Mars sample-return mission

Short description: Mars mission to collect rock and dust samples

Mars sample return – artist's concept

A Mars sample-return (MSR) mission is a proposed mission to collect rock and dust samples on Mars and return them to Earth.[1] Such a mission would allow more extensive analysis than that allowed by onboard sensors.[2]

Risks of cross-contamination of the Earth biosphere from returned Martian samples have been raised, though the risk of this occurring is considered to be low.[3]

Some of the most recent concepts are a NASA-ESA proposal; a CNSA proposal, Tianwen-3 and a Roscosmos proposal, Mars-Grunt. In addition, a JAXA proposal, Martian Moons eXploration (MMX,) is aimed at returning samples from Phobos. Although NASA and ESA's plans to return the samples to Earth are still in the design stage as of 2024[update], samples have been gathered on Mars by the Perseverance rover.[4]

## Contents

* 1 Scientific value
* 2 History
* 2.1 Before 1990
* 2.2 1990 onward
* 2.3 Mars 2020 mission
* 3 Proposals
* 3.1 NASA–ESA
* 3.2 China
* 3.3 France
* 3.4 Japan
* 3.5 Russia
* 4 Back contamination
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 External links

## Scientific value

Mars meteorites in the Natural History Museum in Vienna

Once returned to Earth, stored samples can be studied with the most sophisticated science instruments available. Thomas Zurbuchen, associate administrator for science at NASA Headquarters in Washington, expects such studies to allow several new discoveries at many fields.[5] Samples may be reanalyzed in the future by instruments that do not yet exist.[6]

In 2006, the Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group identified 55 important investigations related to Mars exploration. In 2008, they concluded that about half of the investigations "could be addressed to one degree or another by MSR", making MSR "the single mission that would make the most progress towards the entire list" of investigations. Moreover, it was reported that a significant fraction of the investigations could not be meaningfully advanced without returned samples.[7]

One source of Mars samples is what are thought to be Martian meteorites, which are rocks ejected from Mars that made their way to Earth. As of August 2023[update], 356 meteorites had been identified as Martian, out of over 79,000 known meteorites.[8] These meteorites are believed to be from Mars because their elemental and isotopic compositions are similar to rocks and atmospheric gases analyzed on Mars.[9]

## History

### Before 1990

Artist concept of a Mars sample-return mission, 1979

Returning from Mars appeared in technical literature when Apollo was still in development and the first spacecraft to fly past Mars had not yet launched, with an expectation that people would be on board for Mars ascent.[10] The density of the Mars atmosphere remained unknown at that time, so the Lockheed engineering author reported the analysis of trajectory options over a range of aerodynamic drag conditions for a 15-ton launch vehicle to reach a rendezvous orbit.

At NASA, returning samples from Mars was studied jointly by the Langley Research Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in the early 1970s during the time that the Viking Mars lander mission was in development, and a Langley author noted that the "Mars surface-to-orbit launch vehicle" would need high performance because its mass would "have a substantial impact on the mass and systems requirements" for earlier mission phases, delivery of that vehicle to Mars and launch preparations on Mars.[11]

For at least three decades, scientists have advocated the return of geological samples from Mars.[12] One early concept was the Sample Collection for Investigation of Mars (SCIM) proposal, which involved sending a spacecraft in a grazing pass through Mars's upper atmosphere to collect dust and air samples without landing or orbiting.[13]

The Soviet Union considered a Mars sample-return mission, Mars 5NM, in 1975 but it was cancelled due to the repeated failures of the N1 rocket that would have launched it. Another sample-return mission, Mars 5M (Mars-79), planned for 1979, was cancelled due to complexity and technical problems.[14]

In the mid-1980's, JPL mission planners noted that MSR had been "pushed by budgetary and other pressures into the '90s," and that the round trip would "impose large propulsion requirements."[15] They presented a notional mass budget for a concept that would launch a 9.5-metric-ton payload from Earth, including a Mars orbiter for Earth return, and a lander having a 400-kg rover and a "Mars return vehicle" that would mass over 2 metric tons. A 20-kg sample canister would arrive at Earth containing 5 kg of samples including scientific-quality cores drilled from every type of Mars terrain.

In the late 1980s, multiple NASA centers contributed to a proposed Mars Rover Sample Return mission (MRSR).[16][17] As described by JPL authors, one option for MRSR relied on a single launch of a 12-ton package including a Mars orbiter and Earth return vehicle, a 700-kg rover, and a 2.7-ton Mars ascent vehicle (MAV) which would use pump-fed liquid propulsion for a significant mass saving.[18] A 20-kg sample package on the MAV was to contain 5 kg of Mars soil. A Johnson Space Center author subsequently referred to a launch from Earth in 1998 with a MAV mass in the range 1400 to 1500 kg including a pump-fed first stage and a pressure-fed second stage.[19]

### 1990 onward

Artist concept of a Mars sample-return mission, 1993

The United States' Mars Exploration Program, formed after Mars Observer's failure in September 1993, supported a Mars sample return.[20] One architecture was proposed by Glenn J. MacPherson in the early 2000s.[2]

In 1996, the possibility of life on Mars was raised when apparent microfossils were thought to have been found in the Martian meteorite ALH84001. This hypothesis was eventually rejected, but led to a renewed interest in a Mars sample return.[21]

In the mid-1990s, NASA funded JPL and Lockheed Martin to study affordable small-scale MSR mission architectures including a concept to return 500 grams of Mars samples using a 100-kg MAV that would meet a small Mars orbiter for rendezvous and return to Earth.[22] Robert Zubrin, a long-time advocate for human Mars missions, concluded in 1996 that the best approach to MSR would be launching directly to Earth using propellants made on Mars, because a rendezvous in Mars orbit would be too risky and he estimated that a direct-return MAV would mass 500 kg, too heavy to send to Mars affordably if fully fueled on Earth.[23] International peer reviewers concurred.[24] In 1997, a detailed analysis of conventional small-scale rocket technology (both solid and liquid propellant) found that known propulsion components would be too heavy to build a MAV as lightweight as several hundred kilograms and "The application of launch vehicle design principles to the development of new hardware on a tiny scale" was suggested.[25]

In 1998, JPL presented a design for a two-stage pressure-fed liquid bipropellant MAV that would be 600 kilograms or less at Mars liftoff, intended for a MSR mission in 2005.[26] The same JPL author collaborated on a notional single-stage 200-kg MAV intended to be made small by using pump-fed propulsion to permit lightweight low-pressure liquid propellant tanks and compact high-pressure thrust chambers.[27] This mass advantage of pump-fed operation was applied to a conceptual 100-kg MAV having a mass budget consistent with reaching Mars orbit using monopropellant, partly enabled by the simplicity of a single tank, also applicable to Mars landing typically done with monopropellant.[28] The high-pressure thrusters and pump had previously been demonstrated in the 1994 flight of an experimental 21-kg rocket.[29]

As of late 1999, the MSR mission was anticipated to be launched from Earth in 2003 and 2005.[30] Each was to deliver a rover and a Mars ascent vehicle, and a French supplied Mars orbiter with Earth return capability was to be included in 2005. The 140-kg MAV, "in the process of being contracted to industry" at that time, was to include telemetry on its first stage and thrusters that would spin the vehicle to 300 RPM before separation of the simplified lightweight upper stage. Atop each MAV, a 3.6-kg, 16-cm diameter spherical payload would contain 500 grams of samples and have solar cells to power a long-life beacon to facilitate rendezvous with the Earth return orbiter. The orbiter would capture the sample containers delivered by both MAVs and place them in separate Earth entry vehicles. This mission concept, considered by NASA's Mars Exploration Program to return samples by 2008,[31] was cancelled following a program review.[32]

In mid-2006, the International Mars Architecture for the Return of Samples (iMARS) Working Group was chartered by the International Mars Exploration Working Group (IMEWG) to outline the scientific and engineering requirements of an internationally sponsored and executed Mars sample-return mission in the 2018–2023 time frame.[7]

In October 2009, NASA and ESA established the Mars Exploration Joint Initiative to proceed with the ExoMars program, whose ultimate aim is "the return of samples from Mars in the 2020s".[33][34] ExoMars's first mission was planned to launch in 2018[6][35] with unspecified missions to return samples in the 2020–2022 time frame.[36] The cancellation of the caching rover MAX-C in 2011, and later NASA withdrawal from ExoMars, due to budget limitations, ended the mission.[37] The pull-out was described as "traumatic" for the science community.[37]

In early 2011, the US National Research Council's Planetary Science Decadal Survey, which laid out mission planning priorities for the period 2013–2022, declared an MSR campaign its highest priority Flagship Mission for that period.[38] In particular, it endorsed the proposed Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher (MAX-C) mission in a "descoped" (less ambitious) form. This mission plan was officially cancelled in April 2011.

A key mission requirement for the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover mission was that it help prepare for MSR.[39][40][41] The rover landed on 18 February 2021 in Jezero Crater to collect samples and store them in 43 cylindrical tubes for later retrieval.

Image of one of the sample tubes. Its appearance has been noted to have similarities with a Lightsaber from the Star Wars movies.[42]

### Mars 2020 mission

Perseverance rover

The Mars 2020 mission landed the Perseverance rover in the Jezero crater in February 2021. It has collected multiple samples and will continue to do so, packing them into cylinders for later return in the MSR Campaign. Jezero appears to be an ancient lakebed, suitable for ground sampling.[43][44][45] It is also assigned the task to return the samples directly to the Sample Return lander, considering its potential mission longevity.

Mars Sample Depot at 3 forks

This section is an excerpt from Perseverance (rover) § Samples cached for the Mars sample-return mission[ edit ]

From 21 December 2022, Perseverance started a campaign to deposit 10 of its collected samples to the backup depot (Three Forks), to ensure that if Perseverance runs into problems, the MSR campaign could still succeed.

## Proposals

### NASA–ESA

Mars Sample Return Program[46]
(artwork; 27 July 2022)

File:20221114MSRAnimationTrailer-1920 (1) Bringing Mars Rock Samples Back to Earth.webm The NASA-ESA plan[47] is to return samples using three missions: a sample collection mission (Perseverance) launched in 2020 and currently operational, a sample retrieval mission (Sample Retrieval Lander + Mars ascent vehicle + Sample Transfer arm + 2 Ingenuity class helicopters), and a return mission (Earth Return Orbiter).[48][49][50]

Although NASA and ESA's proposal is still in the design stage, the first leg of gathering samples is currently being executed by the Perseverance rover on Mars and components of the sample retrieval lander (second leg) are in testing phase on earth.[4][51][52] The later phases were facing significant cost overruns as of August 2023.[53][54] In November 2023, NASA was reported to have cut back the program due to a possible shortage of funds.[55] As of January 2024, the plan was facing ongoing scrutiny due to budget and scheduling considerations, and a new overhaul plan was being pursued.[56] In April 2024, NASA reported that the originally projected cost of $7 billion and expected sample return of 2033 was updated to an unacceptable $11 billion and return of 2040 instead, prompting the agency to search for a better solution.[57]

### China

China has announced plans for a Mars sample-return mission to be called Tianwen-3.[58] The mission would launch in late-2028, with a lander and ascent vehicle on a Long March 5 and an orbiter and return module launched separately on a Long March 3B. Samples would be returned to Earth in July 2031.[59]

A previous plan would have used a large spacecraft that could carry out all mission phases, including sample collection, ascent, orbital rendezvous, and return flight. This would have required the super-heavy-lift Long March 9 launch vehicle.[60][61][62] Another plan involved using Tianwen-1 to cache the samples for retrieval.[63]

### France

France has worked towards a sample return for many years. This included concepts of an extraterrestrial sample curation facility for returned samples, and numerous proposals. They worked on the development of a Mars sample-return orbiter, which would capture and return the samples as part of a joint mission with other countries.[64]

### Japan

On 9 June 2015, the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) unveiled a plan named Martian Moons Exploration (MMX) to retrieve samples from Phobos or Deimos.[65][66] Phobos's orbit is closer to Mars and its surface may have captured particles blasted from Mars.[67] The launch from Earth is planned for 2026, with a return to Earth in 2031.[68][69] Japan has also shown interest in participating in an international Mars sample-return mission.

### Russia

Main article: Astronomy:Mars-Grunt

A Russian Mars sample-return mission concept is Mars-Grunt.[70][71][72][73][74] It adopted Fobos-Grunt design heritage.[71] 2011 plans envisioned a two-stage architecture with an orbiter and a lander (but no roving capability),[75] with samples gathered from around the lander by a robotic arm.[70][76]

## Back contamination

OSIRIS-REx sample return capsule in Utah from asteroid 101955 Bennu

Whether life forms exist on Mars is unresolved. Thus, MSR could potentially transfer viable organisms to Earth, resulting in back contamination — the introduction of extraterrestrial organisms into Earth's biosphere. The scientific consensus is that the potential for large-scale effects, either through pathogenesis or ecological disruption, is small.[7][77][78][79][80] Returned samples would be treated as potentially biohazardous until scientists decide the samples are safe. The goal is that the probability of release of a Mars particle is less than one in a million.[77]

The proposed NASA Mars sample-return mission will not be approved by NASA until the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) process has been completed.[81] Furthermore, under the terms of Article VII of the Outer Space Treaty and other legal frameworks, were a release of organisms to occur, the releasing nation(s) would be liable for any resultant damages.[82]

The sample-return mission would be tasked with preventing contact between the Martian environment and the exterior of the sample containers.[77][81]

In order to eliminate the risk of parachute failure, the current plan is to use the thermal protection system to cushion the capsule upon impact (at terminal velocity). The sample container would be designed to withstand the force of impact.[81] To receive the returned samples, NASA proposed a custom Biosafety Level 4 containment facility, the Mars Sample-Return Receiving facility (MSRRF).[83]

Other scientists and engineers, notably Robert Zubrin of the Mars Society, argued in the Journal of Cosmology that contamination risk is functionally zero leaving little need to worry. They cite, among other things, lack of any known incident although trillions of kilograms of material have been exchanged between Mars and Earth via meteorite impacts.[84]

The International Committee Against Mars Sample Return (ICAMSR) is an advocacy group led by Barry DiGregorio, that campaigns against a Mars sample-return mission. While ICAMSR acknowledges a low probability for biohazards, it considers the proposed containment measures to be unsafe. ICAMSR advocates more in situ studies on Mars, and preliminary biohazard testing at the International Space Station before the samples are brought to Earth.[85][86] DiGregorio also supports a view that several pathogens – such as common viruses – originate in space and probably caused some mass extinctions and pandemics.[87][88] These claims connecting terrestrial disease and extraterrestrial pathogens have been rejected by the scientific community.[87]

## See also

* Timeline of Solar System exploration

## References

1. ↑ Chang, Kenneth (28 July 2020). "Bringing Mars Rocks to Earth: Our Greatest Interplanetary Circus Act – NASA and the European Space Agency plan to toss rocks from one spacecraft to another before the samples finally land on Earth in 2031". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/28/science/mars-sample-return-mission.html.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Treiman, Allan H.; Wadhwa, Meenakshi; Shearer, Charles K. Jr.; MacPherson, Glenn J.; Papike, James J.; Wasserburg, Gerald J.; Floss, Christine; Rutherford, Malcolm J.; Flynn, George J.; Papanastassiou, Dimitri; Westphal, Andrew; Neal, Clive; Jones, John H.; Harvey, Ralph P.; Schwenzer, Suzsanne. Groundbreaking Sample Return from Mars: The Next Giant Leap in Understanding the Red Planet (PDF) (Technical report). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2022.
3. ↑ David, Leonard (23 June 2022). "Controversy Grows Over whether Mars Samples Endanger Earth – Planetary scientists are eager to bring Red Planet rocks, soil and even air to Earth, but critics fear the risk of contaminating our world's biosphere". Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/controversy-grows-over-whether-mars-samples-endanger-earth/. Retrieved 25 June 2022.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Mars Sample Return Campaign". NASA. https://mars.nasa.gov/msr/.
5. ↑ "NASA's Perseverance Rover Collects First Mars Rock Sample". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 6 September 2021. https://mars.nasa.gov/news/9029/nasas-perseverance-rover-collects-first-mars-rock-sample/.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Beyond 2009: Mars Sample Return". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/future/futureMissions.html. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Thee International Mars Architecture for the Return of Samples (iMARS) Working Group (1 June 2008). Preliminary Planning for an International Mars Sample Return Mission (PDF) (Technical report). NASA. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 June 2022. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
8. ↑ "Meteoritical Bulletin: Search the Database". Lunar and Planetary Institute. https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meteor/metbull.php?sea=&sfor=names&ants=&nwas=&falls=&valids=&stype=contains&lrec=50&map=ge&browse=&country=All&srt=name&categ=Martian+meteorites&mblist=All&rect=&phot=&strewn=&snew=0&pnt=Normal table&dr=&page=1.
9. ↑ Treiman, A.H. (October 2000). "The SNC meteorites are from Mars". Planetary and Space Science 48 (12–14): 1213–1230. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(00)00105-7. Bibcode: 2000P&SS...48.1213T.
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11. ↑ Weaver, W. L. (June 1974). "Mars Surface-to-Orbit Vehicles for Sample Return Missions". Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 11 (6): 426–428. doi:10.2514/3.62092. ISSN 0022-4650. Bibcode: 1974JSpRo..11..426W. https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/3.62092.
12. ↑ Space Studies Board; National Research Council (2011). Vision and Voyages for Planetary Science in the Decade 2013–2022. National Academies Press (Technical report). NASA. p. 6‑21. ISBN 9780309224642. LCCN 2011944161. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
13. ↑ Jones, S. M.; Jurewicz, J. G.; Wiens, R.; Yen, A.; Leshin, L. A. (2008). Ground Truth From Mars (2008) – Mars Sample Return at 6 Kilometers per Second: Practical, Low Cost, Low Risk, and Ready (PDF) (Technical report). Universities Space Research Association (USRA). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
14. ↑ Harvey, Brian (2007). Russian Planetary Exploration: History, Development, Legacy and Prospects. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 238. ISBN 978-0-387-46343-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=8XC0WlTuujgC&pg=PA238.
15. ↑ French, J.R.; Norton, H.N.; Klein, G.A. (November 1985). "Mars sample-return options". Aerospace America 23 (11): 50–58. https://archive.org/details/sim_aerospace-america_1985-11_23_11/page/n51.
16. ↑ Cohen, A. (November 1988). "Mars Rover Sample Return mission delivery and return challenges". 1st International Symposium on Space Automation and Robotics. Arlington, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.1988-5007. AIAA 1988-5007. https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1988-5007.
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18. ↑ Palaszewski, B.; Frisbee, R. (July 1988). "Advanced propulsion for the Mars Rover Sample Return Mission" (in en). 24th Joint Propulsion Conference. Boston, MA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.1988-2900. AIAA 1988-2900. https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1988-2900.
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22. ↑ Wallace, R.; Gamber, R.; Clark, B.; Sutter, B. (January 1996). "Low cost Mars Sample Return mission options". 34th Aerospace Sciences Meeting. Reno, NV: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.1996-336. AIAA 1996-336. https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1996-336.
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30. ↑ Price, H.; Cramer, K.; Doudrick, S.; Lee, W.; Matijevic, J.; Weinstein, S.; Lam-Trong, T.; Marsal, O. et al. (2000). "Mars Sample Return spacecraft systems architecture". 2000 IEEE Aerospace Conference. 7. pp. 357–375. doi:10.1109/AERO.2000.879302. ISBN 978-0-7803-5846-1.
31. ↑ Newcott, William (1 August 1998). "Return to Mars". National Geographic Magazine.
32. ↑ "MarsNews.com: Mars Sample Return". 27 February 2015. http://www.marsnews.com/missions/sample_return.
33. ↑ "NASA and ESA Establish a Mars Exploration Joint Initiative". NASA. 8 July 2009. https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mars/news/mars-20090708.html. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
34. ↑ Christensen, Phil (April 2010). "Planetary Science Decadal Survey: MSR Lander Mission". JPL. NASA. https://archive.org/details/MarsSampleReturnLanderMissionConceptStudy. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
35. ↑ "Date set for Mars sample mission". BBC. 10 July 2008. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7500371.stm.
36. ↑ "Mars Sample Return: bridging robotic and human exploration". European Space Agency. 21 July 2008. http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Aurora/SEMT8WWIPIF_0.html.
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Wal, Michael (22 August 2012). "International cooperation called key to planet exploration". NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/id/48753850.
38. ↑ "Exploring Our Solar System: The Asteroids Act as a Key Step". United States Government Publishing Office. 10 September 2014. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-113hhrg92326/html/CHRG-113hhrg92326.htm.
39. ↑ Foust, Jeff (20 July 2016). "Mars 2020 rover mission to cost more than US$2 billion". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/mars-2020-rover-mission-to-cost-more-than-2-billion/.
40. ↑ Evans, Kim (13 October 2015). "NASA Eyes Sample-Return Capability for Post-2020 Mars Orbiter". Denver Museum of Nature and Science. http://www.dmns.org/museum-blog/Post/?nid=23546.
41. ↑ Mattingly, Richard (March 2010). "Mission Concept Study: Planetary Science Decadal Survey – MSR Orbiter Mission (Including Mars Returned Sample Handling)". NASA. http://sites.nationalacademies.org/cs/groups/ssbsite/documents/webpage/ssb_059308.pdf. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
42. ↑ Howell, Elizabeth (22 December 2022). "NASA's Mars Perseverance rover sample tubes look like Star Wars lightsabers". Space.com. https://www.space.com/nasa-mars-perseverance-rover-sample-tubes-lightsabers.
43. ↑ "Welcome to 'Octavia E. Butler Landing'". NASA. 5 March 2021. https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/25701/welcome-to-octavia-e-butler-landing/.
44. ↑ Voosen, Paul (31 July 2021). "Mars rover's sampling campaign begins". Science (AAAS) 373 (6554): 477. doi:10.1126/science.373.6554.477. PMID 34326215. Bibcode: 2021Sci...373..477V. https://www.science.org/content/article/nasa-s-perseverance-rover-drill-first-samples-martian-rock. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
45. ↑ "On the Eve of Perseverance's First Sample". NASA. 5 August 2021. https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/mission/status/319/on-the-eve-of-perseverances-first-sample/.
46. ↑ Chang, Kenneth (27 July 2022). "NASA Will Send More Helicopters to Mars". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/27/science/mars-sample-mission-nasa.html.
47. ↑ Berger, Eric (2023-09-21). "Independent reviewers find NASA Mars Sample Return plans are seriously flawed" (in en-us). https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/09/independent-review-finds-mars-sample-return-mission-important-but-broken/.
48. ↑ Foust, Jeff (27 March 2022). "NASA to delay Mars Sample Return, switch to dual-lander approach". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/nasa-to-delay-mars-sample-return-switch-to-dual-lander-approach/.
49. ↑ "Future Planetary Exploration: New Mars Sample Return Plan". 8 December 2009. https://futureplanets.blogspot.com/2009/12/new-mars-sample-return-plan.html.
50. ↑ "Mars sample return". ESA. https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Exploration/Mars_sample_return.
51. ↑ "NASA Mars Ascent Vehicle Continues Progress Toward Mars Sample Return". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 2023-07-31. https://mars.nasa.gov/news/9448/nasa-mars-ascent-vehicle-continues-progress-toward-mars-sample-return.
52. ↑ "NASA Begins Testing Robotics to Bring First Samples Back From Mars". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 2021-12-13. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-begins-testing-robotics-to-bring-first-samples-back-from-mars.
53. ↑ Berger, Eric (2023-06-23). "NASA's Mars Sample Return has a new price tag—and it's colossal". Ars Technica. https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/06/the-mars-sample-return-mission-is-starting-to-give-nasa-sticker-shock/.
54. ↑ Berger, Eric (2023-07-13). "The Senate just lobbed a tactical nuke at NASA's Mars Sample Return program". Ars Technica. https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/07/the-senate-just-lobbed-a-tactical-nuke-at-nasas-mars-sample-return-program/.
55. ↑ Berg, Matt (22 November 2023). "Lawmakers 'mystified' after NASA scales back Mars collection program - The space agency's cut could "cost hundreds of jobs and a decade of lost science," the bipartisan group says.". Politico. Archived from the original on 22 November 2023. https://archive.today/20231122162817/https://www.politico.com/news/2023/11/22/lawmakers-mystified-after-nasa-scales-back-mars-collection-program-00128368. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
56. ↑ David, Leopnard (15 January 2024). "NASA's troubled Mars sample-return mission has scientists seeing red - Projected multibillion-dollar overruns have some calling the agency's plan a 'dumpster fire.'". Space.com. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024. https://archive.today/20240116035224/https://www.space.com/nasa-troubled-mars-sample-return-mission-scientists-upset. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
57. ↑ Chang, Kenneth (15 April 2024). "NASA Seeks 'Hail Mary' for Its Mars Rocks Return Mission - The agency will seek new ideas for its Mars Sample Return program, expected to be billions of dollars over budget and years behind schedule.". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 April 2024. https://archive.today/20240416004031/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/15/science/nasa-mars-sample-return-mission.html. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
58. ↑ Jones, Andrew (2022-05-18). "China to launch Tianwen 2 asteroid-sampling mission in 2025". https://www.space.com/china-tianwen2-asteroid-sampling-mission-2025-launch.
59. ↑ Jones, Andrew (2022-06-20). "China aims to bring Mars samples to Earth 2 years before NASA, ESA mission" (in en-US). https://spacenews.com/china-aims-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth-2-years-before-nasa-esa-mission/.
60. ↑ Writers Beijing (AFP) (10 October 2012). "China to collect samples from Mars by 2030: Xinhua". https://www.marsdaily.com/reports/China_to_collect_samples_from_Mars_by_2030_Xinhua_999.html.
61. ↑ Chen, Na (23 February 2016). "China Is Racing to Make the 2020 Launch Window to Mars". Chinese Academy of Science. https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/archive/news_archive/nu2016/201602/t20160223_159832.shtml.
62. ↑ Jones, Andrew (19 December 2019). "A closer look at China's audacious Mars sample return plans". The Planetary Society. https://www.planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/2017/20171219-china-mars-sample-return-plans.html.
63. ↑ Plans To Land A Rover On Mars In 2020. Alexandra Lozovschi, Inquisitr, 17 January 2019
64. ↑ Counil, J.; Bonneville, R.; Rocard, F. (1 January 2002). "The french involvement in Mars sample-return program". 34th COSPAR Scientific Assembly 34: 3166. Bibcode: 2002cosp...34E3166C. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
65. ↑ "JAXA plans probe to bring back samples from moons of Mars". 10 June 2015. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/06/10/national/science-health/jaxa-plans-probe-bring-back-samples-martian-moons/.
66. ↑ Torishima, Shinya (19 June 2015). "JAXAの「火星の衛星からのサンプル・リターン」計画とは" (in ja). Mynavi News. https://news.mynavi.jp/series/jaxa_mars/001/.
67. ↑ "火星衛星の砂回収へ ＪＡＸＡ「フォボス」に探査機" (in ja). The Nikkei. 22 September 2017. https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASDG22HAZ_S7A920C1CR8000/.
68. ↑ MMX Homepage (English version) JAXA 2017
69. ↑ "MMX - Martian Moons eXploration" (in en). https://www.mmx.jaxa.jp/en/.
70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Roscosmos – Space missions Published by The Space Review (page 9) on 2010
71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Day, Dwayne A. (2011-11-28). "'Red Planet blues (Monday, November 28, 2011)". The Space Review. https://www.thespacereview.com/article/1980/1.
72. ↑ Kramnik, Ilya (18 April 2012). "Russia takes a two-pronged approach to space exploration". Russia & India Report. http://indrus.in/articles/2012/04/18/russia_takes_a_two-pronged_approach_to_space_exploration_15511.html.
73. ↑ Russia To Study Martian Moons Once Again, Mars Daily, 15 July 2008.
74. ↑ Major provisions of the Russian Federal Space Program for 2006–2015 , "1 spacecraft for Mars research and delivery of Martian soil to the Earth"
75. ↑ Brian Harvey; Olga Zakutnyaya (2011). Russian Space Probes: Scientific Discoveries and Future Missions. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 475. ISBN 978-1-4419-8150-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=q6qyVkapjeoC&pg=PA475.
76. ↑ "ExoMars to pave the way for soil sample return". https://www.russianspaceweb.com/expedition_m.html.
77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 77.2 European Science Foundation – Mars Sample Return backward contamination – Strategic advice and requirements July 2012, ISBN 978-2-918428-67-1 – see Back Planetary Protection section (for more details of the document see abstract)  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
78. ↑ Joshua Lederberg Parasites Face a Perpetual Dilemma Volume 65, Number 2, 1999/ American Society for Microbiology News 77  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
79. ↑ ﻿Assessment of Planetary Protection Requirements for Mars Sample Return Missions﻿ (Report). National Research Council. 2009. http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12576&page=R1.
80. ↑ Mars Sample Return: Issues and Recommendations Task Group on Issues in Sample Return, National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. (1997)  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 81.2 "Mars Sample Return Discussions". 23 February 2010. https://mepag.jpl.nasa.gov/meeting/2010-03/Li2-MSR_Dis-for-MEPAG3-17_tech_updates.pdf. Mars Sample Return Discussions As presented on 23 February 2010  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
82. ↑ "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies". United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. 19 December 1966. https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_21_2222E.pdf.
83. ↑ Atlas, Ronald (2008). "Mars Sample Return Receiving Facility". NASA. https://science.nasa.gov/science-red/s3fs-public/atoms/files/04-Atlas-PPSonMSR-CMR_508_.pdf.
84. ↑ Zubrin, Robert (2010). "Human Mars Exploration: The Time Is Now". Journal of Cosmology 12: 3549–3557. http://journalofcosmology.com/Mars111.html.
85. ↑ "ICAMSR – Planetary Protection". https://www.icamsr.org/protection.html.
86. ↑ DiGregorio, Barry. "The dilemma of Mars sample return". Chemical Innovation 31 (8): 18–27. https://pubsapp.acs.org/subscribe/archive/ci/31/i08/html/08digregorio.html?.
87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 Joseph Patrick Byrne (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues. ABC-CLIO. pp. 454–455. ISBN 978-0-313-34102-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=5Pvi-ksuKFIC&pg=PA454.
88. ↑ Stenger, Richard (7 November 2000). "Mars sample return plan carries microbial risk, group warns". CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2000/TECH/space/11/07/mars.sample/.

## External links

* Mars Sample return media reel produced by NASA and JPL (video)

* v
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Spaceflight lists and timelines

* Timeline of spaceflight

General|

* Space exploration
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Human spaceflight|

| General|

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Launches by rocket type|

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Launches by spaceport|

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Agencies, companies
and facilities|

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Other mission lists
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Spacecraft missions to Mars

Active missions|

| Orbiters|

* 2001 Mars Odyssey
* Mars Express (MEX)
* Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)
* Mangalyaan (MOM)
* MAVEN
* ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO)

|

Landers|

* InSight

Rovers|

* Curiosity
* timeline

Past missions|

| Flybys|

* Mars 1†
* Mariner 4
* Zond 2†
* Mariner 6 and 7
* Mars 6
* Mars 7
* Rosetta
* Dawn
* Mars Cube One (MarCO)

|

Orbiters|

* Mars 2
* Mars 3
* Mariner 9
* Mars 4†
* Mars 5
* Viking program
* Viking 1
* Viking 2
* Phobos program
* Phobos 1†
* Phobos 2†
* Mars Observer†
* Mars Global Surveyor (MGS)
* Nozomi†
* Mars Climate Orbiter†

Landers|

* Mars 2†
* Mars 3†
* Mars 6†
* Mars 7†
* Viking 1
* Viking 2
* Mars Pathfinder
* Mars Polar Lander† / Deep Space 2†
* Beagle 2†
* Phoenix
* ExoMars Schiaparelli†

Rovers|

* Prop-M†
* Sojourner
* Spirit
* observations
* Opportunity
* timeline
* observations

Mars-crossing objects|

* Zond 3
* Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster

Failed launches|

* Mars 1M No.1
* 1M No.2
* 2MV-4 No.1
* 2MV-3 No.1
* Mariner 3
* Mars 2M No.521
* 2M No.522
* Mariner 8
* Mars 3MS No.170
* Mars 96
* Fobos-Grunt / Yinghuo-1

Future missions|

| Planned|

* Hope Mars Mission (2020)
* ExoMars (2020)
* Rosalind Franklin rover
* Kazachok lander
* Mars 2020 (2020)
* Mars Helicopter Scout
* HX-1 (2020)
* Mars Orbiter Mission 2 (2022 or 2023)
* Psyche (2022, flyby in 2023)
* Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) (2022, flyby in 2025)
* Tera-hertz Explorer (TEREX) (2022 lander, 2024 orbiter)
* SatRevolution (2022)
* Martian Moons Exploration (MMX) (2024)

|

Proposed|

* Biological Oxidant and Life Detection (BOLD)
* SpaceX base
* DePhine
* Icebreaker Life
* Mars Geyser Hopper
* Mars-Grunt
* Mars Micro Orbiter‎
* MELOS rover
* MetNet
* Next Mars Orbiter (NeMO)
* PADME
* Phootprint
* Sky-Sailor

Cancelled proposals|

* Aerial Regional-scale Environmental Survey (ARES)
* Astrobiology Field Laboratory
* Beagle 3
* Mars 4NM & 5NM
* Mars 5M (Mars-79)
* Mars-Aster
* Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher (MAX-C)
* Mars One
* Mars Surveyor Lander
* Mars Telecommunications Orbiter
* NetLander
* Northern Light
* Red Dragon
* Sample Collection for Investigation of Mars (SCIM)
* Vesta
* Voyager Mars

Exploration of Mars|

| Concepts|

* Flyby
* Orbiter
* Landing
* Rover
* Sample return
* Human mission
* Permanent settlement
* Colonization
* Terraforming

|

Strategies|

* Mars Scout Program
* Mars Exploration Program
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* Mars Next Generation

Advocacy|

* The Mars Project
* The Case for Mars
* Inspiration Mars
* Mars Institute
* Mars Society
* Mars race

Lists|

* List of missions to Mars
* List of Mars orbiters
* List of artificial objects on Mars

Missions are ordered by launch date. Sign † indicates failure en route or before intended mission data returned.

* v
* t
* e

European Space Agency

| Spaceports|

* Guiana Space Centre
* Esrange

|

Launch vehicles|

* Ariane 5
* Ariane 6
* Arianespace Soyuz
* Vega

Facilities|

* Space Operations Centre
* Space Research and Technology Centre
* ESA Centre for Earth Observation
* European Astronaut Centre
* Space Astronomy Centre
* Space Applications and Telecommunications Centre
* Concurrent Design Facility
* Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility

Communications|

* ESTRACK
* European Data Relay System

Programmes|

* Aurora
* ATV
* Copernicus
* Sentinel
* Columbus
* CryoSat
* EGNOS
* GALILEO
* ELIPS
* ExoMars
* FLPP
* Living Planet Programme
* Orion
* Space Situational Awareness Programme
* Science Programme
* Horizon 2000
* Cosmic Vision
* Pride

Predecessors|

* European Launcher Development Organisation
* European Space Research Organisation

Related topics|

* Arianespace
* ESA Television
* EUMETSAT
* European Space Camp
* GEWEX
* Planetary Science Archive

Projects and missions

Science|

| Solar physics|

* ISEE-2 (1977–87)
* Ulysses (1990–2009)
* SOHO (1995–present)
* Cluster II (2000–present)
* Solar Orbiter (2020)
* Lagrange (2020s)

|

Planetary science|

* Giotto (1985–92)
* Huygens (1997–2005)
* SMART-1 (2003–06)
* Mars Express (2003–present)
* Rosetta/Philae (2004–16)
* Venus Express (2005–14)
* ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (2016–present)
* BepiColombo (2018–present)
* Rosalind Franklin rover (2020)
* Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (2022)
* Comet Interceptor (2028)

Astronomy and
cosmology

* Cos-B (1975–82)
* IUE (1978–96)
* EXOSAT (1983–86)
* Hipparcos (1989–93)
* Hubble (1990–present)
* Eureca (1992–93)
* ISO (1995–98)
* XMM-Newton (1999–present)
* INTEGRAL (2002–present)
* CoRoT (2006–13)
* Planck (2009–13)
* Herschel (2009–13)
* Gaia (2013–present)
* CHEOPS (2019)
* James Webb (2021)
* Euclid (2022)
* PLATO (2026)
* ARIEL (2028)
* ATHENA (2031)
* LISA (2034)

Earth observation|

* Copernicus (1988–)
* Meteosat First Generation (1977–97)
* ERS-1 (1991–2000)
* ERS-2 (1995–2011)
* Meteosat Second Generation (2002–present)
* Envisat (2002–12)
* Double Star (2003–07)
* MetOp (2006–present)
* GOCE (2009–13)
* SMOS (2009–present)
* CryoSat-2 (2010–present)
* Swarm (2013–present)
* Sentinel-1 / 1A / 1B (2014–present)
* Sentinel-2 / 2A / 2B (2015–present)
* Sentinel-3 / 3A / 3B (2016–present)
* Sentinel-5 Precursor (2017–present)
* ADM-Aeolus (2018–present)
* Biomass (2022)
* EarthCARE (2022)
* MetOp-SG-A (2022)
* FLEX (2023)
* Meteosat Third Generation (Sentinel-4) (2023)
* MetOp-SG-B (2023)
* SMILE (2023)
* FORUM (2026)

ISS spaceflight|

* ISS contribution (1998–present)
* Columbus (2008–present)
* Jules Verne (2008)
* Cupola (2010–present)
* Johannes Kepler (2011)
* Edoardo Amaldi (2012)
* Albert Einstein (2013)
* Georges Lemaître (2014)
* European Robotic Arm (2020)

Telecommunications|

* GEOS 2 (1978)
* Olympus-1 (1989–93)
* Artemis (2001–present)
* GIOVE-A (2005–present)
* GIOVE-B (2008–present)
* HYLAS-1 (2010–present)
* Galileo IOV (2011–present)
* Galileo FOC (2014–present)
* EGNOS
* European Data Relay System (2016–present)

Technology
demonstrators

* ARD (1998)
* PROBA-1 (2001–present)
* YES2 (2007)
* PROBA-2 (2009–present)
* PROBA-V (2013–present)
* IXV (2015)
* LISA Pathfinder (2015–17)
* OPS-SAT (2019)
* PROBA-3 (2021)
* AIDA (2023)

Cancelled and proposed|

* ALTIUS
* Ariane 5 ME
* Columbus Man-Tended Free Flyer
* CSTS
* Darwin Mission
* Don Quijote
* e.Deorbit
* EChO
* Eddington
* EnVision
* EXPERT
* Hermes
* Hopper
* LOFT
* Luna 27
* Lunar Lander
* Marco Polo
* MarcoPolo-R
* Mars sample return mission
* ODINUS
* SPICA
* STE-QUEST
* THESEUS
* THOR
* XIPE

Failed|

* Cluster
* CryoSat-1
* GEOS 1
* Schiaparelli EDM

Future missions in italics

* Category
* Commons
* Wikinews
* WikiProject

* v
* t
* e

Extraterrestrial life

Events and objects|

* ALH77005
* ALH84001
* Cells in the stratosphere
* CI1 fossils
* Murchison meteorite
* Nakhla meteorite
* Polonnaruwa meteorite
* Red rain in Kerala
* Shergotty meteorite
* Viking lander biological experiments
* Yamato 000593

Signals of interest|

| Misidentified|

* CP 1919 (misidentified pulsar)
* CTA-102 (misidentified quasar)

|

Stars|

* KIC 8462852 (unusual light fluctuations)
* EPIC 204278916 (unusual light fluctuations)
* VVV-WIT-07 (unusual light fluctuations)
* HD 164595 signal (unknown origin)

Other|

* SHGb02+14a (radio source)
* Wow! signal (inconclusive)
* Fast radio burst (unknown origin)

Life in the Universe|

* Earliest known life forms
* Habitability of Enceladus
* Habitability of Europa
* Habitability of Mars
* Habitability of Titan
* Habitability of Venus

Planetary
habitability|

* Catalog of Nearby Habitable Systems
* Circumstellar habitable zone
* Earth analog
* Extraterrestrial liquid water
* Galactic habitable zone
* Habitability of binary star systems
* Habitability of orange dwarf systems
* Habitability of red dwarf systems
* Natural satellite habitability
* Planetary habitability

Space missions|

* Beagle 2
* Biological Oxidant and Life Detection
* BioSentinel
* Curiosity rover
* Darwin
* Dragonfly
* Enceladus Explorer
* Enceladus Life Finder
* Europa Clipper
* ExoMars
* Rosalind Franklin rover
* ExoLance
* EXPOSE
* Foton-M3
* Icebreaker Life
* Journey to Enceladus and Titan
* Laplace-P
* Life Investigation For Enceladus
* Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment
* Mars Geyser Hopper
* Mars sample-return mission
* Mars 2020
* Northern Light
* Opportunity rover
* SpaceX Red Dragon
* Spirit rover
* Tanpopo
* Titan Mare Explorer
* Venus In Situ Explorer
* Viking 1
* Viking 2

Interstellar
communication|

* Active SETI
* Allen Telescope Array
* Arecibo message
* Arecibo Observatory
* Berkeley SETI Research Center
* Bracewell probe
* Breakthrough Initiatives
* Breakthrough Listen
* Breakthrough Message
* Communication with extraterrestrial intelligence
* Gauss's Pythagorean right triangle proposal
* Lincos language
* NIROSETI
* Pioneer plaque
* Project Cyclops
* Project Ozma
* Project Phoenix
* SERENDIP
* Search for extraterrestrial intelligence
* SETI@home
* setiQuest
* Voyager Golden Record
* Water hole
* Xenolinguistics

Exhibitions|

* The Science of Aliens

Hypotheses|

* Ancient astronauts
* Aestivation hypothesis
* Cosmic pluralism
* Directed panspermia
* Drake equation
* Extraterrestrial hypothesis
* Fermi paradox
* Great Filter
* Hypothetical types of biochemistry
* Interplanetary contamination
* Kardashev scale
* Mediocrity principle
* Neocatastrophism
* Panspermia
* Planetarium hypothesis
* Rare Earth hypothesis
* Zoo hypothesis

Related topics|

* Astrobiology
* Astroecology
* Biosignature
* Brookings Report
* Planetary protection
* Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
* Exotheology
* Extraterrestrials in fiction
* Extremophile
* Nexus for Exoplanet System Science
* Noogenesis
* San Marino Scale
* Technosignature
* UFO religion
* Xenoarchaeology

* v
* t
* e

Astrobiology

Disciplines|

* Astrochemistry
* Astrophysics
* Atmospheric sciences
* Biochemistry
* Evolutionary biology
* Exoplanetology
* Geomicrobiology
* Microbiology
* Paleontology
* Planetary science

Main topics|

* Abiogenesis
* Allan Hills 84001
* Biomolecule
* Biosignature
* Drake equation
* Earliest known life forms
* Earth analog
* Extraterrestrial life
* Extraterrestrial sample curation
* Extremophiles
* Hypothetical types of biochemistry
* List of microorganisms tested in outer space
* Molecules detected in outer space
* Ocean planet
* Origin of life
* Panspermia
* Planetary protection
* Search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI)
* Yamato meteorite

Planetary
habitability|

* Habitability of binary star systems
* Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems
* Habitability of natural satellites
* Habitability of red dwarf systems
* Circumstellar habitable zone
* Earth analog
* List of potentially habitable exoplanets
* Tholin
* Extraterrestrial liquid water
* Galactic habitable zone
* Superhabitable planet

Space
missions|

| Earth orbit|

* BIO
* BIOCORE
* Biolab
* Bion
* BIOPAN
* Biosatellite program
* E-MIST
* ERA
* CROPIS
* EXOSTACK
* EXPOSE
* Lunar Micro Ecosystem
* O/OREOS
* OREOcube
* Tanpopo
* VEGGIE

|

Mars|

* Beagle 2
* ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter
* Fobos-Grunt
* Mars Science Laboratory
* Curiosity
* Phoenix
* Viking

Comets and
asteroids|

* Hayabusa2
* OSIRIS-REx
* Rosetta

Planned|

* BioSentinel
* Dragonfly
* Europa Clipper
* ExoMars
* Rosalind Franklin rover
* Kazachock lander
* Mars 2020 rover
* HX-1

Proposed|

* CAESAR
* Enceladus Explorer
* Enceladus Life Finder‎
* Enceladus Life Signatures and Habitability
* Europa Lander
* ExoLance
* Explorer of Enceladus and Titan
* Icebreaker Life
* Journey to Enceladus and Titan
* Laplace-P
* Life Investigation For Enceladus
* Mars sample return mission
* Oceanus
* THEO
* Trident

Cancelled and
undeveloped|

* Astrobiology Field Laboratory
* Beagle 3
* Biological Oxidant and Life Detection
* Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment
* Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher
* MELOS
* Northern Light
* Red Dragon
* Terrestrial Planet Finder

Institutions
and programs|

* Astrobiology Society of Britain
* Astrobiology Science and Technology for Exploring Planets
* Breakthrough Initiatives
* Breakthrough Listen
* Breakthrough Message
* Breakthrough Starshot
* Carl Sagan Institute
* Center for Life Detection Science
* European Astrobiology Network Association
* NASA Astrobiology Institute
* Nexus for Exoplanet System Science
* Ocean Worlds Exploration Program
* Spanish Astrobiology Center‎

* Category
* Commons
* Portal: Astronomy
* Biology

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars sample-return mission. Read more

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