cadmium". World Mineral Production 2002–06. British Geological Survey. p. 15. http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/3260/2/FINAL_WMP_2002_2006_COMPLETE_WEB.pdf. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Buxbaum, Gunter; Pfaff, Gerhard (2005). "Cadmium Pigments". Industrial inorganic pigments. Wiley-VCH. pp. 121–123. ISBN 978-3-527-30363-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=_OrB0ew_HgAC&pg=PA121.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Smith, C.J.E.; Higgs, M.S.; Baldwin, K.R. (20 April 1999). "Advances to Protective Coatings and their Application to Ageing Aircraft". RTO MP-25. http://ftp.rta.nato.int/public//PubFulltext/RTO/MP/RTO-MP-025///MP-025-15.pdf.
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 37.5 37.6 Scoullos, Michael J.; Vonkeman, Gerrit H.; Thornton, Iain; Makuch, Zen (2001). Mercury, Cadmium, Lead: Handbook for Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy and Regulation. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-0224-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=9yzN-QGag_8C.
38. ↑ Krishnamurthy, N. (2 July 2013). Engineering Chemistry, 2nd edition. New York: PHI Learning Private Limited. pp. 82–83. ISBN 978-81-203-3666-7.
39. ↑ Directive 2011/65/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2011 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment
40. ↑ Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators and repealing Directive 91/157/EEC
41. ↑ "CIA – Breaking Through Technological Barriers – Finding The Right Metal (A-12 program)". 1 October 2007. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/a-12/breaking-through-technological-barriers.html.
42. ↑ Maynard, Andrew. "Are quantum dot TVs – and their toxic ingredients – actually better for the environment?" (in en). The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/are-quantum-dot-tvs-and-their-toxic-ingredients-actually-better-for-the-environment-35953.
43. ↑ Abyar, Selda; Khandar, Ali Akbar; Salehi, Roya et al. (December 2019). "In vitro nephrotoxicity and anticancer potency of newly synthesized cadmium complexes" (in en). Scientific Reports 9 (1): 14686. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-51109-9. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 31604983. Bibcode: 2019NatSR...914686A.
44. ↑ Lee, Ching-Hwa; Hsi, C. S. (2002). "Recycling of Scrap Cathode Ray Tubes". Environmental Science & Technology 36 (1): 69–75. doi:10.1021/es010517q. PMID 11811492. Bibcode: 2002EnST...36...69L.
45. ↑ Miller, L. S.; Mullin, J. B. (1991). "Crystalline Cadmium Sulfide". Electronic materials: from silicon to organics. Springer. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-306-43655-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=8Yt6GzSEZRkC&pg=PR18.
46. ↑ Jennings, Thomas C. (2005). "Cadmium Environmental Concerns". PVC handbook. Hanser Verlag. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-56990-379-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=YUkJNI9QYsUC&pg=PA149.
47. ↑ Brady, George Stuart; Brady, George S.; Clauser, Henry R.; Vaccari, John A. (2002). Materials handbook: an encyclopedia for managers, technical professionals, purchasing and production managers, technicians, and supervisors. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 425. ISBN 978-0-07-136076-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=vIhvSQLhhMEC&pg=PA425.
48. ↑ "Helium–Cadmium Lasers". Olympus. http://www.olympusfluoview.com/java/hecdlasers/index.html.
49. ↑ Nambiar, K.R (2006). "Helium–cadmium Laser". Lasers: Principles, Types and Applications. New Age International. ISBN 978-81-224-1492-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=JxASQpi0LXoC&pg=PA488.
50. ↑ "Cadmium Selenium Testing for Microbial Contaminants". NASA. 10 June 2003. http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/abstracts.php?p=3906.
51. ↑ Park J. W., Chun Y. S.; Choi, E.; Kim, G. T.; Choi, H.; Kim, C. H.; Lee, M. J.; Kim, M. S.; Park, J. W. (2000). "Cadmium blocks hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1-mediated response to hypoxia by stimulating the proteasome-dependent degradation of HIF-1alpha". European Journal of Biochemistry 267 (13): 4198–4204. doi:10.1046/j.1432-1327.2000.01453.x. PMID 10866824. Bibcode: 2000EJBio.267.4198C.
52. ↑ Taki, Masayasu (2013). "Imaging and Sensing of Cadmium in Cells". in Astrid Sigel. Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 11. Springer. pp. 99–115. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_5. ISBN 978-94-007-5178-1.
53. ↑ Noyhouzer, Tomer; Mandler, Daniel (2011-01-17). "Determination of low levels of cadmium ions by the under potential deposition on a self-assembled monolayer on gold electrode". Analytica Chimica Acta 684 (1–2): 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2010.10.021. PMID 21167979. Bibcode: 2011AcAC..684....1N.
54. ↑ "CRPC Identifies Violations on Popular Online Marketplaces". Consumer Rights Protection Centre of Republic of Latvia. https://www.ptac.gov.lv/en/article/crpc-identifies-violations-popular-online-marketplaces.
55. ↑ "PTAC konstatē kaitīgu bižutēriju populārajos Ķīnas internetveikalos un brīdina ES valstis". LSM.lv, Latvian Public Service media. https://www.lsm.lv/raksts/zinas/ekonomika/11.10.2025-ptac-konstate-kaitigu-bizuteriju-popularajos-kinas-internetveikalos-un-bridina-es-valstis.a617988/.
56. ↑ Hogan, C. Michael (2010). Heavy metal. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. E. Monosson and C. Cleveland (eds.). Washington DC.
57. ↑ "Melatonin confers cadmium tolerance by modulating critical heavy metal chelators and transporters in radish plants". Journal of Pineal Research 69 (1). August 2020. doi:10.1111/jpi.12659. PMID 32323337. Bibcode: 2020JPinR..6912659X. https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/ws/files/169558801/AAM_XuL_Melatonin_confers_cadmium_tolerance_by_modulating.pdf.
58. ↑ Lane, Todd W.; Saito, Mak A.; George, Graham N. et al. (2005). "A cadmium enzyme from a marine diatom". Nature 435 (42): 42. doi:10.1038/435042a. PMID 15875011. Bibcode: 2005Natur.435...42L. http://www.whoi.edu/cms/files/msaito/2005/5/LaneSaitoMorel_CdCA_Nature2005_2944.pdf. Retrieved 3 December 2008.
59. ↑ Lane, Todd W.; Morel, F. M. (2000). "A biological function for cadmium in marine diatoms". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97 (9): 4627–4631. doi:10.1073/pnas.090091397. PMID 10781068. Bibcode: 2000PNAS...97.4627L.
60. ↑ Perry, HM Jr.; Thind, G. S.; Perry, E. F. (1976). "The biology of cadmium". The Medical Clinics of North America 60 (4): 759–69. doi:10.1016/S0025-7125(16)31859-4. PMID 775217.
61. ↑ Esther Christenhuis: Chapter 6.3 - Cadmium (pdf-document), page 4, WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2000
62. ↑ Luevano, J; Damodaran, C (2014). "A Review of Molecular Events of Cadmium-Induced Carcinogenesis". Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology 33 (3): 183–194. doi:10.1615/jenvironpatholtoxicoloncol.2014011075. PMID 25272057.
63. ↑ Rahim, F; Jalali, A; Tangestani, R (2013). "Breast cancer frequency and exposure to cadmium: A meta-analysis and systematic review". Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention 14 (7): 4283–7. doi:10.7314/apjcp.2013.14.7.4283. PMID 23991990. http://journal.waocp.org/article_27945_d5fc7ccf25acb7c8169ba197aa4355ba.pdf.
64. ↑ Tellez-Plaza, M; Jones, M. R.; Dominguez-Lucas, A; Guallar, E; Navas-Acien, A (2013). "Cadmium Exposure and Clinical Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review". Current Atherosclerosis Reports 15 (10): 10.1007/s11883–013–0356–2. doi:10.1007/s11883-013-0356-2. PMID 23955722.
65. ↑ James, K. A.; Meliker, J. R. (2013). "Environmental cadmium exposure and osteoporosis: A review". International Journal of Public Health 58 (5): 737–45. doi:10.1007/s00038-013-0488-8. PMID 23877535.
66. ↑ Cullen, Jay T.; Maldonado, Maria T. (2013). "Biogeochemistry of Cadmium and Its Release to the Environment". in Astrid Sigel. Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 11. Springer. pp. 31–62. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_2. ISBN 978-94-007-5178-1.
67. ↑ Crea, Francesco; Foti, Claudia; Milea, Demetrio; Sammartano, Silvio (2013). "Speciation of Cadmium in the Environment". in Astrid Sigel. Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 11. Springer. pp. 63–83. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_3. ISBN 978-94-007-5178-1.
68. ↑ GHS: "Safety Data Sheet". Sigma-Aldrich. 2021-09-12. https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/MSDS/MSDS/DisplayMSDSPage.do?country=US&language=en&productNumber=265454&brand=ALDRICH&PageToGoToURL=https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/aldrich/265454?lang=en.
69. ↑ Maret, Wolfgang; Moulis, Jean-Marc (2013). "The Bioinorganic Chemistry of Cadmium in the Context of Its Toxicity". in Astrid Sigel. Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 11. Springer. pp. 1–30. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_1. ISBN 978-94-007-5178-1.
70. ↑ Hayes, Andrew Wallace (2007). Principles and Methods of Toxicology. Philadelphia: CRC Press. pp. 858–861. ISBN 978-0-8493-3778-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=vgHXTId8rnYC.
71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Mann, Denise (23 April 2012) Can Heavy Metal in Foods, Cosmetics Spur Breast Cancer Spread? HealthDayBy via Yahoo
72. ↑ Nogawa, Koji; Kobayashi, E.; Okubo, Y.; Suwazono, Y. (2004). "Environmental cadmium exposure, adverse effects, and preventative measures in Japan". Biometals 17 (5): 581–587. doi:10.1023/B:BIOM.0000045742.81440.9c. PMID 15688869.
73. ↑ 2006/690/EC: Commission Decision of 12 October 2006 amending, for the purposes of adapting to technical progress, the Annex to Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards exemptions for applications of lead in crystal glass (notified under document number C(2006) 4789)
74. ↑ IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (1993). Beryllium, cadmium, mercury, and exposures in the glass manufacturing industry. Geneva: International Agency for Research on Cancer, Secretariat of the World Health Organization. ISBN 92-832-1258-4. OCLC 29943893.
75. ↑ Julin, B.; Wolk, A.; Johansson, J. E.; Andersson, S. O.; Andrén, O.; Akesson, A. (2012). "Dietary cadmium exposure and prostate cancer incidence: A population-based prospective cohort study". British Journal of Cancer 107 (5): 895–900. doi:10.1038/bjc.2012.311. PMID 22850555.
76. ↑ Engström, A.; Michaëlsson, K.; Vahter, M.; Julin, B.; Wolk, A.; Åkesson, A. (2012). "Associations between dietary cadmium exposure and bone mineral density and risk of osteoporosis and fractures among women". Bone 50 (6): 1372–8. doi:10.1016/j.bone.2012.03.018. PMID 22465267.
77. ↑ Julin, B.; Wolk, A.; Bergkvist, L.; Bottai, M.; Akesson, A. (2012). "Dietary cadmium exposure and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer: A population-based prospective cohort study". Cancer Research 72 (6): 1459–66. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-11-0735. PMID 22422990.
78. ↑ Akesson, A.; Julin, B.; Wolk, A. (2008). "Long-term dietary cadmium intake and postmenopausal endometrial cancer incidence: A population-based prospective cohort study". Cancer Research 68 (15): 6435–41. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-08-0329. PMID 18676869.
79. ↑ Rzymski, P.; Rzymski, P.; Tomczyk, K.; Niedzielski, P.; Jakubowski, K.; Poniedziałek, B.; Opala, T. (2014). "Metal status in human endometrium: Relation to cigarette smoking and histological lesions". Environmental Research 132: 328–33. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2014.04.025. PMID 24834829. Bibcode: 2014ER....132..328R.
80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 "ARL: Cadmium Toxicity". http://www.arltma.com/Articles/CadmiumToxDoc.htm.
81. ↑ Cadmium Exposure can Induce Early Atherosclerotic Changes , Medinews Direct, 7 September 2009
82. ↑ Fechner, P.; Damdimopoulou, P.; Gauglitz, G. (2011). "Biosensors paving the way to understanding the interaction between cadmium and the estrogen receptor alpha". PLOS ONE 6 (8). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0023048. PMID 21829690. Bibcode: 2011PLoSO...623048F.
83. ↑ Stoica, A.; Katzenellenbogen, B. S.; Martin, M. B. (2000). "Activation of estrogen receptor-alpha by the heavy metal cadmium". Molecular Endocrinology 14 (4): 545–53. doi:10.1210/mend.14.4.0441. PMID 10770491.
84. ↑ Ali, I.; Penttinen-Damdimopoulou, P. E.; Mäkelä, S. I.; Berglund, M.; Stenius, U.; Akesson, A.; Håkansson, H.; Halldin, K. (2010). "Estrogen-like effects of cadmium in vivo do not appear to be mediated via the classical estrogen receptor transcriptional pathway". Environmental Health Perspectives 118 (10): 1389–94. doi:10.1289/ehp.1001967. PMID 20525538. Bibcode: 2010EnvHP.118.1389A.
85. ↑ Ali, I.; Damdimopoulou, P.; Stenius, U.; Adamsson, A.; Mäkelä, S. I.; Åkesson, A.; Berglund, M.; Håkansson, H. et al. (2012). "Cadmium-induced effects on cellular signaling pathways in the liver of transgenic estrogen reporter mice". Toxicological Sciences 127 (1): 66–75. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfs077. PMID 22314386.
86. ↑ Johnson, M. D.; Kenney, N.; Stoica, A.; Hilakivi-Clarke, L.; Singh, B.; Chepko, G.; Clarke, R.; Sholler, P. F. et al. (2003). "Cadmium mimics the in vivo effects of estrogen in the uterus and mammary gland". Nature Medicine 9 (8): 1081–4. doi:10.1038/nm902. PMID 12858169.
87. ↑ Dias, Fábio de S.; Bonsucesso, Josemário S.; Oliveira, Lucas C.; Dos Santos, Walter N.L. (2012). "Preconcentration and determination of copper in tobacco leaves samples by using a minicolumn of sisal fiber (Agave sisalana) loaded with Alizarin fluorine blue by FAAS". Talanta 89 (1): 276–279. doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2011.12.027. PMID 22284492.
88. ↑ Friberg, L. (1983). "Cadmium". Annual Review of Public Health 4 (1): 367–73. doi:10.1146/annurev.pu.04.050183.002055. PMID 6860444. Bibcode: 1983ARPH....4..367F.
89. ↑ Jarup, L. (1998). "Health effects of cadmium exposure – a review of the literature and a risk estimate". Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 24: 11–51. PMID 9569444.
90. ↑ Final review of scientific information on cadmium (pdf-document), United Nations Environment Programme, Chemicals Branch, DTIE, December 2010
91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 Authority, European Food Safety (2012-01-18). Cadmium dietary exposure in the European population – European Food Safety Authority. 10. p. 2551. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2551. http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2551.
92. ↑ Ballabio, Cristiano; Jones, Arwyn; Panagos, Panos (2024-02-01). "Cadmium in topsoils of the European Union – An analysis based on LUCAS topsoil database" (in en). Science of the Total Environment 912. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168710. PMID 38008327. Bibcode: 2024ScTEn.91268710B.
93. ↑ "JECFA Evaluations-CADMIUM-". http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jeceval/jec_297.htm.
94. ↑ "Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds". 2010-01-13. https://www.p65warnings.ca.gov/fact-sheets/cadmium-and-cadmium-compounds.
95. ↑ NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0087". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0087.html.
96. ↑ "Cadmium compounds (as Cd)". Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health Concentrations (IDLH). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/7440439.html.
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98. ↑ "U.S. to Develop Safety Standards for Toxic Metals". Business Week. 12 January 2010. http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-01-12/u-s-to-develop-safety-standards-for-toxic-metals-update1-.html.
99. ↑ "Claire's Recalls Children's Metal Charm Bracelets Due to High Levels of Cadmium". U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. 10 May 2010. http://www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PREREL/prhtml10/10227.html.
100. ↑ "FAF Inc. Recalls Children's Necklaces Sold Exclusively at Walmart Stores Due to High Levels of Cadmium". U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. 29 January 2010. http://www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PREREL/prhtml10/10127.html.
101. ↑ Neuman, William (4 June 2010). "McDonald's Recalls 12 Million 'Shrek' Glasses". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/05/business/05recall.html.
102. ↑ "McDonald's Recalls Movie Themed Drinking Glasses Due to Potential Cadmium Risk". U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. 4 June 2010. http://www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PREREL/prhtml10/10257.html.

## Further reading

* Hartwig, Andrea (2013). "Cadmium and Cancer". in Astrid Sigel. Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 11. Springer. pp. 491–507. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_15. ISBN 978-94-007-5178-1.
* Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2012). Toxicological Profile for Cadmium. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp5.pdf
* Nordberg, Gunnar F. (2007) (in English). Handbook on the toxicology of metals (3rd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 445–486. ISBN 978-0-12-369413-3.

## External links

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* Cadmium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
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2 | Li | Be |  | B | C | N | O | F | Ne
3 | Na | Mg |  | Al | Si | P | S | Cl | Ar
4 | K | Ca |  | Sc | Ti | V | Cr | Mn | Fe | Co | Ni | Cu | Zn | Ga | Ge | As | Se | Br | Kr
5 | Rb | Sr |  | Y | Zr | Nb | Mo | Tc | Ru | Rh | Pd | Ag | Cd | In | Sn | Sb | Te | I | Xe
6 | Cs | Ba | La | Ce | Pr | Nd | Pm | Sm | Eu | Gd | Tb | Dy | Ho | Er | Tm | Yb | Lu | Hf | Ta | W | Re | Os | Ir | Pt | Au | Hg | Tl | Pb | Bi | Po | At | Rn
7 | Fr | Ra | Ac | Th | Pa | U | Np | Pu | Am | Cm | Bk | Cf | Es | Fm | Md | No | Lr | Rf | Db | Sg | Bh | Hs | Mt | Ds | Rg | Cn | Nh | Fl | Mc | Lv | Ts | Og

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Cadmium compounds

Cadmium(I)|

* Cd2(AlCl4)2

Cadmium(II)|

* Cd(BF4)2
* CdF2
* CdCl2
* CdBr2
* CdI2
* Cd(CN)2
* CdH2
* CdO
* CdS
* CdSe
* CdTe
* Cd(OH)2
* Cd(NO3)2
* CdSO4
* CdWO4
* Cd3As2
* CsCdCl3
* CsCdBr3

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