Public policy in Iowa

* Fiscal policy
* Budgets
* Budget and finances by state
* Tax policy by state
* State Budget Terms
* State government tax collections by source
* Total state expenditures
* State spending by function as a percent of total expenditures
* State debt
* Finance
* Financial regulation in the United States
* Dodd-Frank Act
* Federal Reserve
* Pensions
* Pension policy by state
* Public pension health by state
* Pension reform in San Jose and San Diego
* Pension Terms and Definitions
* Public pensions
* Civil liberties
* Affirmative action
* Campaign finance
* Nonprofit regulation
* Education
* Public education by state
* School choice by state
* Charter schools by state
* Higher education by state
* Education policy in the United States
* Public education in the United States
* Education statistics
* Education statistics in the United States
* Education spending per pupil
* Number of schools by school type in the U.S.
* Demographic information for all students in the United States
* Public school system expenditures in the United States
* Public school system revenues in the United States
* Public school teacher salaries in the United States
* Graduation rates by groups in state
* Public high school dropout rates by state
* ACT and SAT scores in the United States
* NAEP scores by state
* Major terms
* Blended learning
* Charter schools
* Common Core
* Dropout rate
* Progressive education
* Regulatory Adjusted Cohort Graduation Rate
* School vouchers
* Teacher merit pay
* United States education agencies
* Elections
* Voting policy
* Voter identification laws by state
* Online voter registration
* Early voting
* Ballot access
* Ballot access for presidential candidates
* Ballot access for major and minor party candidates
* List of political parties in the United States
* Political party designation
* Redistricting
* State-by-state redistricting procedures
* Majority-minority districts
* Energy and Environment
* Energy Policy by state
* Fracking
* Fracking information by state
* Fracking
* Fracking in the United States
* Energy policy in the United States
* Energy use in the United States
* Oil and gas on federal lands by state
* Energy terms and definitions
* Agencies and legislation
* Environmental Policy by state
* Endangered Species Policy
* Endangered species policy by state
* Environmental policy in the United States
* Environmental statistics
* Endangered species statistics
* Glossary of environmental terms
* Glossary of endangered species terms
* Healthcare
* Healthcare policy by state
* Medicaid spending by state
* Effect of the Affordable Care Act by state
* Healthcare policy in the United States
* Affordable Care Act
* Immigration
* Immigration in the United States
* Immigration by state
* Index

## Contents

* 1 Budget Policy
* 1.1 Budget and finances
* 1.2 Taxes
* 2 Civil Liberties Policy
* 2.1 Affirmative action
* 2.2 Campaign finance
* 2.3 Nonprofit regulation
* 3 Education Policy
* 3.1 K-12 Public education
* 3.2 Higher education
* 3.3 School choice
* 3.4 Charter schools
* 4 Election Policy
* 4.1 Ballot access requirements
* 4.2 Redistricting
* 4.3 Voting
* 5 Energy Policy
* 5.1 Energy information
* 5.2 Fracking
* 6 Environmental Policy
* 6.1 Environmental information
* 6.2 Endangered species
* 7 Finance Policy
* 7.1 Financial regulation information
* 8 Healthcare Policy
* 8.1 Healthcare information
* 8.2 Medicaid spending
* 8.3 Effect of the Affordable Care Act
* 9 Immigration Policy
* 9.1 Immigration information
* 10 Pension Policy
* 10.1 Public pensions
* 11 Public policy in other states
* 12 Footnotes

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This article does not contain the most recently published data on this subject. If you would like to help our coverage grow, consider donating to Ballotpedia.

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The Public Policy Project on Ballotpedia aims to illuminate major policy issues being discussed and implemented throughout the United States. Public policy can be complicated and controversial; deciding what works best and how to allocate resources to achieve a policy goal can involve multiple trade-offs. Much of the public policy that affects citizens economically, legally and socially, is made at the state level. Below you will find links and introductions to all the Iowa public policy articles on Ballotpedia. To see the policy overview of another state click on the map below.

For a list of all public policy articles on Ballotpedia see here.

## Budget Policy[edit]

### Budget and finances[edit]

In Iowa, as in other states, lawmakers and public officials are elected in part to manage the state's finances. This includes generating revenues (money coming into the state from various sources) and approving expenditures (the money spent on governmental functions and servicing state debt). State budgets are complex and fluid, as they depend on anticipated revenues and planned expenditures, which may alter over the course of a fiscal year. If revenues do not keep pace with expenditures, states generally have to raise taxes, cut services, borrow money, or a combination of the three. State budget decisions are also influenced by policy decisions at the national level, such as the Affordable Care Act or energy and environmental regulations, and issues at the local level, such as crime and the quality of education.

HIGHLIGHTS

* Between fiscal years 2015 and 2016, total government spending in Iowa increased by approximately $0.7 billion—from $21.9 billion in fiscal year 2015 to an estimated $22.7 billion in 2016. This represents a 3.4-percent increase.[1]

* In Iowa in fiscal year 2015, 48 percent of total tax revenues came from sales taxes and gross receipts. Income taxes accounted for 41.1 percent of total state tax collections.

* Education accounted for 41.6 percent of state expenditures in fiscal year 2015, while 22.7 percent went to Medicaid.

### Taxes[edit]

Iowa generates the bulk of its tax revenue by levying a personal income tax and a sales tax. The state derives its constitutional authority to tax from Article VII of the state constitution.[2][3]

Tax policy can vary from state to state. States levy taxes to help fund the variety of services provided by state governments. Tax collections comprise approximately 40 percent of the states' total revenues. The rest comes from non-tax sources, such as intergovernmental aid (e.g., federal funds), lottery revenues and fees. The primary types of taxes levied by state governments include personal income tax, general sales tax, excise (or special sales) taxes and corporate income tax.[4]

HIGHLIGHTS

* According to the United States Census Bureau, Iowa collected $9.56 billion in tax revenue in 2016. The state's tax revenue per capita was $3,049.

## Civil Liberties Policy[edit]

### Affirmative action[edit]

Affirmative action in Iowa refers to the steps taken by employers and universities in Iowa to increase the proportions of historically disadvantaged minority groups at those institutions. Historically, affirmative action nationwide has taken many different forms, such as strict quotas, extra outreach efforts, and racial and gender preferences. However, racial quotas in university admissions were banned in a 1978 United States Supreme Court case, Regents of the University of California v. Bakke.[5]

On June 29, 2023, the Supreme Court reversed lower court decisions in Students for Fair Admissions, Inc. v. President and Fellows of Harvard College and Students for Fair Admissions, Inc. v. University of North Carolina, effectively ending the use of affirmative action in college admissions.

As of March 2015, 109 out of 577 public four-year universities across the country reported that they considered race in admissions. This practice has been banned in eight states. Meanwhile, 28 states require affirmative action plans in either public employment or apprenticeships. Affirmative action programs that grant racial preferences have come under scrutiny in the courts for potentially violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act.[6][7]

The following information details the use of affirmative action in universities and employment in Iowa, as well as notable court cases originating in the state.

HIGHLIGHTS

* In Iowa, no public universities reported considering race in admissions as of March 2015.

* Additionally, Iowa law stipulates that each state agency must annually prepare an affirmative action plan for its employment process.

The effects of affirmative action policies are contested. Proponents argue that affirmative action diversifies selective institutions and provides more opportunities to minorities. Opponents argue that implementing policies that favor some groups requires discrimination against others and that these policiesmay harm individuals they are meant to help.

### Campaign finance[edit]

Campaign finance requirements govern how much money candidates and campaigns may receive from individuals and organizations, how they must report those contributions, and how much individuals, organizations, and political parties may contribute to campaigns. In addition to direct campaign contributions, campaign finance laws also apply to third-party organizations and nonprofit organizations that seek to influence elections through independent expenditures or issue advocacy.

This page provides background on campaign finance regulation, lists contribution limits to state candidates and ballot measures in Iowa, compares contribution limits to gubernatorial and state legislative candidates in Iowa with those from other states, and details the candidate reporting requirements in Iowa.

The information on this page pertains to candidates for state office and state ballot measures. Candidates for federal office are subject to federal campaign finance law. Candidates for local office are subject to all applicable state laws as well as any separate local campaign finance regulations.[8]

As of July 2025:

* Individuals could contribute unlimitedly to gubernatorial and state legislative candidates.

* State parties could contribute unlimitedly to gubernatorial candidates, unlimitedly to state senate candidates, and unlimitedly to state house candidates.

* Political committees could contribute unlimitedly to gubernatorial and state legislative candidates.

* Corporations could not contribute directly to candidates for office or party committees, but these groups could make unlimited contributions to ballot measure campaigns. Unions could contribute unlimitedly to gubernatorial and state legislative candidates.

### Nonprofit regulation[edit]

Nonprofit regulation in Iowa involves a complex set of rules that govern nonprofit organizations and charitable giving throughout the state. Major issues surrounding nonprofit regulation nationwide include the following:

* contribution limits,
* donor disclosure, and
* the redefinition of issue advocacy.

Iowa is one of 11 states that do not require charitable organizations, or those intending to solicit on their behalf, to register with the state in order to solicit contributions, whether they are an Iowa organization or based out-of-state.[9]

According to Guidestar, an organization that reports on nonprofit companies, regulation of nonprofit activity protects donors and organizations from potential fraud and helps "to maintain trust in the [nonprofit] sector." According to the London School of Economics, nonprofit disclosure requirements can create privacy concerns among potential donors, thereby having an unintended negative impact on donor participation.[10][11]

## Education Policy[edit]

Charter schools •  Higher education •  Public education •  School choice

### K-12 Public education[edit]

The Iowa public school system (prekindergarten through grade 12) operates within districts governed by locally elected school boards and superintendents. In 2022, Iowa had 517,444 students enrolled in a total of  1,310 schools in 328 school districts. There were 35,535 teachers in the public schools, or roughly one teacher for every 14.5 students, compared to the national average of 1:16. In 2020, Iowa spent on average $11,958 per pupil.[12] The state's graduation rate was 92 percent in the 2018-2019 school year.[13]

### Higher education[edit]

Iowa's higher education system is composed of 65 colleges and universities. Of these, 19 are public institutions, 35 are nonprofit private schools, and 11 are for-profit private institutions.[14]

HIGHLIGHTS

* Public university tuition in Iowa increased 15 percent between 2005-2006 and 2015-2016, making it one of seven states where tuition increased slower than the rate of inflation.

* Average student debt held by college graduates amounted to about $29,732, ranking eighth highest in the country.

* Iowa was one of five states where the number of teaching and research assistants outnumbered full-time faculty in five states.

### School choice[edit]

School choice is a term that refers to programs offering alternatives to assigned local public school options. Public school choice options include open enrollment policies, magnet schools, and charter schools. Other options include school vouchers, scholarship tax credits, and education savings accounts (ESAs).[15][16]

HIGHLIGHTS

* According to the National Alliance for Public Charter Schools, a charter school advocacy group, there were an estimated three total charter schools in Iowa in the 2015-2016 school year. These schools enrolled approximately 300 students.

* In Iowa, there were 56,150 students enrolled in private schools in fall 2013, accounting for roughly 10.61 percent of the state's total school-age population.

* Iowa's Tuition and Textbook Tax Credit permits parents to claim a tax credit of up to $250 per child for educational expenses.

Proponents argue that school choice programs improve educational outcomes by expanding opportunity and access for historically disadvantaged students. In addition, advocates claim that school choice programs empower parents and improve traditional public schools through competition. Critics contend that these programs divert funds from traditional public schools, thereby generating unequal outcomes for students. In addition, some critics argue that school voucher programs wrongly direct tax dollars to religious organizations, which operate many private schools.

### Charter schools[edit]

Charter schools in Iowa are public schools operated independently of public school systems. Although they are largely publicly funded, charter schools are exempt from many of the requirements imposed by state and local boards of education regarding hiring and curriculum. As public schools, charter schools cannot charge tuition or impose special entrance requirements; students are usually admitted through a lottery process if demand exceeds the number of spaces available in a school. Charter schools generally receive a percentage of the per-pupil funds from the state and local school districts for operational costs based on enrollment. In most states, charter schools do not receive funds for facilities or start-up costs; therefore, they must rely to some extent on private donations. The federal government also provides revenues through special grants. As of March 2017, 44 states and the District of Columbia had approved legislation authorizing the creation of public charter schools. Six states had not.

HIGHLIGHTS

* According to the National Alliance for Public Charter Schools, a charter school advocacy group, there were an estimated three total charter schools in Iowa in the 2015-2016 school year. These schools enrolled approximately 300 students.

* Overall, charter school students accounted for 0.06 percent of total public school enrollment in Iowa in 2015.

* The Iowa State Legislature approved the state's charter school law in 2002.

## Election Policy[edit]

### Ballot access requirements[edit]

In order to get on the ballot in Iowa, a candidate for state or federal office must meet a variety of state-specific filing requirements and deadlines. These regulations, known as ballot access laws, determine whether a candidate or party will appear on an election ballot. These laws are set at the state level. A candidate must prepare to meet ballot access requirements well in advance of primaries, caucuses, and the general election.

There are three basic methods by which an individual may become a candidate for office in a state.

1. An individual can seek the nomination of a state-recognized political party.
2. An individual can run as an independent. Independent candidates often must petition in order to have their names printed on the general election ballot.
3. An individual can run as a write-in candidate.

This article outlines the steps that prospective candidates for state-level and congressional office must take in order to run for office in Iowa. For information about filing requirements for presidential candidates, click here. Information about filing requirements for local-level offices is not available in this article (contact state election agencies for information about local candidate filing processes).

### Redistricting[edit]

Redistricting is the process by which new congressional and state legislative district boundaries are drawn. Each of Iowa's four United States Representatives and 150 state legislators are elected from political divisions called districts. United States Senators are not elected by districts, but by the states at large. District lines are redrawn every 10 years following completion of the United States census. The federal government stipulates that districts must have nearly equal populations and must not discriminate on the basis of race or ethnicity.[17][18][19][20]

Iowa was apportioned four seats in the U.S. House of Representatives after the 2020 census, the same number it received after the 2010 census. Click here for more information about redistricting in Iowa after the 2020 census.

HIGHLIGHTS

* Following the 2020 United States Census, Iowa was apportioned four congressional districts, which was unchanged from the number it had after the 2010 census.

* Iowa's House of Representatives is made up of 100 districts; Iowa's State Senate is made up of 50 districts.

* In Iowa, an advisory commission drafts congressional and state legislative district boundaries. The state legislature retains final authority to implement district maps.

### Voting[edit]

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Select a state from the menu below to learn more about its voting policies.

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The policies governing voter participation are enacted and enforced primarily at the state level. These policies, which include voter identification requirements, early voting provisions, online voter registration systems, and more, dictate the conditions under which people cast their ballots in their respective states.

This article includes the following information about voting policies in Iowa:

* Voter registration details, including deadlines and eligibility requirements.
* In-person voting details, including identification requirements, poll times, and early voting provisions.
* Absentee/mail-in voting deadlines and rules.
* Details about Voting rules for people convicted of a felony.
* Contact information for election agencies.

Click here for more information about election administration in the state, including voter list maintenance policies, provisional ballot rules, post-election auditing practices, and additional election policy context.

For information on elections happening this year, click here.

Do you have questions about your elections? Looking for information about your local election official? Click here to use U.S. Vote Foundation’s election official lookup tool.

## Energy Policy[edit]

### Energy information[edit]

Energy policy involves governmental actions affecting the production, distribution, and consumption of energy in a state. Energy policies are enacted and enforced at the local, state, and federal levels and may change over time. These policies include legislation, regulation, taxes, incentives for energy production or use, standards for energy efficiency, and more. Stakeholders include citizens, politicians, environmental groups, industry groups, and think tanks. A variety of factors can affect the feasibility of federal and state-level energy policies, such as available natural resources, geography, and consumer needs.

### Fracking[edit]

Read about Iowa's state energy profile »

According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, Iowa had no oil or natural gas reserves as of May 2017; thus, no fracking occurred in the state.[21]

## Environmental Policy[edit]

### Environmental information[edit]

Environmental policy aims to conserve natural resources by balancing environmental protection with economic growth, property rights, public health, and energy production. Federal, state, and local government entities develop and implement environmental policies through laws and regulations. This page features information about environmental policy in Iowa.

### Endangered species[edit]

Endangered species policy in Iowa involves the identification and protection of endangered and threatened animal and plant species. Policies are implemented and enforced by both the state and federal governments.

HIGHLIGHTS

* As of July 2016, Iowa was home to 17 species—nine endangered species and eight threatened species—listed under the federal Endangered Species Act (ESA).

* Of these, 12 were animal species and five were plant species.

## Finance Policy[edit]

### Financial regulation information[edit]

The United States financial system is a network that facilitates exchanges between lenders and borrowers. The system, which includes banks and investment firms, is the base for all economic activity in the nation. According to the Federal Reserve, financial regulation has two main intended purposes: to ensure the safety and soundness of the financial system and to provide and enforce rules that aim to protect consumers. The regulatory framework varies across industries, with different regulations applying to different financial services.[22]

Individual federal and state entities have different and sometimes overlapping responsibilities within the regulatory system. For example, individual states and three federal agencies—the Federal Reserve, the Office of Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)—regulate commercial banks. Other sectors of the financial market are regulated by specific entities.[23][24]

HIGHLIGHTS

* In 2015, there were a total of 305 distinct commercial banks in Iowa, with total deposits of $78.30 billion.

* Banks in Iowa are regulated by the Iowa Division of Banking.

* In 2015, a total of 10,062 financial crimes were reported in Iowa according to the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FINCEN), an agency of the United States Department of Treasury.

Some, such as the Brookings Institution, argue that expanded governmental regulation of banks and financial products (e.g., mortgages) can prevent large-scale financial crises, protect consumers from abusive practices, and stabilize financial markets. Others, such as the Cato Institute, argue that over-regulation of banks of banks and financial products burdens business, stalls economic growth, and does little, if anything, to stabilize financial markets. Beyond this basic debate about the role of the government in regulating the private financial sector, there are varying opinions about the proper extent of governmental regulation.[25][26]

## Healthcare Policy[edit]

### Healthcare information[edit]

Healthcare policy in Iowa involves the creation and implementation of laws, rules, and regulations for managing the state's healthcare system. The healthcare system consists of services provided by medical professionals to diagnose, treat, and prevent mental and physical illness and injury. The system also encompasses a wide range of related sectors, such as insurance, pharmaceuticals and health information technology.

According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, the 50 state legislatures collectively "make thousands of health policy decisions each year," not including the decisions made by local governments, which often oversee hospitals, and private bodies, such as insurers. These decisions can include budget appropriations, requirements for doctors obtaining their licenses, which services are covered by insurance, how personal health information is managed, and which immunizations children must receive, among many others.[27]

Healthcare policy affects not only the cost citizens must pay for care, but also their access to care and the quality of care received, which can influence their overall health. A top concern for policymakers is the rising cost of healthcare, which has placed an increasing strain on the disposable income of consumers as well as on state budgets.

Other issues in healthcare policy include

* state Medicaid expansion,
* health information technology and privacy,
* uninsured and underinsured portions of the population,
* a shortage of primary care physicians, and
* mental healthcare access and coverage.

### Medicaid spending[edit]

Iowa's Medicaid program provides medical insurance to groups of low-income people and individuals with disabilities. Medicaid is a nationwide program jointly funded by the federal government and the states. Medicaid eligibility, benefits, and administration are managed by the states within federal guidelines. A program related to Medicaid is the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP), which covers low-income children above the poverty line and is sometimes operated in conjunction with a state's Medicaid program. Medicaid is a separate program from Medicare, which provides health coverage for the elderly.

### Effect of the Affordable Care Act[edit]

The impact of the Affordable Care Act of 2010 (ACA), also known as Obamacare, has been debated among politicians, policymakers, and other stakeholders. The ACA was signed into law in 2010 by President Barack Obama (D). The law facilitated the purchase of health insurance through a system of health insurance exchanges, tax credits, and subsidies. Initially, states were required to expand eligibility for Medicaid under the law; a 2012 ruling by the United States Supreme Court made the Medicaid expansion voluntary for states. The law also required insurers to cover healthcare services within a standard set of benefits and prohibited coverage denials based on preexisting conditions. Under the law, all individuals were required to obtain health insurance.

HIGHLIGHTS

* Between 2013 and 2016, the number of uninsured individuals in Iowa declined by 46.8%.

* About 46,500 individuals in Iowa were enrolled in health plans offered through the health insurance exchange in 2017. Enrollment in Medicaid amounted to about 631,000 in May 2017.

* The Kaiser Family Foundation found that between 2016 and 2017, average monthly premiums for benchmark plans on Iowa's exchange increased by an average of 6% in the Cedar Rapids market, from $284 to $301.

## Immigration Policy[edit]

### Immigration information[edit]

Immigration policy determines who may become a new citizen of the United States or enter the country as a temporary worker, student, refugee, or permanent resident. The federal government is responsible for setting and enforcing most immigration policy.

Meanwhile, states assume a largely supportive role, enacting their own supplementary laws and setting policies that may, for example, determine which public services immigrants can access, establish employee screening requirements, or guide the interaction between related state agencies and their federal counterparts.

Some jurisdictions, including some states, cities, and counties, have adopted policies of not cooperating with federal immigration enforcement; these jurisdictions have become known as sanctuary jurisdictions.

HIGHLIGHTS

* As of October, 2016, Iowa allowed lawfully present children to enroll it Medicaid and the Children's Health Insurance Program.

* In 2014, Iowa's population amounted to just over 3 million individuals. Native-born citizens comprised 95.3 percent of the population; 1.8 percent of residents were naturalized citizens and nearly 3 percent were non-citizens.

* Iowa's poverty rate during 2014 was 8.2 percent. Among native-born citizens, 7.6 percent lived below the poverty line, compared to 23.8 percent of non-citizens.

## Pension Policy[edit]

### Public pensions[edit]

Iowa public pensions are the state mechanism by which state and many local government employees in Iowa receive retirement benefits.

There were 12 public pension systems in Iowa as of 2020. Of these, four were state-level programs. Membership in Iowa's various pension systems totaled 386,377, as of fiscal year 2020. Of these, 175,487 were active members.[28]

HIGHLIGHTS

* Total contributions of $997.3 million were made to Iowa's state and local pension systems, in fiscal year 2020. Of this amount, $91.3 million came from employees.

* Iowa's state and local pension systems made payments totaling $1.9 billion, in fiscal year 2020.

* Iowa's state and local pension systems held $37.8 billion in total cash and investment holdings, as of fiscal year 2020.

## Public policy in other states[edit]

Click your state  for an overview of policy information in your state.

Choose your state...AlabamaAlaskaArizonaArkansasCaliforniaColoradoConnecticutDelawareFloridaGeorgiaHawaiiIdahoIllinoisIndianaIowaKansasKentuckyLouisianaMaineMarylandMassachusettsMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMontanaNebraskaNevadaNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNorth CarolinaNorth DakotaOhioOklahomaOregonPennsylvaniaRhode IslandSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaTennesseeTexasUtahVermontVirginiaWashingtonWashington, D.C.West VirginiaWisconsinWyoming

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## Footnotes[edit]

1. ↑ National Association of State Budget Officers, "State Expenditure Report (Fiscal 2014-2016)," accessed June 26, 2017
2. ↑ Constitution of the State of Iowa, "Article VII, Section 7," accessed October 17, 2014
3. ↑ Tax Policy Center, "State Tax Collection Shares by Type 2000-2013," June 20, 2014
4. ↑ Brunori, D. (2011). State Tax Policy: A Political Perspective. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute Press
5. ↑ Oyez, "Regents of the University of California v. Bakke," accessed February 11, 2015
6. ↑ Miller Center of Public Affairs, "Affirmative Action: Race or Class?" accessed February 10, 2015
7. ↑ Business and Legal Resources, "Affirmative Action," accessed March 31, 2015
8. ↑ National Conference of State Legislatures, "Campaign Finance Enforcement," accessed May 28, 2025
9. ↑ Fishman, S. & Barrett, R. (2012). Nonprofit Fundraising Registration: The 50 State Guide. NOLO.
10. ↑ Guidestar, Fundraising: What Laws Apply?" accessed February 18, 2015
11. ↑ London School of Economics, "Campaign finance laws that make small donations public may lead to fewer people contributing and to smaller donations," January 7, 2015
12. ↑ United States Census Bureau, "U.S. School System Current Spending Per Pupil by Region: Fiscal Year 2020," May 18, 2022
13. ↑ National Center for Education Statistics, "Fast Facts: High school graduation rates," accessed September 28, 2022
14. ↑ National Center for Education Statistics, "College Navigator - Iowa," accessed July 12, 2016
15. ↑ National Conference of State Legislatures, "School Choice and Charters," accessed June 18, 2014
16. ↑ Friedman Foundation for School Choice, "What is School Choice?" accessed June 18, 2014
17. ↑ All About Redistricting, "Why does it matter?" accessed April 8, 2015
18. ↑ Indy Week, "Cracked, stacked and packed: Initial redistricting maps met with skepticism and dismay," June 29, 2011
19. ↑ The Atlantic, "How the Voting Rights Act Hurts Democrats and Minorities," June 17, 2013
20. ↑ Redrawing the Lines, "The Role of Section 2 - Majority Minority Districts," accessed April 6, 2015
21. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `EIA`
22. ↑ Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, "Government Performance and Results Act Annual Performance Report 2011," July 10, 2012
23. ↑ The National Bureau of Economic Research, "A Brief History of Regulations Regarding Financial Markets in the United States: 1789 to 2009," September 2011
24. ↑ Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, "The U.S. Federal Financial Regulatory System: Restructuring Federal Bank Regulation," January 19, 2006
25. ↑ Brookings, "The Origins of the Financial Crisis," November 24, 2008
26. ↑ The Cato Institute, "Did Deregulation Cause the Financial Crisis?" July 2009
27. ↑ National Conference of State Legislatures, "Health," accessed July 8, 2015
28. ↑ United States Census Bureau, 2020 Annual Survey of Public Pensions: State & Local Tables accessed February 23, 2022

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