Climate change

Short description: Human-caused changes to climate on Earth

"Global warming" redirects here. For other uses, see Climate change (disambiguation) and Global warming (disambiguation).

Changes in surface air temperature over the past 50 years.[1] The Arctic has warmed the most, and temperatures on land have generally increased more than sea surface temperatures.

Earth's average surface air temperature has increased about 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) since the Industrial Revolution. Natural forces cause some variability, but the persistent temperature increase shows the progressive influence of human activity.[2][3]

Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The modern-day rise in global temperatures is driven by human activities, especially fossil fuel (coal, oil and natural gas) burning since the Industrial Revolution.[4][5] Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices release greenhouse gases.[6] These gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere now has roughly 50% more carbon dioxide, the main gas driving global warming, than it did at the end of the pre-industrial era, reaching levels not seen for millions of years.[7]

Climate change has an increasingly large impact on the environment. Heat waves and wildfires are becoming more common.[8] Amplified warming in the Arctic has contributed to thawing permafrost, retreat of glaciers and sea ice decline.[9] Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather extremes.[10] Rapid environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to relocate or become extinct.[11] Even if efforts to minimize future warming are successful, some effects will continue for centuries. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level rise.[12]

Climate change threatens people with increased flooding, extreme heat, increased food and water scarcity, more disease, and economic loss.[13] Human migration and conflict can also be a result.[14] The World Health Organization calls climate change one of the biggest threats to global health in the 21st century.[15] Societies and ecosystems will experience more severe risks without action to limit warming.[16] Adapting to climate change through efforts like flood control measures or drought-resistant crops partially reduces climate change risks, although some limits to adaptation have already been reached.[17] Poorer communities are responsible for a small share of global emissions, yet have the least ability to adapt and are most vulnerable to climate change.[18][19]

Examples of some effects of climate change: Wildfire intensified by heat and drought, bleaching of corals occurring more often due to marine heatwaves, and worsening droughts compromising water supplies.

Many climate change impacts have been observed in the first decades of the 21st century, with 2024 the warmest on record at +1.60 °C (2.88 °F) since regular tracking began in 1850.[21][22] Additional warming will increase these impacts and can trigger tipping points, such as melting all of the Greenland ice sheet.[23] Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively agreed to keep warming "well under 2 °C". However, with pledges made under the Agreement, global warming would still reach about 2.8 °C (5.0 °F) by the end of the century.[24]

There is widespread support for climate action worldwide,[25][26] and most countries aim to stop emitting carbon dioxide.[27] Fossil fuels can be phased out by stopping subsidising them, conserving energy and switching to energy sources that do not produce significant carbon pollution. These energy sources include wind, solar, hydro, and nuclear power.[28] Cleanly generated electricity can replace fossil fuels for powering transportation, heating buildings, and running industrial processes.[29] Carbon can also be removed from the atmosphere, for instance by increasing forest cover and farming with methods that store carbon in soil.[30][31][32]

## Contents

* 1 Terminology
* 2 Global temperature rise
* 2.1 Temperatures prior to present-day global warming
* 2.2 Warming since the Industrial Revolution
* 2.2.1 Differences by region
* 2.3 Future global temperatures
* 3 Causes of recent global temperature rise
* 3.1 Greenhouse gases
* 3.2 Land surface changes
* 3.3 Other factors
* 3.3.1 Aerosols and clouds
* 3.3.2 Solar and volcanic activity
* 3.3.3 Climate change feedbacks
* 4 Modelling
* 5 Impacts
* 5.1 Environmental effects
* 5.2 Tipping points and long-term impacts
* 5.3 Nature and wildlife
* 5.4 Humans
* 5.4.1 Health and food
* 5.4.2 Economics, livelihoods and inequality
* 5.4.3 Climate migration
* 6 Reducing and recapturing emissions
* 6.1 Clean energy
* 6.2 Energy conservation
* 6.3 Agriculture and industry
* 6.4 Carbon dioxide removal
* 7 Adaptation
* 8 Policies and politics
* 8.1 Policy options
* 8.1.1 Climate justice
* 8.2 International climate agreements
* 8.3 National responses
* 9 Society and culture
* 9.1 Denial and misinformation
* 9.2 Public awareness and opinion
* 9.2.1 Climate movement
* 10 History
* 10.1 Early discoveries
* 10.2 Development of a scientific consensus
* 10.3 Recent developments
* 11 References
* 11.1 Sources
* 11.1.1 IPCC reports
* 11.1.2 Other peer-reviewed sources
* 11.1.3 Books, reports and legal documents
* 11.1.4 Non-technical sources
* 12 External links

## Terminology

Before the 1980s, it was unclear whether the warming effect of increased greenhouse gases was stronger than the cooling effect of airborne particulates in air pollution. Scientists used the term inadvertent climate modification to refer to human impacts on the climate at this time.[33] In the 1980s, the terms global warming and climate change became more common, often being used interchangeably.[34][35][36] Scientifically, global warming refers only to increased global average surface temperature, while climate change describes both global warming and its effects on Earth's climate system, such as precipitation changes.[33]

Climate change can also be used more broadly to include changes to the climate that have happened throughout Earth's history as result of natural processes.[37] The term anthropogenic climate change is sometimes used to describe climate change resulting from human activities.[38]

Global warming—used as early as 1975[39]—became the more popular term after NASA climate scientist James Hansen used it in his 1988 testimony in the U.S. Senate.[40] Since the 2000s, usage of climate change has increased.[41] Various scientists, politicians and media may use the terms climate crisis or climate emergency to talk about climate change, and may use the term global heating instead of global warming.[42][43]

## Global temperature rise

### Temperatures prior to present-day global warming

Main articles: Earth:Climate variability and change; Temperature record of the last 2,000 years; and Paleoclimatology

Global surface temperature reconstruction over the past 2000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in blue.[44] Directly observed data is in red.[45]

Over the last few million years the climate cycled through ice ages. One of the hotter periods was the Last Interglacial, around 125,000 years ago, where temperatures were between 0.5 °C and 1.5 °C warmer than before the start of global warming.[46] This period saw sea levels 5 to 10 metres higher than today. The most recent glacial maximum 20,000 years ago was some 5–7 °C colder. This period has sea levels that were over 125 metres (410 ft) lower than today.[47]

Temperatures stabilized in the current interglacial period beginning 11,700 years ago.[48] This period also saw the start of agriculture.[49] Historical patterns of warming and cooling, like the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age, did not occur at the same time across different regions. Temperatures may have reached as high as those of the late 20th century in a limited set of regions.[50][51] Climate information for that period comes from climate proxies, such as trees and ice cores.[52][53]

### Warming since the Industrial Revolution

In recent decades, new high temperature records have substantially outpaced new low temperature records on a growing portion of Earth's surface.[54] There has been an increase in ocean heat content during recent decades as the oceans absorb over 90% of the heat from global warming.[55]

Around 1850 thermometer records began to provide global coverage.[56] Between the 18th century and 1970 there was little net warming, as the warming impact of greenhouse gas emissions was offset by cooling from sulfur dioxide emissions. Sulfur dioxide causes acid rain, but it also produces sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere, which reflect sunlight and cause global dimming. After 1970, the increasing accumulation of greenhouse gases and controls on sulfur pollution led to a marked increase in temperature.[57][58]

File:1880- Global surface temperature - heat map animation - NASA SVS.webm

Ongoing changes in climate have had no precedent for several thousand years.[59] Multiple datasets all show worldwide increases in surface temperature, at a rate of around 0.2 °C per decade.[60] The 2014–2023 decade warmed to an average 1.19 °C [1.06–1.30 °C] compared to the pre-industrial baseline (1850–1900).[61] Not every single year was warmer than the last: internal climate variability processes can make any year 0.2 °C warmer or colder than the average.[62] From 1998 to 2013, negative phases of two such processes, Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)[63] and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO)[64] caused a short slower period of warming called the "global warming hiatus".[65] After the "hiatus", the opposite occurred, with 2024 well above the recent average at more than +1.5 °C.[66] This is why the temperature change is defined in terms of a 20-year average, which reduces the noise of hot and cold years and decadal climate patterns, and detects the long-term signal.[67]: 5 [68]

A wide range of other observations reinforce the evidence of warming.[69][70] The upper atmosphere is cooling, because greenhouse gases are trapping heat near the Earth's surface, and so less heat is radiating into space.[71] Warming reduces average snow cover and forces the retreat of glaciers. At the same time, warming also causes greater evaporation from the oceans, leading to more atmospheric humidity, and more and heavier precipitation.[72][73] Plants are flowering earlier in spring, and thousands of animal species have been permanently moving to cooler areas.[74]

#### Differences by region

Different regions of the world warm at different rates. The pattern is independent of where greenhouse gases are emitted, because the gases persist long enough to diffuse across the planet. Since the pre-industrial period, the average surface temperature over land regions has increased almost twice as fast as the global average surface temperature.[75] This is because oceans lose more heat by evaporation and oceans can store a lot of heat.[76] The thermal energy in the global climate system has grown with only brief pauses since at least 1970, and over 90% of this extra energy has been stored in the ocean.[77][78] The rest has heated the atmosphere, melted ice, and warmed the continents.[79]

The Northern Hemisphere and the North Pole have warmed much faster than the South Pole and Southern Hemisphere. The Northern Hemisphere not only has much more land, but also more seasonal snow cover and sea ice. As these surfaces flip from reflecting a lot of light to being dark after the ice has melted, they start absorbing more heat.[80] Local black carbon deposits on snow and ice also contribute to Arctic warming.[81] Arctic surface temperatures are increasing between three and four times faster than in the rest of the world.[82][83] Melting of ice sheets near the poles weakens both the Atlantic and the Antarctic limb of thermohaline circulation, which further changes the distribution of heat and precipitation around the globe.[84][85][86][87]

### Future global temperatures

CMIP6 multi-model projections of global surface temperature changes for the year 2090 relative to the 1850–1900 average. The current trajectory for warming by the end of the century is roughly halfway between these two extremes.[24][88][89]

The World Meteorological Organization estimates there is almost a 50% chance of the five-year average global temperature exceeding +1.5 °C between 2024 and 2028.[90] The IPCC expects the 20-year average to exceed +1.5 °C in the early 2030s.[91]

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (2021) included projections that by 2100 global warming is very likely to reach 1.0–1.8 °C under a scenario with very low emissions of greenhouse gases, 2.1–3.5 °C under an intermediate emissions scenario, or 3.3–5.7 °C under a very high emissions scenario.[92] The warming will continue past 2100 in the intermediate and high emission scenarios,[93][94] with future projections of global surface temperatures by year 2300 being similar to millions of years ago.[95]

The remaining carbon budget for staying beneath certain temperature increases is determined by modelling the carbon cycle and climate sensitivity to greenhouse gases.[96] According to UNEP, global warming can be kept below 2.0 °C with a 50% chance if emissions after 2023 do not exceed 900 gigatonnes of CO
2. This carbon budget corresponds to around 16 years of current emissions.[97]

## Causes of recent global temperature rise

Main article: Earth:Causes of climate change

Physical drivers of global warming that has happened so far. Future global warming potential for long lived drivers like carbon dioxide emissions is not represented. Whiskers on each bar show the possible error range.

The climate system experiences various cycles on its own which can last for years, decades or even centuries. For example, El Niño events cause short-term spikes in surface temperature while La Niña events cause short term cooling.[98] Their relative frequency can affect global temperature trends on a decadal timescale.[99] Other changes are caused by an imbalance of energy from external forcings.[100] Examples of these include changes in the concentrations of greenhouse gases, solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in the Earth's orbit around the Sun.[101]

To determine the human contribution to climate change, unique "fingerprints" for all potential causes are developed and compared with both observed patterns and known internal climate variability.[102] For example, solar forcing—whose fingerprint involves warming the entire atmosphere—is ruled out because only the lower atmosphere has warmed.[103] Atmospheric aerosols produce a smaller, cooling effect. Other drivers, such as changes in albedo, are less impactful.[104]

### Greenhouse gases

Main articles: Greenhouse gas, Greenhouse gas emissions, Greenhouse effect, and Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

2 concentrations over the last 800,000 years as measured from ice cores (blue/green) and directly (black)

Greenhouse gases are transparent to sunlight, and thus allow it to pass through the atmosphere to heat the Earth's surface. The Earth radiates it as heat, and greenhouse gases absorb a portion of it. This absorption slows the rate at which heat escapes into space, trapping heat near the Earth's surface and warming it over time.[105]

While water vapour (≈50%) and clouds (≈25%) are the biggest contributors to the greenhouse effect, they primarily change as a function of temperature and are therefore mostly considered to be feedbacks that change climate sensitivity. On the other hand, concentrations of gases such as CO
2 (≈20%), tropospheric ozone,[106] CFCs and nitrous oxide are added or removed independently from temperature, and are therefore considered to be external forcings that change global temperatures.[107]

Before the Industrial Revolution, naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases caused the air near the surface to be about 33 °C warmer than it would have been in their absence.[108][109] Human activity since the Industrial Revolution, mainly extracting and burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas),[110] has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In 2022, the concentrations of CO
2 and methane had increased by about 50% and 164%, respectively, since 1750.[111] These CO
2 levels are higher than they have been at any time during the last 14 million years.[112] Concentrations of methane are far higher than they were over the last 800,000 years.[113]

The Global Carbon Project shows how additions to CO
2 have been caused by different sources ramping up one after another.[114]

Global human-caused greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 were equivalent to 59 billion tonnes of CO
2. Of these emissions, 75% was CO
2, 18% was methane, 4% was nitrous oxide, and 2% was fluorinated gases.[115] CO
2 emissions primarily come from burning fossil fuels to provide energy for transport, manufacturing, heating, and electricity.[6] Additional CO
2 emissions come from deforestation and industrial processes, which include the CO
2 released by the chemical reactions for making cement, steel, aluminium, and fertilizer.[116][117][118][119] Methane emissions come from livestock, manure, rice cultivation, landfills, wastewater, and coal mining, as well as oil and gas extraction.[120][121] Nitrous oxide emissions largely come from the microbial decomposition of fertilizer.[122][123]

While methane only lasts in the atmosphere for an average of 12 years,[124] CO
2 lasts much longer. The Earth's surface absorbs CO
2 as part of the carbon cycle. While plants on land and in the ocean absorb most excess emissions of CO
2 every year, that CO
2 is returned to the atmosphere when biological matter is digested, burns, or decays.[125] Land-surface carbon sink processes, such as carbon fixation in the soil and photosynthesis, remove about 29% of annual global CO
2 emissions.[126] The ocean has absorbed 20 to 30% of emitted CO
2 over the last two decades.[127] CO
2 is only removed from the atmosphere for the long term when it is stored in the Earth's crust, which is a process that can take millions of years to complete.[125]

### Land surface changes

The rate of global tree cover loss has approximately doubled since 2001, to an annual loss approaching an area the size of Italy.[128]

Around 30% of Earth's land area is largely unusable for humans (glaciers, deserts, etc.), 26% is forests, 10% is shrubland and 34% is agricultural land.[129] Deforestation is the main land use change contributor to global warming,[130] as the destroyed trees release CO
2, and are not replaced by new trees, removing that carbon sink.[131] Between 2001 and 2018, 27% of deforestation was from permanent clearing to enable agricultural expansion for crops and livestock. Another 24% has been lost to temporary clearing under the shifting cultivation agricultural systems. 26% was due to logging for wood and derived products, and wildfires have accounted for the remaining 23%.[132] Some forests have not been fully cleared, but were already degraded by these impacts. Restoring these forests also recovers their potential as a carbon sink.[133]

Local vegetation cover impacts how much of the sunlight gets reflected back into space (albedo), and how much heat is lost by evaporation. For instance, the change from a dark forest to grassland makes the surface lighter, causing it to reflect more sunlight. Deforestation can also modify the release of chemical compounds that influence clouds, and by changing wind patterns.[134] In tropic and temperate areas the net effect is to produce significant warming, and forest restoration can make local temperatures cooler.[133] At latitudes closer to the poles, there is a cooling effect as forest is replaced by snow-covered (and more reflective) plains.[134] Globally, these increases in surface albedo have been the dominant direct influence on temperature from land use change. Thus, land use change to date is estimated to have a slight cooling effect.[135]

### Other factors

#### Aerosols and clouds

Air pollution, in the form of aerosols, affects the climate on a large scale.[136] Aerosols scatter and absorb solar radiation. From 1961 to 1990, a gradual reduction in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface was observed. This phenomenon is popularly known as global dimming,[137] and is primarily attributed to sulfate aerosols produced by the combustion of fossil fuels with heavy sulfur concentrations like coal and bunker fuel.[58] Smaller contributions come from black carbon (from combustion of fossil fuels and biomass), and from dust.[138][139][140] Globally, aerosols have been declining since 1990 due to pollution controls, meaning that they no longer mask greenhouse gas warming as much.[141][58]

Aerosols also have indirect effects on the Earth's energy budget. Sulfate aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei and lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets. These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets.[142] They also reduce the growth of raindrops, which makes clouds more reflective to incoming sunlight.[143] Indirect effects of aerosols are the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing.[144]

While aerosols typically limit global warming by reflecting sunlight, black carbon in soot that falls on snow or ice can contribute to global warming. Not only does this increase the absorption of sunlight, it also increases melting and sea-level rise.[145] Limiting new black carbon deposits in the Arctic could reduce global warming by 0.2 °C by 2050.[146] The effect of decreasing sulfur content of fuel oil for ships since 2020[147] is estimated to cause an additional 0.05 °C increase in global mean temperature by 2050.[148]

#### Solar and volcanic activity

The Fourth National Climate Assessment ("NCA4", USGCRP, 2017) includes charts illustrating that neither solar nor volcanic activity can explain the observed warming.[149][150]

As the Sun is the Earth's primary energy source, changes in incoming sunlight directly affect the climate system.[144] Solar irradiance has been measured directly by satellites,[151] and indirect measurements are available from the early 1600s onwards.[144] Since 1880, there has been no upward trend in the amount of the Sun's energy reaching the Earth, in contrast to the warming of the lower atmosphere (the troposphere).[152] The upper atmosphere (the stratosphere) would also be warming if the Sun was sending more energy to Earth, but instead, it has been cooling.[103] This is consistent with greenhouse gases preventing heat from leaving the Earth's atmosphere.[153]

Explosive volcanic eruptions can release gases, dust and ash that partially block sunlight and reduce temperatures, or they can send water vapour into the atmosphere, which adds to greenhouse gases and increases temperatures. These impacts on temperature only last for several years, because both water vapour and volcanic material have low persistence in the atmosphere.[154] Volcanic CO
2 emissions are more persistent, but they are equivalent to less than 1% of current human-caused CO
2 emissions.[155] Volcanic activity still represents the single largest natural impact (forcing) on temperature in the industrial era. Yet, like the other natural forcings, it has had negligible impacts on global temperature trends since the Industrial Revolution.[154]

#### Climate change feedbacks

Main articles: Earth:Climate change feedbacks and Climate sensitivity

Sea ice reflects 50% to 70% of incoming sunlight, while the ocean, being darker, reflects only 6%. As an area of sea ice melts and exposes more ocean, more heat is absorbed by the ocean, raising temperatures that melt still more ice. This is a positive feedback process.[156]

The climate system's response to an initial forcing is shaped by feedbacks, which either amplify or dampen the change. Self-reinforcing or positive feedbacks increase the response, while balancing or negative feedbacks reduce it.[157] The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour feedback, the ice–albedo feedback, and the net cloud feedback.[158][159] The primary balancing mechanism is radiative cooling, as Earth's surface gives off more heat to space in response to rising temperature.[160] In addition to temperature feedbacks, there are feedbacks in the carbon cycle, such as the fertilizing effect of CO
2 on plant growth.[161] Feedbacks are expected to trend in a positive direction as greenhouse gas emissions continue, raising climate sensitivity.[162]

These feedback processes alter the pace of global warming. For instance, warmer air can hold more moisture in the form of water vapour, which is itself a potent greenhouse gas.[158] Warmer air can also make clouds higher and thinner, and therefore more insulating, increasing climate warming.[163] The reduction of snow cover and sea ice in the Arctic is another major feedback, this reduces the reflectivity of the Earth's surface in the region and accelerates Arctic warming.[164][165] This additional warming also contributes to permafrost thawing, which releases methane and CO
2 into the atmosphere.[166]

Around half of human-caused CO
2 emissions have been absorbed by land plants and by the oceans.[167] This fraction is not static and if future CO
2 emissions decrease, the Earth will be able to absorb up to around 70%. If they increase substantially, it'll still absorb more carbon than now, but the overall fraction will decrease to below 40%.[168] This is because climate change increases droughts and heat waves that eventually inhibit plant growth on land, and soils will release more carbon from dead plants when they are warmer.[169][170] The rate at which oceans absorb atmospheric carbon will be lowered as they become more acidic and experience changes in thermohaline circulation and phytoplankton distribution.[171][172][85] Uncertainty over feedbacks, particularly cloud cover,[173] is the major reason why different climate models project different magnitudes of warming for a given amount of emissions.[174]

## Modelling

Energy flows between space, the atmosphere, and Earth's surface. Most sunlight passes through the atmosphere to heat the Earth's surface, then greenhouse gases absorb most of the heat the Earth radiates in response. Adding to greenhouse gases increases this insulating effect, causing an energy imbalance that heats the planet up.

A climate model is a representation of the physical, chemical and biological processes that affect the climate system.[175] Models include natural processes like changes in the Earth's orbit, historical changes in the Sun's activity, and volcanic forcing.[176] Models are used to estimate the degree of warming future emissions will cause when accounting for the strength of climate feedbacks.[177][178] Models also predict the circulation of the oceans, the annual cycle of the seasons, and the flows of carbon between the land surface and the atmosphere.[179]

The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate current or past climates.[180] Past models have underestimated the rate of Arctic shrinkage[181] and underestimated the rate of precipitation increase.[182] Sea level rise since 1990 was underestimated in older models, but more recent models agree well with observations.[183] The 2017 United States-published National Climate Assessment notes that "climate models may still be underestimating or missing relevant feedback processes".[184] Additionally, climate models may be unable to adequately predict short-term regional climatic shifts.[185]

A subset of climate models add societal factors to a physical climate model. These models simulate how population, economic growth, and energy use affect—and interact with—the physical climate. With this information, these models can produce scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions. This is then used as input for physical climate models and carbon cycle models to predict how atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases might change.[186][187] Depending on the socioeconomic scenario and the mitigation scenario, models produce atmospheric CO
2 concentrations that range widely between 380 and 1400 ppm.[188]

## Impacts

Main article: Biology:Effects of climate change

In virtually all countries and territories around the world, scientists in the field of extreme event attribution have concluded that human-caused global warming has increased the number of days of extreme heat events over long-term norms.[189]

### Environmental effects

The environmental effects of climate change are broad and far-reaching, affecting oceans, ice, and weather. Changes may occur gradually or rapidly. Evidence for these effects comes from studying climate change in the past, from modelling, and from modern observations.[190] Since the 1950s, droughts and heat waves have appeared simultaneously with increasing frequency.[191] Extremely wet or dry events within the monsoon period have increased in India and East Asia.[192] Monsoonal precipitation over the Northern Hemisphere has increased since 1980.[193] The rainfall rate and intensity of hurricanes and typhoons is likely increasing,[194] and the geographic range likely expanding poleward in response to climate warming.[195] The frequency of tropical cyclones has not increased as a result of climate change.[196]

Historical sea level reconstruction and projections up to 2100 published in 2017 by the U.S. Global Change Research Program[197]

Global sea level is rising as a consequence of thermal expansion and the melting of glaciers and ice sheets. Sea level rise has increased over time, reaching 4.8 cm per decade between 2014 and 2023.[198] Over the 21st century, the IPCC projects 32–62 cm of sea level rise under a low emission scenario, 44–76 cm under an intermediate one and 65–101 cm under a very high emission scenario.[199] Marine ice sheet instability processes in Antarctica may add substantially to these values,[200] including the possibility of a 2-meter sea level rise by 2100 under high emissions.[201]

Climate change has led to decades of shrinking and thinning of the Arctic sea ice.[202] While ice-free summers are expected to be rare at 1.5 °C degrees of warming, they are set to occur once every three to ten years at a warming level of 2 °C.[203] Higher atmospheric CO
2 concentrations cause more CO
2 to dissolve in the oceans, which is making them more acidic.[204] Because oxygen is less soluble in warmer water,[205] its concentrations in the ocean are decreasing, and dead zones are expanding.[206]

### Tipping points and long-term impacts

Main article: Earth:Tipping points in the climate system

Different levels of global warming may cause different parts of Earth's climate system to reach tipping points that cause transitions to different states.[207][208]

Greater degrees of global warming increase the risk of passing through 'tipping points'—thresholds beyond which certain major impacts can no longer be avoided even if temperatures return to their previous state.[209][210] For instance, the Greenland ice sheet is already melting, but if global warming reaches levels between 1.7 °C and 2.3 °C, its melting will continue until it fully disappears. If the warming is later reduced to 1.5 °C or less, it will still lose a lot more ice than if the warming was never allowed to reach the threshold in the first place.[211] While the ice sheets would melt over millennia, other tipping points would occur faster and give societies less time to respond. The collapse of major ocean currents like the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC), and irreversible damage to key ecosystems like the Amazon rainforest and coral reefs can unfold in a matter of decades.[208] The collapse of the AMOC would be a severe climate catastrophe, resulting in a cooling of the Northern Hemisphere.[212]

The long-term effects of climate change on oceans include further ice melt, ocean warming, sea level rise, ocean acidification and ocean deoxygenation.[213] The timescale of long-term impacts are centuries to millennia due to CO
2's long atmospheric lifetime.[214] The result is an estimated total sea level rise of 2.3 metres per degree Celsius (4.2 ft/°F) after 2000 years.[215] Oceanic CO
2 uptake is slow enough that ocean acidification will also continue for hundreds to thousands of years.[216] Deep oceans (below 2,000 metres (6,600 ft)) are also already committed to losing over 10% of their dissolved oxygen by the warming which occurred to date.[217] Further, the West Antarctic ice sheet appears committed to practically irreversible melting, which would increase the sea levels by at least 3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) over approximately 2000 years.[208][218][219]

### Nature and wildlife

Recent warming has driven many terrestrial and freshwater species poleward and towards higher altitudes.[220] For instance, the range of hundreds of North American birds has shifted northward at an average rate of 1.5 km/year over the past 55 years.[221] Higher atmospheric CO
2 levels and an extended growing season have resulted in global greening. However, heatwaves and drought have reduced ecosystem productivity in some regions. The future balance of these opposing effects is unclear.[222] A related phenomenon driven by climate change is woody plant encroachment, affecting up to 500 million hectares globally.[223] Climate change has contributed to the expansion of drier climate zones, such as the expansion of deserts in the subtropics.[224] The size and speed of global warming is making abrupt changes in ecosystems more likely.[225] Overall, it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species.[226]

The oceans have heated more slowly than the land, but plants and animals in the ocean have migrated towards the colder poles faster than species on land.[227] Just as on land, heat waves in the ocean occur more frequently due to climate change, harming a wide range of organisms such as corals, kelp, and seabirds.[228] Ocean acidification makes it harder for marine calcifying organisms such as mussels, barnacles and corals to produce shells and skeletons; and heatwaves have bleached coral reefs.[229] Harmful algal blooms enhanced by climate change and eutrophication lower oxygen levels, disrupt food webs and cause great loss of marine life.[230] Coastal ecosystems are under particular stress. Almost half of global wetlands have disappeared due to climate change and other human impacts.[231] Plants have come under increased stress from damage by insects.[232]

Climate change impacts on the environment

* Ecological collapse. Coral bleaching from thermal stress has damaged the Great Barrier Reef and threatens coral reefs worldwide.[233]

* Extreme weather. Drought and high temperatures worsened the 2020 bushfires in Australia.[234]

* Arctic warming. Permafrost thaws undermine infrastructure and release methane, a greenhouse gas.[166]

* Habitat destruction. Many arctic animals rely on sea ice, which has been disappearing in a warming Arctic.[235]

* Pest propagation. Mild winters allow more pine beetles to survive to kill large swaths of forest.[236]

### Humans

Main article: Biology:Effects of climate change

Extreme weather will be progressively more common as the Earth warms.[237]

The effects of climate change are impacting humans everywhere in the world.[238] Impacts can be observed on all continents and ocean regions,[239] with low-latitude, less developed areas facing the greatest risk.[240] Continued warming has potentially "severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts" for people and ecosystems.[241] The risks are unevenly distributed, but are generally greater for disadvantaged people in developing and developed countries.[242]

#### Health and food

The World Health Organization calls climate change one of the biggest threats to global health in the 21st century.[15] Scientists have warned about the irreversible harms it poses.[243] Extreme weather events affect public health, and food and water security.[244][245][246] Temperature extremes lead to increased illness and death.[244][245] Climate change increases the intensity and frequency of extreme weather events.[245][246] It can affect transmission of infectious diseases, such as dengue fever and malaria.[243][244] According to the World Economic Forum, 14.5 million more deaths are expected due to climate change by 2050.[247] 30% of the global population currently live in areas where extreme heat and humidity are already associated with excess deaths.[248][249] By 2100, 50% to 75% of the global population would live in such areas.[248][250]

While total crop yields have been increasing in the past 50 years due to agricultural improvements, climate change has already decreased the rate of yield growth.[246] Fisheries have been negatively affected in multiple regions.[246] While agricultural productivity has been positively affected in some high latitude areas, mid- and low-latitude areas have been negatively affected.[246] Climate change affects land suitability for many crops, with suitable areas for given crops usually moving to higher latitudes and altitudes.[251] According to the World Economic Forum, an increase in drought in certain regions could cause 3.2 million deaths from malnutrition by 2050 and stunting in children.[252] With 2 °C warming, global livestock headcounts could decline by 7–10% by 2050, as less animal feed will be available.[253] If the emissions continue to increase for the rest of century, then over 9 million climate-related deaths would occur annually by 2100.[254]

#### Economics, livelihoods and inequality

Economic damages due to climate change may be severe and there is a chance of disastrous consequences.[255] Severe impacts are expected in South-East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, where most of the local inhabitants are dependent upon natural and agricultural resources.[256][257] Heat stress can prevent outdoor labourers from working. If warming reaches 4 °C then labour capacity in those regions could be reduced by 30 to 50%.[258] The World Bank estimates that between 2016 and 2030, climate change could drive over 120 million people into extreme poverty without adaptation.[259]

Inequalities based on wealth and social status have worsened due to climate change.[260] Major difficulties in mitigating, adapting to, and recovering from climate shocks are faced by marginalized people who have less control over resources.[261][256] Indigenous people, who are subsistent on their land and ecosystems, will face endangerment to their wellness and lifestyles due to climate change.[262] An expert elicitation concluded that the role of climate change in armed conflict has been small compared to factors such as socio-economic inequality and state capabilities.[263]

While women are not inherently more at risk from climate change and shocks, limits on women's resources and discriminatory gender norms constrain their adaptive capacity and resilience.[264] For example, women's work burdens, including hours worked in agriculture, tend to decline less than men's during climate shocks such as heat stress.[264]

Climate change threatens the sports economy by disrupting seasons, damaging infrastructure and reducing fan engagement, with the most immediate risks seen in football, winter sports and outdoor events.[265]

#### Climate migration

Low-lying islands and coastal communities are threatened by sea level rise, which makes urban flooding more common. Sometimes, land is permanently lost to the sea.[266] This could lead to statelessness for people in island nations, such as the Maldives and Tuvalu.[267] In some regions, the rise in temperature and humidity may be too severe for humans to adapt to.[268] With worst-case climate change, models project that areas almost one-third of humanity live in might become Sahara-like uninhabitable and extremely hot climates.[269]

These factors can drive climate or environmental migration, within and between countries.[270] More people are expected to be displaced because of sea level rise, extreme weather and conflict from increased competition over natural resources. Climate change may also increase vulnerability, leading to "trapped populations" who are not able to move due to a lack of resources.[271]

Climate change impacts on people

* Environmental migration. Sparser rainfall leads to desertification that harms agriculture and can displace populations. Shown: Telly, Mali (2008).[272]

* Agricultural changes. Droughts, rising temperatures, and extreme weather negatively impact agriculture. Shown: Texas, US (2013).[273]

* Tidal flooding. Sea-level rise increases flooding in low-lying coastal regions. Shown: Venice, Italy (2004).[274]

* Storm intensification. Bangladesh after Cyclone Sidr (2007) is an example of catastrophic flooding from increased rainfall.[275]

* Heat wave intensification. Events like the 2022 Southern Cone heat wave are becoming more common.[276]

## Reducing and recapturing emissions

Global greenhouse gas emission scenarios, based on policies and pledges as of November 2021

Climate change can be mitigated by reducing the rate at which greenhouse gases are emitted into the atmosphere, and by increasing the rate at which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere.[277] To limit global warming to less than 2 °C global greenhouse gas emissions need to be net-zero by 2070.[278] This requires far-reaching, systemic changes on an unprecedented scale in energy, land, cities, transport, buildings, and industry.[279]

The United Nations Environment Programme estimates that countries need to triple their pledges under the Paris Agreement within the next decade to limit global warming to 2 °C.[280] With pledges made under the Paris Agreement as of 2024, there would be a 66% chance that global warming is kept under 2.8 °C by the end of the century (range: 1.9–3.7 °C, depending on exact implementation and technological progress). When only considering current policies, this raises to 3.1 °C.[281] Globally, limiting warming to 2 °C may result in higher economic benefits than economic costs.[282]

Although there is no single pathway to limit global warming to 2 °C,[283] most scenarios and strategies see a major increase in the use of renewable energy in combination with increased energy efficiency measures to generate the needed greenhouse gas reductions.[284] To reduce pressures on ecosystems and enhance their carbon sequestration capabilities, changes would also be necessary in agriculture and forestry,[285] such as preventing deforestation and restoring natural ecosystems by reforestation.[286]

Other approaches to mitigating climate change have a higher level of risk. Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project the large-scale use of carbon dioxide removal methods over the 21st century.[287] There are concerns, though, about over-reliance on these technologies, and environmental impacts.[288]

Solar radiation modification (SRM) is a proposal for reducing global warming by reflecting some sunlight away from Earth and back into space. Because it does not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations, it would not address ocean acidification[289] and is not considered mitigation.[290] SRM should be considered only as a supplement to mitigation, not a replacement for it,[291] due to risks such as rapid warming if it were abruptly stopped and not restarted.[292] The most-studied approach is stratospheric aerosol injection.[293] SRM could reduce global warming and some of its impacts, though imperfectly.[294] It poses environmental risks, such as changes to rainfall patterns,[295] as well as political challenges, such as who would decide whether to use it.[293]

### Clean energy

Main articles: Earth:Sustainable energy and Sustainable transport

Coal, oil, and natural gas remain the primary global energy sources even as renewables have begun rapidly increasing.[296][297] Wind and solar power, Germany

Renewable energy is key to limiting climate change.[298] For decades, fossil fuels have accounted for roughly 80% of the world's energy use.[299] The remaining share has been split between nuclear power and renewables (including hydropower, bioenergy, wind and solar power and geothermal energy).[300] Fossil fuel use is expected to peak in absolute terms prior to 2030 and then to decline, with coal use experiencing the sharpest reductions.[301] Renewables represented 86% of all new electricity generation installed in 2023.[302] Other forms of clean energy, such as nuclear and hydropower, currently have a larger share of the energy supply. However, their future growth forecasts appear limited in comparison.[303]

While solar panels and onshore wind are now among the cheapest forms of adding new power generation capacity in many locations,[304] green energy policies are needed to achieve a rapid transition from fossil fuels to renewables.[305] To achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, renewable energy would become the dominant form of electricity generation, rising to 85% or more by 2050 in some scenarios. Investment in coal would be eliminated and coal use nearly phased out by 2050.[306][307]

Electricity generated from renewable sources would also need to become the main energy source for heating and transport.[308] Transport can switch away from internal combustion engine vehicles and towards electric vehicles, public transit, and active transport (cycling and walking).[309][310] For shipping and flying, low-carbon fuels would reduce emissions.[309] Heating could be increasingly decarbonized with technologies like heat pumps.[311]

There are obstacles to the continued rapid growth of clean energy, including renewables.[312] Wind and solar produce energy intermittently and with seasonal variability. Traditionally, hydro dams with reservoirs and fossil fuel power plants have been used when variable energy production is low. Going forward, battery storage can be expanded, energy demand and supply can be matched, and long-distance transmission can smooth variability of renewable outputs.[298] Bioenergy is often not carbon-neutral and may have negative consequences for food security.[313] The growth of nuclear power is constrained by controversy around radioactive waste, nuclear weapon proliferation, and accidents.[314][315] Hydropower growth is limited by the fact that the best sites have been developed, and new projects are confronting increased social and environmental concerns.[316]

Low-carbon energy improves human health by minimizing climate change as well as reducing air pollution deaths,[317] which were estimated at 7 million annually in 2016.[318] Meeting the Paris Agreement goals that limit warming to a 2 °C increase could save about a million of those lives per year by 2050, whereas limiting global warming to 1.5 °C could save millions and simultaneously increase energy security and reduce poverty.[319] Improving air quality also has economic benefits which may be larger than mitigation costs.[320]

### Energy conservation

Main articles: Physics:Efficient energy use and Energy conservation

Reducing energy demand is another major aspect of reducing emissions.[321] If less energy is needed, there is more flexibility for clean energy development. It also makes it easier to manage the electricity grid, and minimizes carbon-intensive infrastructure development.[322] Major increases in energy efficiency investment will be required to achieve climate goals, comparable to the level of investment in renewable energy.[323] Several COVID-19 related changes in energy use patterns, energy efficiency investments, and funding have made forecasts for this decade more difficult and uncertain.[324]

Strategies to reduce energy demand vary by sector. In the transport sector, passengers and freight can switch to more efficient travel modes, such as buses and trains, or use electric vehicles.[325] Industrial strategies to reduce energy demand include improving heating systems and motors, designing less energy-intensive products, and increasing product lifetimes.[326] In the building sector the focus is on better design of new buildings, and higher levels of energy efficiency in retrofitting.[327] The use of technologies like heat pumps can also increase building energy efficiency.[328]

### Agriculture and industry

See also: Biology:Sustainable agriculture and Green industrial policy

Taking into account direct and indirect emissions, industry is the sector with the highest share of global emissions. Data as of 2019 from the IPCC.

Agriculture and forestry face a triple challenge of limiting greenhouse gas emissions, preventing the further conversion of forests to agricultural land, and meeting increases in world food demand.[329] A set of actions could reduce agriculture and forestry-based emissions by two-thirds from 2010 levels. These include reducing growth in demand for food and other agricultural products, increasing land productivity, protecting and restoring forests, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural production.[330]

On the demand side, a key component of reducing emissions is shifting people towards plant-based diets.[331] Eliminating the production of livestock for meat and dairy would eliminate about three-quarters of all emissions from agriculture and other land use.[332] Livestock also occupy 37% of ice-free land area on Earth and consume feed from the 12% of land area used for crops, driving deforestation and land degradation.[333]

Steel and cement production are responsible for about 13% of industrial CO
2 emissions. In these industries, carbon-intensive materials such as coke and lime play an integral role in the production, so that reducing CO
2 emissions requires research into alternative chemistries.[334] Where energy production or CO
2-intensive heavy industries continue to produce waste CO
2, technology can sometimes be used to capture and store most of the gas instead of releasing it to the atmosphere.[335] This technology, carbon capture and storage (CCS), could have a critical but limited role in reducing emissions.[335] It is relatively expensive[336] and has been deployed only to an extent that removes around 0.1% of annual greenhouse gas emissions.[335]

### Carbon dioxide removal

Main articles: Earth:Carbon dioxide removal and Carbon sequestration

Most CO
2 emissions have been absorbed by carbon sinks, including plant growth, soil uptake, and ocean uptake (2020 Global Carbon Budget).

Natural carbon sinks can be enhanced to sequester significantly larger amounts of CO
2 beyond naturally occurring levels.[337] Reforestation and afforestation (planting forests where there were none before) are among the most mature sequestration techniques, although the latter raises food security concerns.[338] Farmers can promote sequestration of carbon in soils through practices such as use of winter cover crops, reducing the intensity and frequency of tillage, and using compost and manure as soil amendments.[339] Forest and landscape restoration yields many benefits for the climate, including greenhouse gas emissions sequestration and reduction.[133] Restoration/recreation of coastal wetlands, prairie plots and seagrass meadows increases the uptake of carbon into organic matter.[340][341] When carbon is sequestered in soils and in organic matter such as trees, there is a risk of the carbon being re-released into the atmosphere later through changes in land use, fire, or other changes in ecosystems.[342]

The use of bioenergy in conjunction with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) can result in net negative emissions as CO
2 is drawn from the atmosphere.[343] It remains highly uncertain whether carbon dioxide removal techniques will be able to play a large role in limiting warming to 1.5 °C. Policy decisions that rely on carbon dioxide removal increase the risk of global warming rising beyond international goals.[344]

## Adaptation

Main article: Earth:Climate change adaptation

Adaptation is "the process of adjustment to current or expected changes in climate and its effects".[345]: 5 Without additional mitigation, adaptation cannot avert the risk of "severe, widespread and irreversible" impacts.[346] More severe climate change requires more transformative adaptation, which can be prohibitively expensive.[347] The capacity and potential for humans to adapt is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations, and developing countries generally have less.[348] The first two decades of the 21st century saw an increase in adaptive capacity in most low- and middle-income countries with improved access to basic sanitation and electricity, but progress is slow. Many countries have implemented adaptation policies. However, there is a considerable gap between necessary and available finance.[349]

Adaptation to sea level rise consists of avoiding at-risk areas, learning to live with increased flooding, and building flood controls. If that fails, managed retreat may be needed.[350] There are economic barriers for tackling dangerous heat impact. Avoiding strenuous work or having air conditioning is not possible for everybody.[351] In agriculture, adaptation options include a switch to more sustainable diets, diversification, erosion control, and genetic improvements for increased tolerance to a changing climate.[352] Insurance allows for risk-sharing, but is often difficult to get for people on lower incomes.[353] Education, migration and early warning systems can reduce climate vulnerability.[354] Planting mangroves or encouraging other coastal vegetation can buffer storms.[355][356]

Ecosystems adapt to climate change, a process that can be supported by human intervention. By increasing connectivity between ecosystems, species can migrate to more favourable climate conditions. Species can also be introduced to areas acquiring a favourable climate. Protection and restoration of natural and semi-natural areas helps build resilience, making it easier for ecosystems to adapt. Many of the actions that promote adaptation in ecosystems, also help humans adapt via ecosystem-based adaptation. For instance, restoration of natural fire regimes makes catastrophic fires less likely, and reduces human exposure. Giving rivers more space allows for more water storage in the natural system, reducing flood risk. Restored forest acts as a carbon sink, but planting trees in unsuitable regions can exacerbate climate impacts.[357]

There are synergies but also trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation.[358] An example for synergy is increased food productivity, which has large benefits for both adaptation and mitigation.[359] An example of a trade-off is that increased use of air conditioning allows people to better cope with heat, but increases energy demand. Another trade-off example is that more compact urban development may reduce emissions from transport and construction, but may also increase the urban heat island effect, exposing people to heat-related health risks.[360]

Examples of adaptation methods

* Mangrove planting and other habitat conservation can reduce coastal flooding.

* Seawalls to protect against storm surge worsened by sea level rise

* Green roofs to provide cooling in cities

* Selective breeding for drought-resistant crops

## Policies and politics

See also: Earth:Politics of climate change and Climate change mitigation § Policies

Template:Choropleth map Countries that are most vulnerable to climate change have typically been responsible for a small share of global emissions. This raises questions about justice and fairness.[361] Limiting global warming makes it much easier to achieve the UN's Sustainable Development Goals, such as eradicating poverty and reducing inequalities. The connection is recognized in Sustainable Development Goal 13 which is to "take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts".[362] The goals on food, clean water and ecosystem protection have synergies with climate mitigation.[363]

The geopolitics of climate change is complex. It has often been framed as a free-rider problem, in which all countries benefit from mitigation done by other countries, but individual countries would lose from switching to a low-carbon economy themselves. Sometimes mitigation also has localized benefits though. For instance, the benefits of a coal phase-out to public health and local environments exceed the costs in almost all regions.[364] Furthermore, net importers of fossil fuels win economically from switching to clean energy, causing net exporters to face stranded assets: fossil fuels they cannot sell.[365]

### Policy options

A wide range of policies, regulations, and laws are being used to reduce emissions. As of 2019, carbon pricing covers about 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions.[366] Carbon can be priced with carbon taxes and emissions trading systems.[367] Direct global fossil fuel subsidies reached $319 billion in 2017, and $5.2 trillion when indirect costs such as air pollution are priced in.[368] Ending these can cause a 28% reduction in global carbon emissions and a 46% reduction in air pollution deaths.[369] Money saved on fossil subsidies could be used to support the transition to clean energy instead.[370] More direct methods to reduce greenhouse gases include vehicle efficiency standards, renewable fuel standards, and air pollution regulations on heavy industry.[371] Several countries require utilities to increase the share of renewables in power production.[372] An Open Coalition on Compliance Carbon Markets with the aim of creating a global cap and trade system was established at COP30 (2025). According to some calculations it can increase emissions reduction seven-fold over current policies, deliver $200 billion per year for clean-energy and social programs and even close the gap between current emissions trajectory and the goals of the Paris agreement.[373][374][375]

#### Climate justice

Policy designed through the lens of climate justice tries to address human rights issues and social inequality. According to proponents of climate justice, the costs of climate adaptation should be paid by those most responsible for climate change, while the beneficiaries of payments should be those suffering impacts. One way this can be addressed in practice is to have wealthy nations pay poorer countries to adapt.[376]

Oxfam found that in 2023 the wealthiest 10% of people were responsible for 50% of global emissions, while the bottom 50% were responsible for just 8%.[377] Production of emissions is another way to look at responsibility: under that approach, the top 21 fossil fuel companies would owe cumulative climate reparations of $5.4 trillion over the period 2025–2050.[378] To achieve a just transition, people working in the fossil fuel sector would also need other jobs, and their communities would need investments.[379]

### International climate agreements

Since 2000, rising CO
2 emissions in China and the rest of world have surpassed the output of the United States and Europe.[380][381] Per person, the United States generates CO
2 at a far faster rate than other primary regions.[380][382]

Nearly all countries in the world are parties to the 1994 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).[383] The goal of the UNFCCC is to prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system.[384] As stated in the convention, this requires that greenhouse gas concentrations are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not threatened, and economic development can be sustained.[385] The UNFCCC does not itself restrict emissions but rather provides a framework for protocols that do. Global emissions have risen since the UNFCCC was signed.[386] Its yearly conferences are the stage of global negotiations.[387]

The 1997 Kyoto Protocol extended the UNFCCC and included legally binding commitments for most developed countries to limit their emissions.[388] During the negotiations, the G77 (representing developing countries) pushed for a mandate requiring developed countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing their emissions,[389] since developed countries contributed most to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Per-capita emissions were also still relatively low in developing countries and developing countries would need to emit more to meet their development needs.[390]

The 2009 Copenhagen Accord has been widely portrayed as disappointing because of its low goals, and was rejected by poorer nations including the G77.[391] Associated parties aimed to limit the global temperature rise to below 2 °C.[392] The accord set the goal of sending $100 billion per year to developing countries for mitigation and adaptation by 2020, and proposed the founding of the Green Climate Fund.[393] As of 2020[update], only $83.3 billion were delivered. Only in 2023 the target is expected to be achieved.[394]

In 2015 all UN countries negotiated the Paris Agreement, which aims to keep global warming well below 2.0 °C and contains an aspirational goal of keeping warming under 1.5 °C.[395] The agreement replaced the Kyoto Protocol. Unlike Kyoto, no binding emission targets were set in the Paris Agreement. Instead, a set of procedures was made binding. Countries have to regularly set ever more ambitious goals and reevaluate these goals every five years.[396] The Paris Agreement restated that developing countries must be financially supported.[397] As of March 2025[update], 194 states and the European Union have acceded to or ratified the agreement.[398]

The 1987 Montreal Protocol, an international agreement to phase out production of ozone-depleting gases, has had benefits for climate change mitigation.[399] Several ozone-depleting gases like chlorofluorocarbons are powerful greenhouse gases, so banning their production and usage may have avoided a temperature rise of 0.5 °C–1.0 °C,[400] as well as additional warming by preventing damage to vegetation from ultraviolet radiation.[401] It is estimated that the agreement has been more effective at curbing greenhouse gas emissions than the Kyoto Protocol specifically designed to do so.[402] The most recent amendment to the Montreal Protocol, the 2016 Kigali Amendment, committed to reducing the emissions of hydrofluorocarbons, which served as a replacement for banned ozone-depleting gases and are also potent greenhouse gases.[403] Should countries comply with the amendment, a warming of 0.3 °C–0.5 °C is estimated to be avoided.[404]

### National responses

Annual CO
2 emissions by region. This measures fossil fuel and industry emissions. Land use change is not included.[405]

In 2019, the United Kingdom parliament became the first national government to declare a climate emergency.[406] Other countries and jurisdictions followed suit.[407] That same year, the European Parliament declared a "climate and environmental emergency".[408] The European Commission presented its European Green Deal with the goal of making the EU carbon-neutral by 2050.[409] In 2021, the European Commission released its "Fit for 55" legislation package, which contains guidelines for the car industry; all new cars on the European market must be zero-emission vehicles from 2035.[410]

Major countries in Asia have made similar pledges: South Korea and Japan have committed to become carbon-neutral by 2050, and China by 2060.[411] While India has strong incentives for renewables, it also plans a significant expansion of coal in the country.[412] Vietnam is among very few coal-dependent, fast-developing countries that pledged to phase out unabated coal power by the 2040s or as soon as possible thereafter.[413]

As of 2021, based on information from 48 national climate plans, which represent 40% of the parties to the Paris Agreement, estimated total greenhouse gas emissions will be 0.5% lower compared to 2010 levels, below the 45% or 25% reduction goals to limit global warming to 1.5 °C or 2 °C, respectively.[414]

## Society and culture

### Denial and misinformation

Data has been cherry picked from short periods to falsely assert that global temperatures are not rising. Blue trendlines show short periods that mask longer-term warming trends (red trendlines). Blue rectangle with blue dots shows the so-called global warming hiatus.[415]

Public debate about climate change has been strongly affected by climate change denial and misinformation, which first emerged in the United States and has since spread to other countries, particularly Canada and Australia. It originated from fossil fuel companies, industry groups, conservative think tanks, and contrarian scientists.[416] Like the tobacco industry, the main strategy of these groups has been to manufacture doubt about climate-change related scientific data and results.[417] People who hold unwarranted doubt about climate change are sometimes called climate change "skeptics", although "contrarians" or "deniers" are more appropriate terms.[418]

There are different variants of climate denial: some deny that warming takes place at all, some acknowledge warming but attribute it to natural influences, and some minimize the negative impacts of climate change.[419] Manufacturing uncertainty about the science later developed into a manufactured controversy: creating the belief that there is significant uncertainty about climate change within the scientific community to delay policy changes.[420] Strategies to promote these ideas include criticism of scientific institutions,[421] and questioning the motives of individual scientists.[419] An echo chamber of climate-denying blogs and media has further fomented misunderstanding of climate change.[422]

### Public awareness and opinion

The public substantially underestimates the degree of scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change (2022 data).[423] Studies from 2019 to 2021[424][5][425] found scientific consensus to range from 98.7 to 100%.

Climate change came to international public attention in the late 1980s.[426] Due to media coverage in the early 1990s, people often confused climate change with other environmental issues like ozone depletion.[427] In popular culture, the climate fiction movie The Day After Tomorrow (2004) and the Al Gore documentary An Inconvenient Truth (2006) focused on climate change.[426]

Significant regional, gender, age and political differences exist in both public concern for, and understanding of, climate change. More highly educated people, and in some countries, women and younger people, were more likely to see climate change as a serious threat.[428] College biology textbooks from the 2010s featured less content on climate change compared to those from the preceding decade, with decreasing emphasis on solutions.[429] Partisan gaps also exist in many countries,[430] and countries with high CO2 emissions tend to be less concerned.[431] Views on causes of climate change vary widely between countries.[432] Media coverage linked to protests has had impacts on public sentiment as well as on which aspects of climate change are focused upon.[433] Higher levels of worry are associated with stronger public support for policies that address climate change.[434] Concern has increased over time,[435] and in 2021 a majority of citizens in 30 countries expressed a high level of worry about climate change, or view it as a global emergency.[436] A 2024 survey across 125 countries found that 89% of the global population demanded intensified political action, but systematically underestimated other peoples' willingness to act.[25][26]

#### Climate movement

Main articles: Social:Climate movement and Climate change litigation

Climate protests demand that political leaders take action to prevent climate change. They can take the form of public demonstrations, fossil fuel divestment, lawsuits and other activities.[437][438] Prominent demonstrations include the School Strike for Climate. In this initiative, young people across the globe have been protesting since 2018 by skipping school on Fridays, inspired by Swedish activist and then-teenager Greta Thunberg.[439] Mass civil disobedience actions by groups like Extinction Rebellion have protested by disrupting roads and public transport.[440]

Litigation is increasingly used as a tool to strengthen climate action from public institutions and companies. Activists also initiate lawsuits which target governments and demand that they take ambitious action or enforce existing laws on climate change.[441] Lawsuits against fossil-fuel companies generally seek compensation for loss and damage.[442] On 23 July 2025, the UN's International Court of Justice issued its advisory opinion, saying explicitly that states must act to stop climate change, and if they fail to accomplish that duty, other states can sue them. This obligation includes implementing their commitments in international agreements they are parties to, such as the 2015 Paris Climate Accord.[443][444][445]

## History

For broader coverage of this topic, see History of climate change science.

### Early discoveries

Eunice Newton Foote showed carbon dioxide's heat-capturing effect in 1856, foreseeing its implications for the planet.[446] (Carbon dioxide was called "carbonic acid gas".)

Scientists in the 19th century such as Alexander von Humboldt began to foresee the effects of climate change.[447][448][449][450] In the 1820s, Joseph Fourier proposed the greenhouse effect to explain why Earth's temperature was higher than the Sun's energy alone could explain. Earth's atmosphere is transparent to sunlight, so sunlight reaches the surface where it is converted to heat. However, the atmosphere is not transparent to heat radiating from the surface, and captures some of that heat, which in turn warms the planet.[451] In 1856 Eunice Newton Foote demonstrated that the warming effect of the Sun is greater for air with water vapour than for dry air, and that the effect is even greater with carbon dioxide (CO
2). In "Circumstances Affecting the Heat of the Sun's Rays" she concluded that "[a]n atmosphere of that gas would give to our earth a high temperature".[452][453]

This 1912 article succinctly describes the greenhouse effect, how burning coal creates carbon dioxide to cause global warming and climate change.[454]

Starting in 1859,[455] John Tyndall established that nitrogen and oxygen—together totalling 99% of dry air—are transparent to radiated heat. However, water vapour and gases such as methane and carbon dioxide absorb radiated heat and re-radiate that heat into the atmosphere. Tyndall proposed that changes in the concentrations of these gases may have caused climatic changes in the past, including ice ages.[456]

Svante Arrhenius noted that water vapour in air continuously varied, but the CO
2 concentration in air was influenced by long-term geological processes. Warming from increased CO
2 levels would increase the amount of water vapour, amplifying warming in a positive feedback loop. In 1896, he published the first climate model of its kind, projecting that halving CO
2 levels could have produced a drop in temperature initiating an ice age. Arrhenius calculated the temperature increase expected from doubling CO
2 to be around 5–6 °C.[457] Other scientists were initially sceptical and believed that the greenhouse effect was saturated so that adding more CO
2 would make no difference, and that the climate would be self-regulating.[458] Beginning in 1938, Guy Stewart Callendar published evidence that climate was warming and CO
2 levels were rising,[459] but his calculations met the same objections.[458]

### Development of a scientific consensus

See also: Earth:Scientific consensus on climate change

Scientific consensus on causation: Academic studies of scientific agreement on human-caused global warming among climate experts (2010–2015) reflect that the level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science.[460] A 2019 study found scientific consensus to be at 100%,[424] and a 2021 study concluded that consensus exceeded 99%.[5] Another 2021 study found that 98.7% of climate experts indicated that the Earth is getting warmer mostly because of human activity.[461]

In the 1950s, Gilbert Plass created a detailed computer model that included different atmospheric layers and the infrared spectrum. This model predicted that increasing CO
2 levels would cause warming. Around the same time, Hans Suess found evidence that CO
2 levels had been rising, and Roger Revelle showed that the oceans would not absorb the increase. The two scientists subsequently helped Charles Keeling to begin a record of continued increase—the "Keeling Curve"[458]—which was part of continued scientific investigation through the 1960s into possible human causation of global warming.[462] Studies such as the National Research Council's 1979 Charney Report supported the accuracy of climate models that forecast significant warming.[463] Human causation of observed global warming and dangers of unmitigated warming were publicly presented in James Hansen's 1988 testimony before a US Senate committee.[464][40] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), set up in 1988 to provide formal advice to the world's governments, spurred interdisciplinary research.[465] As part of the IPCC reports, scientists assess the scientific discussion that takes place in peer-reviewed journal articles.[466]

There is a nearly unanimous scientific consensus that the climate is warming and that this is caused by human activities.[5] No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view.[467] As of 2019, agreement in recent literature reached over 99%.[424][5] The 2021 IPCC Assessment Report stated that it is "unequivocal" that climate change is caused by humans.[5] Consensus has further developed that action should be taken to protect people against the impacts of climate change. National science academies have called on world leaders to cut global emissions.[468]

### Recent developments

Extreme event attribution (EEA), also known as attribution science, was developed in the early decades of the 21st century.[469] EEA uses climate models to identify and quantify the role that human-caused climate change plays in the frequency, intensity, duration, and impacts of specific individual extreme weather events.[470][471] Results of attribution studies allow scientists and journalists to make statements such as, "this weather event was made at least n times more likely by human-caused climate change" or "this heatwave was made m degrees hotter than it would have been in a world without global warming" or "this event was effectively impossible without climate change".[472]

Greater computing power in the 2000s and conceptual breakthroughs in the early to mid 2010s[473] enabled attribution science to detect the effects of climate change on some events with high confidence.[469] Scientists use attribution methods and climate simulations that have already been peer reviewed, allowing "rapid attribution studies" to be published within a "news cycle" time frame after weather events.[473]

## References

1. ↑ "GISS Surface Temperature Analysis (v4)". https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/maps/.
2. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Summary for Policymakers 2021, SPM-7
3. ↑ Sources for data and graphic:
* Annual global mean surface temperature data from: "Global temperature / Get the data / Global mean temperature / NOAAGlobalTemp / Download as CSV". Met Office (UK). 2026. https://climate.metoffice.cloud/temperature.html.
* Natural driver graphic is at: "IPCC Sixth Assessment Report / Working Group 1: The Physical Science Basis / Figures: Summary for Policymakers / Figure SPM.1(b)". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2021. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/figures/summary-for-policymakers/. Click on "Datasets".
* Natural driver dataset is downloadable by clicking on "gmst_changes_model_and_obs.csv" at: "Summary for Policymakers of the Working Group I Contribution to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report - data for Figure SPM.1 (v20221116)". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 16 November 2022. https://data.ceda.ac.uk/badc/ar6_wg1/data/spm/spm_01/v20221116/panel_b.
4. ↑ Forster et al. 2024, p. 2626: "The indicators show that, for the 2014–2023 decade average, observed warming was 1.19 [1.06 to 1.30] °C, of which 1.19 [1.0 to 1.4] °C was human-induced."
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Lynas, Mark; Houlton, Benjamin Z.; Perry, Simon (19 October 2021). "Greater than 99% consensus on human caused climate change in the peer-reviewed scientific literature". Environmental Research Letters 16 (11): 114005. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac2966. Bibcode: 2021ERL....16k4005L.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Our World in Data, 18 September 2020
7. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary 2021, p. 67: "Concentrations of CO
2, methane (CH
4), and nitrous oxide (N
2O) have increased to levels unprecedented in at least 800,000 years, and there is high confidence that current CO
2 concentrations have not been experienced for at least 2 million years."
8. ↑ *IPCC AR6 WG2 SPM 2022, p. 9: "Observed increases in areas burned by wildfires have been attributed to human-induced climate change in some regions (medium to high confidence)"
9. ↑ IPCC SROCC 2019, p. 16: "Over the last decades, global warming has led to widespread shrinking of the cryosphere, with mass loss from ice sheets and glaciers (very high confidence), reductions in snow cover (high confidence) and Arctic sea ice extent and thickness (very high confidence), and increased permafrost temperature (very high confidence)."
10. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Ch11 2021, p. 1517
11. ↑ EPA (19 January 2017). "Climate Impacts on Ecosystems". https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-ecosystems_.html#Extinction. "Mountain and arctic ecosystems and species are particularly sensitive to climate change... As ocean temperatures warm and the acidity of the ocean increases, bleaching and coral die-offs are likely to become more frequent."
12. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch1 2018, p. 64: "Sustained net zero anthropogenic emissions of CO
2 and declining net anthropogenic non-CO
2 radiative forcing over a multi-decade period would halt anthropogenic global warming over that period, although it would not halt sea level rise or many other aspects of climate system adjustment."
13. ↑ "Consequences of climate change" (in en). European Commission. https://climate.ec.europa.eu/climate-change/consequences-climate-change_en.
14. ↑
* Cattaneo et al. 2019
* IPCC AR6 WG2 SPM 2022, p. 15
* IPCC AR6 WG2 Technical Summary 2022, p. 53
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 WHO, Nov 2023
16. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG2 SPM 2022, p. 19
17. ↑
* IPCC AR6 WG2 SPM 2022, pp. 21–26
* IPCC AR6 WG2 Ch16 2022, p. 2504
* IPCC AR6 SYR SPM 2023, pp. 8–9: "Effectiveness15 of adaptation in reducing climate risks16 is documented for specific contexts, sectors and regions (high confidence) ... Soft limits to adaptation are currently being experienced by small-scale farmers and households along some low-lying coastal areas (medium confidence) resulting from financial, governance, institutional and policy constraints (high confidence). Some tropical, coastal, polar and mountain ecosystems have reached hard adaptation limits (high confidence). Adaptation does not prevent all losses and damages, even with effective adaptation and before reaching soft and hard limits (high confidence)."
18. ↑ Tietjen, Bethany (2 November 2022). "Loss and damage: Who is responsible when climate change harms the world's poorest countries?". https://theconversation.com/loss-and-damage-who-is-responsible-when-climate-change-harms-the-worlds-poorest-countries-192070.
19. ↑ "Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability". IPCC. 27 February 2022. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-ii/.
20. ↑ Ivanova, Irina (June 2, 2022). "California is rationing water amid its worst drought in 1,200 years". CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/water-cutbacks-california-6-million-people-drought/.
21. ↑ "2024 – a second record-breaking year, following the exceptional 2023". 10 January 2025. https://climate.copernicus.eu/global-climate-highlights-2024#543aa52e-a01b-45e0-adfc-c610e4ac93a5.
22. ↑ Carrington, Damian (10 January 2025). "Hottest year on record sent planet past 1.5C of heating for first time in 2024". https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/jan/10/world-temperature-in-2024-exceeded-15c-for-first-time.
23. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary 2021, p. 71
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 United Nations Environment Programme 2024, p. XVIII: "The full implementation and continuation of the level of mitigation effort implied by unconditional or conditional NDC scenarios lower these projections to 2.8 °C (range: 1.9–3.7) and 2.6 °C (range: 1.9–3.6), respectively. All with at least a 66 per cent chance."
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Carrington, Damian (22 April 2025). "'Spiral of silence': climate action is very popular, so why don't people realise it?". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/apr/22/spiral-of-silence-climate-action-very-popular-why-dont-people-realise.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Andre, Peter; Boneva, Teodora; Chopra, Felix; Falk, Armin (9 February 2024). "Globally representative evidence on the actual and perceived support for climate action". Nature Climate Change 14 (3): 253–259. doi:10.1038/s41558-024-01925-3. Bibcode: 2024NatCC..14..253A.
27. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme 2024, p. XV: "As at 1 June 2024, 101 parties representing 107 countries and covering approximately 82 per cent of global GHG emissions had adopted net-zero pledges either in law (28 parties), in a policy document such as an NDC or a long-term strategy (56 parties), or in an announcement by a high-level government official (17 parties)."
28. ↑
* IPCC AR5 WG3 Annex III 2014, p. 1335
* IPCC AR6 WG3 Summary for Policymakers 2022, pp. 24–25
* IPCC AR6 WG3 Technical Summary 2022, p. 89
29. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG3 Technical Summary 2022, p. 84: "Stringent emissions reductions at the level required for 2°C or 1.5°C are achieved through the increased electrification of buildings, transport, and industry, consequently all pathways entail increased electricity generation (high confidence)."
30. ↑
* IPCC SRCCL Summary for Policymakers 2019, p. 18
* IPCC AR6 WG3 Summary for Policymakers 2022, pp. 24–25
* IPCC AR6 WG3 Technical Summary 2022, p. 114
31. ↑ Duarte, C.M. et al. (17 January 2025). "Carbon burial in sediments below seaweed farms matches that of Blue Carbon habitats". Nature Climate Change 15 (2): 180–187. doi:10.1038/s41558-024-02238-1. Bibcode: 2025NatCC..15..180D.
32. ↑ Winfield, E.; Ostoja, S. (2020). "Climate-Smart Agriculture: Soil Health & Carbon Farming [Factsheet"]. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-15874560.
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 NASA, 5 December 2008.
34. ↑ NASA, 7 July 2020
35. ↑ Shaftel 2016: " 'Climate change' and 'global warming' are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings. ... Global warming refers to the upward temperature trend across the entire Earth since the early 20th century ... Climate change refers to a broad range of global phenomena ...[which] include the increased temperature trends described by global warming."
36. ↑ Associated Press, 22 September 2015: "The terms global warming and climate change can be used interchangeably. Climate change is more accurate scientifically to describe the various effects of greenhouse gases on the world because it includes extreme weather, storms and changes in rainfall patterns, ocean acidification and sea level".
37. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR Glossary 2014, p. 120: "Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use."
38. ↑ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), ed. (2023), "Annex VII: Glossary", Climate Change 2021 – The Physical Science Basis: Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022, ISBN 978-1-009-15788-9, https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/climate-change-2021-the-physical-science-basis/annex-vii-glossary/058768DADC00B52E2ED3381D0259B4E0, retrieved 2026-01-22
39. ↑ Broecker, Wallace S. (8 August 1975). "Climatic Change: Are We on the Brink of a Pronounced Global Warming?". Science 189 (4201): 460–463. doi:10.1126/science.189.4201.460. PMID 17781884. Bibcode: 1975Sci...189..460B.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Weart "The Public and Climate Change: The Summer of 1988", "News reporters gave only a little attention ...".
41. ↑ Joo et al. 2015.
42. ↑ Hodder & Martin 2009
43. ↑ BBC Science Focus Magazine, 3 February 2020
44. ↑ Neukom et al. 2019b.
45. ↑ "Global Annual Mean Surface Air Temperature Change". NASA. https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/graphs_v4/.
46. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Ch2 2021, pp. 294, 296.
47. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Ch2 2021, p. 366.
48. ↑ Marcott, S. A.; Shakun, J. D.; Clark, P. U.; Mix, A. C. (2013). "A reconstruction of regional and global temperature for the past 11,300 years". Science 339 (6124): 1198–1201. doi:10.1126/science.1228026. PMID 23471405. Bibcode: 2013Sci...339.1198M.
49. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Ch2 2021, p. 296.
50. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch5 2013, p. 386
51. ↑ Neukom et al. 2019a
52. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch1 2018, p. 57: "This report adopts the 51-year reference period, 1850–1900 inclusive, assessed as an approximation of pre-industrial levels in AR5 ... Temperatures rose by 0.0 °C–0.2 °C from 1720–1800 to 1850–1900"
53. ↑ Hawkins et al. 2017, p. 1844
54. ↑ "Mean Monthly Temperature Records Across the Globe / Timeseries of Global Land and Ocean Areas at Record Levels for September from 1951–2023". National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). September 2023. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/global/202309/supplemental/page-3. (change "202309" in URL to see years other than 2023, and months other than 09=September)
55. ↑ Top 700 meters: Lindsey, Rebecca; Dahlman, Luann (6 September 2023). "Climate Change: Ocean Heat Content". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-ocean-heat-content. ● Top 2000 meters: "Ocean Warming / Latest Measurement: December 2022 / 345 (± 2) zettajoules since 1955". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/ocean-warming/.
56. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Summary for Policymakers 2013, pp. 4–5: "Global-scale observations from the instrumental era began in the mid-19th century for temperature and other variables ... the period 1880 to 2012 ... multiple independently produced datasets exist."
57. ↑ "Global 'Sunscreen' Has Likely Thinned, Report NASA Scientists". NASA. 15 March 2007. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2007/aerosol_dimming.html.
58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 Quaas, Johannes; Jia, Hailing; Smith, Chris; Albright, Anna Lea; Aas, Wenche; Bellouin, Nicolas; Boucher, Olivier; Doutriaux-Boucher, Marie et al. (21 September 2022). "Robust evidence for reversal of the trend in aerosol effective climate forcing". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 22 (18): 12221–12239. doi:10.5194/acp-22-12221-2022. Bibcode: 2022ACP....2212221Q.
59. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary 2021, p. 43
60. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch1 2018, p. 81.
61. ↑ Forster et al. 2024, p. 2626
62. ↑ Samset, B. H.; Fuglestvedt, J. S.; Lund, M. T. (7 July 2020). "Delayed emergence of a global temperature response after emission mitigation". Nature Communications 11 (1): 3261. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17001-1. PMID 32636367. Bibcode: 2020NatCo..11.3261S. "At the time of writing, that translated into 2035–2045, where the delay was mostly due to the impacts of the around 0.2 °C of natural, interannual variability of global mean surface air temperature".
63. ↑ Seip, Knut L.; Grøn, ø.; Wang, H. (31 August 2023). "Global lead-lag changes between climate variability series coincide with major phase shifts in the Pacific decadal oscillation" (in en). Theoretical and Applied Climatology 154 (3–4): 1137–1149. doi:10.1007/s00704-023-04617-8. Bibcode: 2023ThApC.154.1137S.
64. ↑ Yao, Shuai-Lei; Huang, Gang; Wu, Ren-Guang; Qu, Xia (January 2016). "The global warming hiatus—a natural product of interactions of a secular warming trend and a multi-decadal oscillation" (in en). Theoretical and Applied Climatology 123 (1–2): 349–360. doi:10.1007/s00704-014-1358-x. Bibcode: 2016ThApC.123..349Y.
65. ↑ Xie, Shang-Ping; Kosaka, Yu (June 2017). "What Caused the Global Surface Warming Hiatus of 1998–2013?" (in en). Current Climate Change Reports 3 (2): 128–140. doi:10.1007/s40641-017-0063-0. Bibcode: 2017CCCR....3..128X.
66. ↑ Tollefson, Jeff (10 January 2025). "Earth breaches 1.5 °C climate limit for the first time: what does it mean?". Nature 637 (8047): 769–770. doi:10.1038/d41586-025-00010-9. PMID 39794429. Bibcode: 2025Natur.637..769T.
67. ↑ "Summary for Policymakers". Climate Change 2021 – the Physical Science Basis. 2023. pp. 3–32. doi:10.1017/9781009157896.001. ISBN 978-1-009-15789-6.
68. ↑ McGrath, Matt (17 May 2023). "Global warming set to break key 1.5C limit for first time". https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-65602293. "The researchers stress that temperatures would have to stay at or above 1.5C for 20 years to be able to say the Paris agreement threshold had been passed."
69. ↑ Kennedy et al. 2010, p. S26. Figure 2.5.
70. ↑ Loeb et al. 2021.
71. ↑ "Global Warming". NASA JPL. 3 June 2010. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/GlobalWarming. "Satellite measurements show warming in the troposphere but cooling in the stratosphere. This vertical pattern is consistent with global warming due to increasing greenhouse gases but inconsistent with warming from natural causes."
72. ↑ Kennedy et al. 2010, pp. S26, S59–S60
73. ↑ USGCRP Chapter 1 2017, p. 35
74. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG2 2022, pp. 257–260
75. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Summary for Policymakers 2019, p. 7
76. ↑ Sutton, Dong & Gregory 2007.
77. ↑ "Climate Change: Ocean Heat Content". NOAA. 2018. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-ocean-heat-content.
78. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch3 2013, p. 257: "Ocean warming dominates the global energy change inventory. Warming of the ocean accounts for about 93% of the increase in the Earth's energy inventory between 1971 and 2010 (high confidence), with warming of the upper (0 to 700 m) ocean accounting for about 64% of the total.
79. ↑ von Schuckman, K.; Cheng, L.; Palmer, M. D.; Hansen, J. et al. (7 September 2020). "Heat stored in the Earth system: where does the energy go?". Earth System Science Data 12 (3): 2013–2041. doi:10.5194/essd-12-2013-2020. Bibcode: 2020ESSD...12.2013V. https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/12/2013/2020/.
80. ↑ NOAA, 10 July 2011.
81. ↑ United States Environmental Protection Agency 2016, p. 5: "Black carbon that is deposited on snow and ice darkens those surfaces and decreases their reflectivity (albedo). This is known as the snow/ice albedo effect. This effect results in the increased absorption of radiation that accelerates melting."
82. ↑ "Arctic warming three times faster than the planet, report warns" (in en). 20 May 2021. https://phys.org/news/2021-05-arctic-faster-planet.html.
83. ↑ Rantanen, Mika; Karpechko, Alexey Yu; Lipponen, Antti; Nordling, Kalle; Hyvärinen, Otto; Ruosteenoja, Kimmo; Vihma, Timo; Laaksonen, Ari (11 August 2022). "The Arctic has warmed nearly four times faster than the globe since 1979". Communications Earth & Environment 3 (1): 168. doi:10.1038/s43247-022-00498-3. Bibcode: 2022ComEE...3..168R.
84. ↑ Liu, Wei; Fedorov, Alexey V.; Xie, Shang-Ping; Hu, Shineng (26 June 2020). "Climate impacts of a weakened Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation in a warming climate". Science Advances 6 (26). doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz4876. PMID 32637596. Bibcode: 2020SciA....6.4876L.
85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 Pearce, Fred (18 April 2023). "New Research Sparks Concerns That Ocean Circulation Will Collapse" (in en). https://e360.yale.edu/features/climate-change-ocean-circulation-collapse-antarctica.
86. ↑ Lee, Sang-Ki; Lumpkin, Rick; Gomez, Fabian; Yeager, Stephen; Lopez, Hosmay; Takglis, Filippos; Dong, Shenfu; Aguiar, Wilton et al. (13 March 2023). "Human-induced changes in the global meridional overturning circulation are emerging from the Southern Ocean". Communications Earth & Environment 4 (1): 69. doi:10.1038/s43247-023-00727-3. Bibcode: 2023ComEE...4...69L.
87. ↑ "NOAA Scientists Detect a Reshaping of the Meridional Overturning Circulation in the Southern Ocean". NOAA. 29 March 2023. https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/noaa-scientists-detect-reshaping-of-the-meridional-overturning-circulation-in-southern-ocean/.
88. ↑ Schuur, Edward A. G.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Commane, Roisin; Ernakovich, Jessica; Euskirchen, Eugenie; Hugelius, Gustaf; Grosse, Guido; Jones, Miriam et al. (2022). "Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic". Annual Review of Environment and Resources 47: 343–371. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847. Bibcode: 2022ARER...47..343S. ""Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3 °C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..."".
89. ↑ Phiddian, Ellen (5 April 2022). "Explainer: IPCC Scenarios". https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/. ""The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. The Australian Academy of Science, for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3 °C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. Climate Action Tracker predicts 2.5 to 2.9 °C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1 °C."
90. ↑ WMO 2024b, p. 2.
91. ↑ "Climate Change 2021 – The Physical Science Basis". 7 August 2021. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Full_Report.pdf#page=955.
92. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Summary for Policymakers 2021, p. SPM-17
93. ↑ Meinshausen, Malte; Smith, S. J.; Calvin, K.; Daniel, J. S.; Kainuma, M. L. T.; Lamarque, J-F.; Matsumoto, K.; Montzka, S. A. et al. (2011). "The RCP greenhouse gas concentrations and their extensions from 1765 to 2300" (in en). Climatic Change 109 (1–2): 213–241. doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0156-z. Bibcode: 2011ClCh..109..213M.
94. ↑ Lyon, Christopher; Saupe, Erin E.; Smith, Christopher J.; Hill, Daniel J.; Beckerman, Andrew P.; Stringer, Lindsay C.; Marchant, Robert; McKay, James et al. (2021). "Climate change research and action must look beyond 2100" (in en). Global Change Biology 28 (2): 349–361. doi:10.1111/gcb.15871. PMID 34558764.
95. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary 2021, pp. 43–44
96. ↑ Rogelj et al. 2019
97. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme 2024, pp. XI, XVII.
98. ↑ Brown, Patrick T.; Li, Wenhong; Xie, Shang-Ping (27 January 2015). "Regions of significant influence on unforced global mean surface air temperature variability in climate models: Origin of global temperature variability". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 120 (2): 480–494. doi:10.1002/2014JD022576.
99. ↑ Trenberth, Kevin E.; Fasullo, John T. (December 2013). "An apparent hiatus in global warming?". Earth's Future 1 (1): 19–32. doi:10.1002/2013EF000165. Bibcode: 2013EaFut...1...19T.
100. ↑ National Research Council 2012, p. 9
101. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch10 2013, p. 916.
102. ↑ Knutson 2017, p. 443; IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch10 2013, pp. 875–876
103. ↑ 103.0 103.1 USGCRP 2009, p. 20.
104. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Summary for Policymakers 2021, p. 7
105. ↑ NASA. "The Causes of Climate Change". https://climate.nasa.gov/causes.
106. ↑ Ozone acts as a greenhouse gas in the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere (as opposed to the stratospheric ozone layer). Wang, Shugart & Lerdau 2017
107. ↑ Schmidt et al. 2010; USGCRP Climate Science Supplement 2014, p. 742
108. ↑ IPCC AR4 WG1 Ch1 2007, FAQ1.1: "To emit 240 W m−2, a surface would have to have a temperature of around −19 °C. This is much colder than the conditions that actually exist at the Earth's surface (the global mean surface temperature is about 14 °C).
109. ↑ ACS. "What Is the Greenhouse Effect?". https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/climatescience/climatesciencenarratives/what-is-the-greenhouse-effect.html.
110. ↑ The Guardian, 19 February 2020.
111. ↑ WMO 2024a, p. 2.
112. ↑ The Cenozoic CO2 Proxy Integration Project (CenCOPIP) Consortium 2023.
113. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary 2021, p. TS-35.
114. ↑ References for Global Carbon Budget chart updated through 2024:
* For carbon entries: "Home ›The Data Hub 2025 ›The Latest GCB Data (2025)". Global Carbon Budget. https://globalcarbonbudget.org/datahub/the-latest-gcb-data-2025/#. Click "Global Carbon Budget v2025" to download Excel xlsx file. Multiply these carbon entries by 3.664 to arrive at carbon dioxide figures. Contains land use data only since 1959; see OWID references for complete data:
* For carbon dioxide entries for other industry, flaring, cement, gas, oil, and coal: Ritchie, Hannah; Rosado, Pablo; Roser, Max (23 June 2020). "CO₂ emissions by fuel". Our World in Data (OWID). https://ourworldindata.org/emissions-by-fuel. Download data from chosen chart, "CO₂ emissions by fuel or industry type, World".
* For carbon dioxide entries for land use: "Annual CO₂ emissions from land-use change". Our World in Data (OWID). https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/co2-land-use?tab=line&country=~OWID_WRL. Select "Line", choose "Download", select "Data", click "Download displayed data".
115. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG3 Summary for Policymakers 2022, Figure SPM.1.
116. ↑ Olivier & Peters 2019, p. 17
117. ↑ Our World in Data, 18 September 2020; EPA 2020: "Greenhouse gas emissions from industry primarily come from burning fossil fuels for energy, as well as greenhouse gas emissions from certain chemical reactions necessary to produce goods from raw materials."
118. ↑ "Redox, extraction of iron and transition metals". https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zv7f3k7/revision/2. "Hot air (oxygen) reacts with the coke (carbon) to produce carbon dioxide and heat energy to heat up the furnace. Removing impurities: The calcium carbonate in the limestone thermally decomposes to form calcium oxide. calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide"
119. ↑ Kvande 2014: "Carbon dioxide gas is formed at the anode, as the carbon anode is consumed upon reaction of carbon with the oxygen ions from the alumina (Al

3). Formation of carbon dioxide is unavoidable as long as carbon anodes are used, and it is of great concern because CO
2 is a greenhouse gas."
120. ↑ EPA 2020
121. ↑ Global Methane Initiative 2020: "Estimated Global Anthropogenic Methane Emissions by Source, 2020: Enteric fermentation (27%), Manure Management (3%), Coal Mining (9%), Municipal Solid Waste (11%), Oil & Gas (24%), Wastewater (7%), Rice Cultivation (7%)."
122. ↑ EPA 2019: "Agricultural activities, such as fertilizer use, are the primary source of N
2O emissions."
123. ↑ Davidson 2009: "2.0% of manure nitrogen and 2.5% of fertilizer nitrogen was converted to nitrous oxide between 1860 and 2005; these percentage contributions explain the entire pattern of increasing nitrous oxide concentrations over this period."
124. ↑ "Understanding methane emissions". International Energy Agency. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-methane-tracker-2023/understanding-methane-emissions.
125. ↑ 125.0 125.1 Riebeek, Holli (16 June 2011). "The Carbon Cycle". NASA. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/CarbonCycle/?src=eoa-features.
126. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Summary for Policymakers 2019, p. 10
127. ↑ IPCC SROCC Ch5 2019, p. 450.
128. ↑ Weisse, Mikaela; Goldman, Elizabeth (April 2026). "Indicators of Forest Extent / Forest Loss /". World Resources Institute (WRI). https://gfr.wri.org/forest-extent-indicators/forest-loss. Chart in section titled "Annual rates of global tree cover loss have risen since 2000".
129. ↑ Ritchie & Roser 2018
130. ↑ The Sustainability Consortium, 13 September 2018; UN FAO 2016, p. 18.
131. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Summary for Policymakers 2019, p. 18
132. ↑ Curtis et al. 2018
133. ↑ 133.0 133.1 133.2 Garrett, L.; Lévite, H.; Besacier, C.; Alekseeva, N.; Duchelle, M. (2022). The key role of forest and landscape restoration in climate action. Rome: FAO. doi:10.4060/cc2510en. ISBN 978-92-5-137044-5.
134. ↑ 134.0 134.1 World Resources Institute, 8 December 2019
135. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Ch2 2019, p. 172: "The global biophysical cooling alone has been estimated by a larger range of climate models and is −0.10 ± 0.14 °C; it ranges from −0.57 °C to +0.06 °C ... This cooling is essentially dominated by increases in surface albedo: historical land cover changes have generally led to a dominant brightening of land."
136. ↑ Haywood 2016, p. 456; McNeill 2017; Samset et al. 2018.
137. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch2 2013, p. 183.
138. ↑ He et al. 2018; Storelvmo et al. 2016
139. ↑ "Aerosol pollution has caused decades of global dimming". 18 February 2021. https://news.agu.org/press-release/aerosol-pollution-caused-decades-of-global-dimming/.
140. ↑ Monroe, Robert (20 January 2023). "Increased Atmospheric Dust has Masked Power of Greenhouse Gases to Warm Planet | Scripps Institution of Oceanography" (in en). https://scripps.ucsd.edu/news/increased-atmospheric-dust-has-masked-power-greenhouse-gases-warm-planet.
141. ↑ Wild et al. 2005; Storelvmo et al. 2016; Samset et al. 2018.
142. ↑ Twomey 1977.
143. ↑ Albrecht 1989.
144. ↑ 144.0 144.1 144.2 USGCRP Chapter 2 2017, p. 78.
145. ↑ Ramanathan & Carmichael 2008; RIVM 2016.
146. ↑ Sand et al. 2015
147. ↑ "IMO 2020 – cutting sulphur oxide emissions". https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Sulphur-2020.aspx.
148. ↑ Carbon Brief, 3 July 2023
149. ↑ Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I – Chapter 3: Detection and Attribution of Climate Change. U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP). 2017. pp. 1–470. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/3/. Adapted directly from Fig. 3.3.
150. ↑ Wuebbles, D. J.; Fahey, D. W.; Hibbard, K. A.; Deangelo, B.; Doherty, S.; Hayhoe, K.; Horton, R.; Kossin, J. P. et al. (23 November 2018). Climate Science Special Report / Fourth National Climate Assessment (NCA4), Volume I /Executive Summary / Highlights of the Findings of the U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report. U.S. Global Change Research Program. pp. 1–470. doi:10.7930/J0DJ5CTG. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/executive-summary/.
151. ↑ National Academies 2008, p. 6
152. ↑ "Is the Sun causing global warming?". 18 September 2014. https://climate.nasa.gov/faq/14/is-the-sun-causing-global-warming.
153. ↑ IPCC AR4 WG1 Ch9 2007, pp. 702–703; Randel et al. 2009.
154. ↑ 154.0 154.1 USGCRP Chapter 2 2017, p. 79
155. ↑ Fischer & Aiuppa 2020.
156. ↑ "Thermodynamics: Albedo". NSIDC. https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/seaice/processes/albedo.html.
157. ↑ "The study of Earth as an integrated system". Earth Science Communications Team at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory / California Institute of Technology. 2013. https://climate.nasa.gov/nasa_science/science/.
158. ↑ 158.0 158.1 USGCRP Chapter 2 2017, pp. 89–91.
159. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary 2021, p. 58: "The net effect of changes in clouds in response to global warming is to amplify human-induced warming, that is, the net cloud feedback is positive (high confidence)"
160. ↑ USGCRP Chapter 2 2017, pp. 89–90.
161. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 2013, p. 14
162. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary 2021, p. 93: "Feedback processes are expected to become more positive overall (more amplifying of global surface temperature changes) on multi-decadal time scales as the spatial pattern of surface warming evolves and global surface temperature increases."
163. ↑ Williams, Ceppi & Katavouta 2020.
164. ↑ NASA, 28 May 2013.
165. ↑ Cohen et al. 2014.
166. ↑ 166.0 166.1 Turetsky et al. 2019
167. ↑ Climate.gov, 23 June 2022: "Carbon cycle experts estimate that natural "sinks"—processes that remove carbon from the atmosphere—on land and in the ocean absorbed the equivalent of about half of the carbon dioxide we emitted each year in the 2011–2020 decade."
168. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary 2021, p. TS-122, Box TS.5, Figure 1
169. ↑ Melillo et al. 2017: Our first-order estimate of a warming-induced loss of 190 Pg of soil carbon over the 21st century is equivalent to the past two decades of carbon emissions from fossil fuel burning.
170. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Ch2 2019, pp. 133, 144.
171. ↑ USGCRP Chapter 2 2017, pp. 93–95.
172. ↑ Liu, Y.; Moore, J. K.; Primeau, F.; Wang, W. L. (22 December 2022). "Reduced CO2 uptake and growing nutrient sequestration from slowing overturning circulation". Nature Climate Change 13: 83–90. doi:10.1038/s41558-022-01555-7.
173. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary 2021, pp. 58, 59: "Clouds remain the largest contribution to overall uncertainty in climate feedbacks."
174. ↑ Wolff et al. 2015: "the nature and magnitude of these feedbacks are the principal cause of uncertainty in the response of Earth's climate (over multi-decadal and longer periods) to a particular emissions scenario or greenhouse gas concentration pathway."
175. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR Glossary 2014, p. 120.
176. ↑ Carbon Brief, 15 January 2018, "What are the different types of climate models?"
177. ↑ Wolff et al. 2015
178. ↑ Carbon Brief, 15 January 2018, "Who does climate modelling around the world?"
179. ↑ Carbon Brief, 15 January 2018, "What is a climate model?"
180. ↑ IPCC AR4 WG1 Ch8 2007, FAQ 8.1.
181. ↑ Stroeve et al. 2007; National Geographic, 13 August 2019
182. ↑ Liepert & Previdi 2009.
183. ↑ Rahmstorf et al. 2007; Mitchum et al. 2018
184. ↑ USGCRP Chapter 15 2017.
185. ↑ Hébert, R.; Herzschuh, U.; Laepple, T. (31 October 2022). "Millennial-scale climate variability over land overprinted by ocean temperature fluctuations". Nature Geoscience 15 (1): 899–905. doi:10.1038/s41561-022-01056-4. PMID 36817575. Bibcode: 2022NatGe..15..899H.
186. ↑ Carbon Brief, 15 January 2018, "What are the inputs and outputs for a climate model?"
187. ↑ Matthews et al. 2009
188. ↑ Carbon Brief, 19 April 2018; Meinshausen 2019, p. 462.
189. ↑ Giguere, Otto; Tanenenbaum, Vahlbert (30 May 2025). "Climate Change and the Escalation of Global Extreme Heat: Assessing and Addressing the Risks". Climate Central, Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre, and World Weather Attribution. https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/wp-content/uploads/Report_-Climate-Change-and-the-Escalation-of-Global-Extreme-Heat-Heat-Action-Day-2025.pdf. Click on "Download the data", and in spreadsheet choose "Countries and territories" tab at bottom to view raw data
190. ↑ Hansen et al. 2016; Smithsonian, 26 June 2016.
191. ↑ USGCRP Chapter 15 2017, p. 415.
192. ↑ Scientific American, 29 April 2014; Burke & Stott 2017.
193. ↑ Liu, Fei; Wang, Bin; Ouyang, Yu; Wang, Hui; Qiao, Shaobo; Chen, Guosen; Dong, Wenjie (19 April 2022). "Intraseasonal variability of global land monsoon precipitation and its recent trend" (in en). npj Climate and Atmospheric Science 5 (1): 30. doi:10.1038/s41612-022-00253-7. ISSN 2397-3722. Bibcode: 2022npCAS...5...30L.
194. ↑ USGCRP Chapter 9 2017, p. 260.
195. ↑ Studholme, Joshua; Fedorov, Alexey V.; Gulev, Sergey K.; Emanuel, Kerry; Hodges, Kevin (29 December 2021). "Poleward expansion of tropical cyclone latitudes in warming climates". Nature Geoscience 15: 14–28. doi:10.1038/s41561-021-00859-1. https://hal.science/hal-03560276.
196. ↑ "Hurricanes and Climate Change". 10 July 2020. https://www.c2es.org/content/hurricanes-and-climate-change/.
197. ↑ NOAA 2017.
198. ↑ WMO 2024a, p. 6.
199. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG2 2022, p. 1302
200. ↑ DeConto & Pollard 2016
201. ↑ Bamber et al. 2019.
202. ↑ Zhang et al. 2008
203. ↑ IPCC SROCC Summary for Policymakers 2019, p. 18
204. ↑ Doney et al. 2009.
205. ↑ Deutsch et al. 2011
206. ↑ IPCC SROCC Ch5 2019, p. 510; "Climate Change and Harmful Algal Blooms". EPA. 5 September 2013. https://www.epa.gov/habs/climate-change-and-freshwater-harmful-algal-blooms.
207. ↑ "Tipping Elements – big risks in the Earth System". Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en/output/infodesk/tipping-elements.
208. ↑ 208.0 208.1 208.2 Armstrong McKay, David I.; Staal, Arie; Abrams, Jesse F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah E. et al. (9 September 2022). "Exceeding 1.5 °C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points". Science 377 (6611). doi:10.1126/science.abn7950. PMID 36074831.
209. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch3 2018, p. 283.
210. ↑ Carbon Brief, 10 February 2020
211. ↑ Bochow, Nils; Poltronieri, Anna; Robinson, Alexander; Montoya, Marisa; Rypdal, Martin; Boers, Niklas (18 October 2023). "Overshooting the critical threshold for the Greenland ice sheet". Nature 622 (7983): 528–536. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06503-9. PMID 37853149. Bibcode: 2023Natur.622..528B.
212. ↑ Ditlevsen, Peter; Ditlevsen, Susanne (25 July 2023). "Warning of a forthcoming collapse of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation" (in en). Nature Communications 14 (1): 4254. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-39810-w. PMID 37491344. Bibcode: 2023NatCo..14.4254D.
213. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Summary for Policymakers 2021, p. 21
214. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch12 2013, pp. 88–89, FAQ 12.3
215. ↑ Smith et al. 2009; Levermann et al. 2013
216. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch12 2013, p. 1112.
217. ↑ Oschlies, Andreas (16 April 2021). "A committed fourfold increase in ocean oxygen loss". Nature Communications 12 (1). doi:10.1038/s41467-021-22584-4. PMID 33863893. Bibcode: 2021NatCo..12.2307O.
218. ↑ Lau, Sally C. Y.; Wilson, Nerida G.; Golledge, Nicholas R.; Naish, Tim R.; Watts, Phillip C.; Silva, Catarina N. S.; Cooke, Ira R.; Allcock, A. Louise et al. (21 December 2023). "Genomic evidence for West Antarctic Ice Sheet collapse during the Last Interglacial". Science 382 (6677): 1384–1389. doi:10.1126/science.ade0664. PMID 38127761. Bibcode: 2023Sci...382.1384L.
219. ↑ Naughten, Kaitlin A.; Holland, Paul R.; De Rydt, Jan (23 October 2023). "Unavoidable future increase in West Antarctic ice-shelf melting over the twenty-first century". Nature Climate Change 13 (11): 1222–1228. doi:10.1038/s41558-023-01818-x. Bibcode: 2023NatCC..13.1222N.
220. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch3 2018, p. 218.
221. ↑ Martins, Paulo Mateus; Anderson, Marti J.; Sweatman, Winston L.; Punnett, Andrew J. (9 April 2024). "Significant shifts in latitudinal optima of North American birds" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 121 (15). doi:10.1073/pnas.2307525121. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 38557189. Bibcode: 2024PNAS..12107525M.
222. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Ch2 2019, p. 133.
223. ↑ Deng, Yuanhong; Li, Xiaoyan; Shi, Fangzhong; Hu, Xia (December 2021). "Woody plant encroachment enhanced global vegetation greening and ecosystem water-use efficiency". Global Ecology and Biogeography 30 (12): 2337–2353. doi:10.1111/geb.13386. Bibcode: 2021GloEB..30.2337D.
224. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Summary for Policymakers 2019, p. 7; Zeng & Yoon 2009.
225. ↑ Turner et al. 2020, p. 1.
226. ↑ Urban 2015.
227. ↑ Poloczanska et al. 2013; Lenoir et al. 2020
228. ↑ Smale et al. 2019
229. ↑ IPCC SROCC Summary for Policymakers 2019, p. 13.
230. ↑ IPCC SROCC Ch5 2019, p. 510
231. ↑ IPCC SROCC Ch5 2019, p. 451.
232. ↑ Azevedo-Schmidt, Lauren; Meineke, Emily K.; Currano, Ellen D. (18 October 2022). "Insect herbivory within modern forests is greater than fossil localities" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 119 (42). doi:10.1073/pnas.2202852119. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 36215482. Bibcode: 2022PNAS..11902852A.
233. ↑ "Coral Reef Risk Outlook". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2 January 2012. https://sos.noaa.gov/datasets/coral-reef-risk-outlook/. "At present, local human activities, coupled with past thermal stress, threaten an estimated 75 percent of the world's reefs. By 2030, estimates predict more than 90% of the world's reefs will be threatened by local human activities, warming, and acidification, with nearly 60% facing high, very high, or critical threat levels."
234. ↑ Carbon Brief, 7 January 2020.
235. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG2 Ch28 2014, p. 1596: "Within 50 to 70 years, loss of hunting habitats may lead to elimination of polar bears from seasonally ice-covered areas, where two-thirds of their world population currently live."
236. ↑ "What a changing climate means for Rocky Mountain National Park". National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/romo/learn/nature/climatechange.htm.
237. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Summary for Policymakers 2021, p. SPM-23, Fig. SPM.6
238. ↑ Lenton, Timothy M.; Xu, Chi; Abrams, Jesse F.; Ghadiali, Ashish; Loriani, Sina; Sakschewski, Boris; Zimm, Caroline; Ebi, Kristie L. et al. (2023). "Quantifying the human cost of global warming". Nature Sustainability 6 (10): 1237–1247. doi:10.1038/s41893-023-01132-6. Bibcode: 2023NatSu...6.1237L.
239. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG2 Ch18 2014, pp. 983, 1008
240. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG2 Ch19 2014, p. 1077.
241. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR Summary for Policymakers 2014, p. 8, SPM 2
242. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR Summary for Policymakers 2014, p. 13, SPM 2.3
243. ↑ 243.0 243.1 Romanello 2023
244. ↑ 244.0 244.1 244.2 Ebi et al. 2018
245. ↑ 245.0 245.1 245.2 Romanello 2022
246. ↑ 246.0 246.1 246.2 246.3 246.4 IPCC AR6 WG2 SPM 2022, p. 9
247. ↑ World Economic Forum 2024, p. 4
248. ↑ 248.0 248.1 Carbon Brief, 19 June 2017
249. ↑ Mora et al. 2017
250. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG2 Ch6 2022, p. 988
251. ↑ (in English) The State of the World's Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture 2025. FAO. 2025. doi:10.4060/cd7488en. ISBN 978-92-5-140285-6. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd7488en. This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0 License statement: To learn how to add open license text to HandWiki articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from HandWiki, please see the terms of use.
252. ↑ World Economic Forum 2024, p. 24
253. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG2 Ch5 2022, p. 748
254. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG2 Technical Summary 2022, p. 63
255. ↑ DeFries et al. 2019, p. 3; Krogstrup & Oman 2019, p. 10.
256. ↑ 256.0 256.1 Women's leadership and gender equality in climate action and disaster risk reduction in Africa − A call for action. Accra: FAO & The African Risk Capacity (ARC) Group. 2021. doi:10.4060/cb7431en. ISBN 978-92-5-135234-2.
257. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG2 Ch13 2014, pp. 796–797
258. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG2 2022, p. 725
259. ↑ Hallegatte et al. 2016, p. 12.
260. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG2 Ch13 2014, p. 796.
261. ↑ Grabe, Grose and Dutt, 2014; FAO, 2011; FAO, 2021a; Fisher and Carr, 2015; IPCC, 2014; Resurrección et al., 2019; UNDRR, 2019; Yeboah et al., 2019.
262. ↑ "Climate Change | United Nations For Indigenous Peoples". https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/climate-change.html.
263. ↑ Mach et al. 2019.
264. ↑ 264.0 264.1 The status of women in agrifood systems – Overview. Rome: FAO. 2023. doi:10.4060/cc5060en. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_status_of_women_in_agrifood_systems_-_Overview.pdf. This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 License statement: To learn how to add open license text to HandWiki articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from HandWiki, please see the terms of use.
265. ↑ "Climate shocks threaten $2.3 trillion global sports economy, study warns" (in en). https://www.channelnewsasia.com/sport/climate-shocks-threaten-23-trillion-global-sports-economy-study-warns-5953021.
266. ↑ IPCC SROCC Ch4 2019, p. 328.
267. ↑ UNHCR 2011, p. 3.
268. ↑ Matthews 2018, p. 399.
269. ↑ Balsari, Dresser & Leaning 2020
270. ↑ Cattaneo et al. 2019; IPCC AR6 WG2 2022, pp. 15, 53
271. ↑ Flavell 2014, p. 38; Kaczan & Orgill-Meyer 2020
272. ↑ Serdeczny et al. 2016.
273. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Ch5 2019, pp. 439, 464.
274. ↑ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "What is nuisance flooding?". http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/nuisance-flooding.html.
275. ↑ Kabir et al. 2016.
276. ↑ Vautard et al. 2020.
277. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR Glossary 2014, p. 125.
278. ↑ IPCC SR15 Summary for Policymakers 2018, p. 12
279. ↑ IPCC SR15 Summary for Policymakers 2018, p. 15
280. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme 2019, p. XX
281. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme 2024, pp. 33, 34.
282. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG3 Ch3 2022, p. 300: "The global benefits of pathways limiting warming to 2 °C (>67%) outweigh global mitigation costs over the 21st century, if aggregated economic impacts of climate change are at the moderate to high end of the assessed range, and a weight consistent with economic theory is given to economic impacts over the long term. This holds true even without accounting for benefits in other sustainable development dimensions or nonmarket damages from climate change (medium confidence)."
283. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch2 2018, p. 109.
284. ↑ Teske, ed. 2019, p. xxiii.
285. ↑ World Resources Institute, 8 August 2019
286. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch3 2018, p. 266: "Where reforestation is the restoration of natural ecosystems, it benefits both carbon sequestration and conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services."
287. ↑ Bui et al. 2018, p. 1068; IPCC SR15 Summary for Policymakers 2018, p. 17
288. ↑ IPCC SR15 2018, p. 34; IPCC SR15 Summary for Policymakers 2018, p. 17
289. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Ch5 2021, p. 768
290. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Ch4 2021, p. 619
291. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Ch4 2021, p. 624
292. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Ch4 2021, p. 629
293. ↑ 293.0 293.1 IPCC AR6 WG3 Ch14 2022, p. 1494
294. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Ch4 2021, p. 625
295. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Ch4 2021, pp. 625–627
296. ↑ Friedlingstein et al. 2019
297. ↑ "GCB 2025". Global Carbon Budget. 2026. https://globalcarbonbudget.org/gcb-2025/. GCB links to downloadable data at "Figures from the Global Carbon Budget 2025 / 34: Global energy use by category". CICERO Center for International Climate Research. 2026. https://robbieandrew.github.io/GCB2025/.
298. ↑ 298.0 298.1 United Nations Environment Programme 2019, p. 46; Vox, 20 September 2019; Sepulveda, Nestor A.; Jenkins, Jesse D.; De Sisternes, Fernando J.; Lester, Richard K. (2018). "The Role of Firm Low-Carbon Electricity Resources in Deep Decarbonization of Power Generation". Joule 2 (11): 2403–2420. doi:10.1016/j.joule.2018.08.006. Bibcode: 2018Joule...2.2403S.
299. ↑ IEA World Energy Outlook 2023, pp. 18
300. ↑ REN21 2020, p. 32, Fig.1.
301. ↑ IEA World Energy Outlook 2023, pp. 18, 26
302. ↑ "Record Growth in Renewables, but Progress Needs to be Equitable". 27 March 2024. https://www.irena.org/News/pressreleases/2024/Mar/Record-Growth-in-Renewables-but-Progress-Needs-to-be-Equitable.
303. ↑ IEA 2021, p. 57, Fig 2.5; Teske et al. 2019, p. 180, Table 8.1
304. ↑ Our World in Data-Why did renewables become so cheap so fast?; IEA – Projected Costs of Generating Electricity 2020
305. ↑ "IPCC Working Group III report: Mitigation of Climate Change". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 4 April 2022. https://www.ipcc.ch/2022/04/04/ipcc-ar6-wgiii-pressrelease/.
306. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch2 2018, p. 131, Figure 2.15
307. ↑ Teske 2019, pp. 409–410.
308. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme 2019, p. XXIII, Table ES.3; Teske, ed. 2019, p. xxvii, Fig.5.
309. ↑ 309.0 309.1 IPCC SR15 Ch2 2018, pp. 142–144; United Nations Environment Programme 2019, Table ES.3 & p. 49
310. ↑ "Transport emissions". European Commission. 2016. https://ec.europa.eu/clima/eu-action/transport-emissions_en.
311. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG3 Ch9 2014, p. 697; NREL 2017, pp. vi, 12
312. ↑ Berrill et al. 2016.
313. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch4 2018, pp. 324–325.
314. ↑ Template:Citec
315. ↑ Horvath, Akos; Rachlew, Elisabeth (January 2016). "Nuclear power in the 21st century: Challenges and possibilities". Ambio 45 (Suppl 1): S38–49. doi:10.1007/s13280-015-0732-y. ISSN 1654-7209. PMID 26667059. Bibcode: 2016Ambio..45S..38H.
316. ↑ "Hydropower". International Energy Agency. https://www.iea.org/reports/hydropower. "Hydropower generation is estimated to have increased by over 2% in 2019 owing to continued recovery from drought in Latin America as well as strong capacity expansion and good water availability in China (...) capacity expansion has been losing speed. This downward trend is expected to continue, due mainly to less large-project development in China and Brazil, where concerns over social and environmental impacts have restricted projects."
317. ↑ Watts et al. 2019, p. 1854; WHO 2018, p. 27
318. ↑ Watts et al. 2019, p. 1837; WHO 2016
319. ↑ WHO 2018, p. 27; Vandyck et al. 2018; IPCC SR15 2018, p. 97: "Limiting warming to 1.5 °C can be achieved synergistically with poverty alleviation and improved energy security and can provide large public health benefits through improved air quality, preventing millions of premature deaths. However, specific mitigation measures, such as bioenergy, may result in trade-offs that require consideration."
320. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG3 2022, p. 300
321. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch2 2018, p. 97
322. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR Summary for Policymakers 2014, p. 29; IEA 2020b
323. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch2 2018, p. 155, Fig. 2.27
324. ↑ IEA 2020b
325. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch2 2018, p. 142
326. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch2 2018, pp. 138–140
327. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch2 2018, pp. 141–142
328. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG3 Ch9 2014, pp. 686–694.
329. ↑ World Resources Institute, December 2019, p. 1
330. ↑ World Resources Institute, December 2019, pp. 1, 3
331. ↑ IPCC SRCCL 2019, p. 22, B.6.2
332. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Ch5 2019, pp. 487, 488, FIGURE 5.12 Humans on a vegan exclusive diet would save about 7.9 GtCO
2 equivalent per year by 2050 IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary 2021, p. 51 Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use used an average of 12 GtCO
2 per year between 2007 and 2016 (23% of total anthropogenic emissions).
333. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Ch5 2019, pp. 82, 162, FIGURE 1.1
334. ↑ "Low and zero emissions in the steel and cement industries". pp. 11, 19–22. https://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/GGSD2019_IssuePaper_CementSteel.pdf.
335. ↑ 335.0 335.1 335.2 Lebling, Katie; Gangotra, Ankita; Hausker, Karl; Byrum, Zachary (13 November 2023). "7 Things to Know About Carbon Capture, Utilization and Sequestration" (in en). World Resources Institute. https://www.wri.org/insights/carbon-capture-technology. 50x50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
336. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG3 Summary for Policymakers 2022, p. 38
337. ↑ World Resources Institute, 8 August 2019: IPCC SRCCL Ch2 2019, pp. 189–193.
338. ↑ Kreidenweis et al. 2016
339. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2019, pp. 95–102
340. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2019, pp. 45–54
341. ↑ Nelson, J. D. J.; Schoenau, J. J.; Malhi, S. S. (1 October 2008). "Soil organic carbon changes and distribution in cultivated and restored grassland soils in Saskatchewan". Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 82 (2): 137–148. doi:10.1007/s10705-008-9175-1. Bibcode: 2008NCyAg..82..137N.
342. ↑ Ruseva et al. 2020
343. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR 2014, p. 125 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFIPCC_AR5_SYR2014 (help); Bednar, Obersteiner & Wagner 2019.
344. ↑ IPCC SR15 2018, p. 34
345. ↑ IPCC, 2022: Summary for Policymakers [H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem (eds.)]. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.
346. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR 2014, p. 17. sfn error: no target: CITEREFIPCC_AR5_SYR2014 (help)
347. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch4 2018, pp. 396–397.
348. ↑ IPCC AR4 WG2 Ch19 2007, p. 796.
349. ↑ UNEP 2018, pp. xii–xiii.
350. ↑ Stephens, Scott A.; Bell, Robert G.; Lawrence, Judy (2018). "Developing signals to trigger adaptation to sea-level rise". Environmental Research Letters 13 (10): 104004. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aadf96. ISSN 1748-9326. Bibcode: 2018ERL....13j4004S.
351. ↑ Matthews 2018, p. 402.
352. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Ch5 2019, p. 439.
353. ↑ Surminski, Swenja; Bouwer, Laurens M.; Linnerooth-Bayer, Joanne (2016). "How insurance can support climate resilience". Nature Climate Change 6 (4): 333–334. doi:10.1038/nclimate2979. Bibcode: 2016NatCC...6..333S.
354. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch4 2018, pp. 336–337.
355. ↑ "Mangroves against the storm" (in en). https://social.shorthand.com/IUCN_forests/nCec1jyqvn/mangroves-against-the-storm.html.
356. ↑ "How marsh grass could help protect us from climate change" (in en). 24 October 2021. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/10/how-marsh-grass-protects-shorelines/.
357. ↑ Morecroft, Michael D.; Duffield, Simon; Harley, Mike; Pearce-Higgins, James W. et al. (2019). "Measuring the success of climate change adaptation and mitigation in terrestrial ecosystems". Science 366 (6471). doi:10.1126/science.aaw9256. PMID 31831643.
358. ↑ Berry, Pam M.; Brown, Sally; Chen, Minpeng; Kontogianni, Areti et al. (2015). "Cross-sectoral interactions of adaptation and mitigation measures". Climate Change 128 (3): 381–393. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1214-0. Bibcode: 2015ClCh..128..381B.
359. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR 2014, p. 54 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFIPCC_AR5_SYR2014 (help).
360. ↑ Sharifi, Ayyoob (2020). "Trade-offs and conflicts between urban climate change mitigation and adaptation measures: A literature review". Journal of Cleaner Production 276. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122813. Bibcode: 2020JCPro.27622813S.
361. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR Summary for Policymakers 2014, p. 17, Section 3
362. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch5 2018, p. 447; United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313)
363. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch5 2018, p. 477.
364. ↑ Rauner et al. 2020
365. ↑ Mercure et al. 2018
366. ↑ World Bank, June 2019, p. 12, Box 1
367. ↑ Union of Concerned Scientists, 8 January 2017; Hagmann, Ho & Loewenstein 2019.
368. ↑ Watts et al. 2019, p. 1866
369. ↑ UN Human Development Report 2020, p. 10
370. ↑ International Institute for Sustainable Development 2019, p. iv
371. ↑ ICCT 2019, p. iv; Natural Resources Defense Council, 29 September 2017
372. ↑ National Conference of State Legislators, 17 April 2020; European Parliament, February 2020
373. ↑ "Building a Climate Coalition: Aligning Carbon Pricing, Trade, and Development" (in en). 16 September 2025. https://salatainstitute.harvard.edu/building-a-climate-coalition-gcpp-flagship-report/.
374. ↑ "Carbon Market Coalition Welcomes 18 Member Countries at COP30". https://cop30.br/en/news-about-cop30/carbon-market-coalition-welcomes-18-member-countries-at-cop30.
375. ↑ Coppenborge, Florentine (16 January 2026). "A coalition on compliance carbon markets to make climate clubs politically feasible". Nature Climate Change 16 (3): 232–233. doi:10.1038/s41558-025-02541-5. Bibcode: 2026NatCC..16..232K. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02541-5. Retrieved 16 January 2026.
376. ↑ Carbon Brief, 16 October 2021
377. ↑ Khalfan, Ashfaq; Nilsson Lewis, Astrid; Aguilar, Carlos; Persson, Jaqueline; Lawson, Max; Dabi, Nafkote; Jayoussi, Safa; Acharya, Sunil (2023). ﻿Climate Equality: A planet for the 99%﻿ (Report). doi:10.21201/2023.000001.
378. ↑ Grasso, Marco; Heede, Richard (19 May 2023). "Time to pay the piper: Fossil fuel companies' reparations for climate damages". One Earth 6 (5): 459–463. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2023.04.012. Bibcode: 2023OEart...6..459G.
379. ↑ Carbon Brief, 4 Jan 2017.
380. ↑ 380.0 380.1 Friedlingstein et al. 2019, Table 7.
381. ↑ "GCB 2025". Global Carbon Budget. 2026. https://globalcarbonbudget.org/gcb-2025/. GCB links to downloadable data at "Figures from the Global Carbon Budget 2025 / 73: Global CO2 emissions by region". CICERO Center for International Climate Research. 2026. https://robbieandrew.github.io/GCB2025/.
382. ↑ "GCB 2025". Global Carbon Budget. 2026. https://globalcarbonbudget.org/gcb-2025/. GCB links to downloadable data at "Figures from the Global Carbon Budget 2025 / 74: Global CO2 emissions per capita". CICERO Center for International Climate Research. 2026. https://robbieandrew.github.io/GCB2025/.
383. ↑ UNFCCC, "What is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change?"
384. ↑ UNFCCC 1992, Article 2.
385. ↑ IPCC AR4 WG3 Ch1 2007, p. 97.
386. ↑ EPA 2019.
387. ↑ UNFCCC, "What are United Nations Climate Change Conferences?"
388. ↑ Kyoto Protocol 1997; Liverman 2009, p. 290.
389. ↑ Dessai 2001, p. 4; Grubb 2003.
390. ↑ Liverman 2009, p. 290.
391. ↑ Müller 2010; The New York Times, 25 May 2015; UNFCCC: Copenhagen 2009; EUobserver, 20 December 2009.
392. ↑ UNFCCC: Copenhagen 2009.
393. ↑ "Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change". Copenhagen. 7–18 December 2009. un document= FCCC/CP/2009/L.7. http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_15/items/5257.php. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
394. ↑ Bennett, Paige (2 May 2023). "High-Income Nations Are on Track Now to Meet $100 Billion Climate Pledges, but They're Late". Ecowatch. https://www.ecowatch.com/wealthy-countries-climate-change-reparations.html.
395. ↑ Paris Agreement 2015.
396. ↑ Climate Focus 2015, p. 3; Carbon Brief, 8 October 2018.
397. ↑ Climate Focus 2015, p. 5.
398. ↑ "Status of Treaties, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change". https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-d&chapter=27&clang=_en. ; Salon, 25 September 2019.
399. ↑ Velders et al. 2007; Young et al. 2021
400. ↑ WMO SAOD Executive Summary 2022, pp. 20, 31
401. ↑ WMO SAOD Executive Summary 2022, pp. 20, 35; Young et al. 2021
402. ↑ Goyal et al. 2019; Velders et al. 2007
403. ↑ Carbon Brief, 21 November 2017
404. ↑ WMO SAOD Executive Summary 2022, p. 15; Velders et al. 2022
405. ↑ "Annual CO
2 emissions by world region" (chart). Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-co-emissions-by-region.CO2+emissions+by+world+region&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Our+World+in+Data&rft_id=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-co-emissions-by-region&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
406. ↑ BBC, 1 May 2019; Vice, 2 May 2019.
407. ↑ The Verge, 27 December 2019.
408. ↑ The Guardian, 28 November 2019
409. ↑ Politico, 11 December 2019.
410. ↑ "European Green Deal: Commission proposes transformation of EU economy and society to meet climate ambitions". European Commission. 14 July 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_3541.
411. ↑ The Guardian, 28 October 2020
412. ↑ "India". 15 September 2021. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/india/.
413. ↑ Do, Thang Nam; Burke, Paul J. (2023). "Phasing out coal power in a developing country context: Insights from Vietnam". Energy Policy 176 (May 2023 113512). doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2023.113512. Bibcode: 2023EnPol.17613512D.
414. ↑ UN NDC Synthesis Report 2021, pp. 4–5; UNFCCC Press Office (26 February 2021). "Greater Climate Ambition Urged as Initial NDC Synthesis Report Is Published". https://unfccc.int/news/greater-climate-ambition-urged-as-initial-ndc-synthesis-report-is-published.
415. ↑ Stover 2014.
416. ↑ Dunlap & McCright 2011, pp. 144, 155; Björnberg et al. 2017
417. ↑ Oreskes & Conway 2010; Björnberg et al. 2017
418. ↑ O'Neill & Boykoff 2010; Björnberg et al. 2017
419. ↑ 419.0 419.1 Björnberg et al. 2017
420. ↑ Dunlap & McCright 2015, p. 308.
421. ↑ Dunlap & McCright 2011, p. 146.
422. ↑ Harvey et al. 2018
423. ↑ "Public perceptions on climate change". June 2022. p. 4. https://peritia-trust.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/4-Climate-change_EU.pdf.
424. ↑ 424.0 424.1 424.2 Powell, James (20 November 2019). "Scientists Reach 100% Consensus on Anthropogenic Global Warming". Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society 37 (4): 183–184. doi:10.1177/0270467619886266.
425. ↑ Myers, Krista F.; Doran, Peter T.; Cook, John; Kotcher, John E.; Myers, Teresa A. (20 October 2021). "Consensus revisited: quantifying scientific agreement on climate change and climate expertise among Earth scientists 10 years later". Environmental Research Letters 16 (10): 104030. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac2774. Bibcode: 2021ERL....16j4030M.
426. ↑ 426.0 426.1 Weart "The Public and Climate Change (since 1980)"
427. ↑ Newell 2006, p. 80; Yale Climate Connections, 2 November 2010
428. ↑ Pew 2015, p. 10.
429. ↑ Preston, Caroline; Hechinger (1 October 2023). "In Some Textbooks, Climate Change Content Is Few and Far Between". https://undark.org/2023/01/10/in-some-textbooks-climate-change-content-is-few-and-far-between/.
430. ↑ Pew 2020.
431. ↑ Pew 2015, p. 15.
432. ↑ Yale 2021, p. 7.
433. ↑ Gulliver, Robyn (3 November 2021). "A Comparative Analysis of Australian Media Coverage of the 2019 Climate Protests" (in en-AU). https://commonslibrary.org/a-comparative-analysis-of-australian-media-coverage-of-the-2019-climate-protests/.
434. ↑ Smith & Leiserowitz 2013, p. 943.
435. ↑ Pew 2020; UNDP 2024, pp. 22–26
436. ↑ Yale 2021, p. 9; UNDP 2021, p. 15.
437. ↑ Gunningham 2018.
438. ↑ Hartley, Sophie (10 October 2023). "Climate Activism: Start Here" (in en-AU). https://commonslibrary.org/climate-activism-start-here/.
439. ↑ The Guardian, 19 March 2019; Boulianne, Lalancette & Ilkiw 2020.
440. ↑ Deutsche Welle, 22 June 2019.
441. ↑ Connolly, Kate (29 April 2021). "'Historic' German ruling says climate goals not tough enough". The Guardian. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/apr/29/historic-german-ruling-says-climate-goals-not-tough-enough.
442. ↑ Setzer & Byrnes 2019.
443. ↑ "Obligations of States in respect of Climate Change". 23 July 2025. https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/187/187-20250723-adv-01-00-en.pdf.
444. ↑ "Summary: Obligations of States in respect of Climate Change". 23 July 2025. https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/187/187-20250723-sum-01-00-en.pdf.
445. ↑ "Press Release: Obligations of States in respect of Climate Change". 23 July 2025. https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/187/187-20250723-pre-01-00-en.pdf.
446. ↑ Foote, Eunice (November 1856). "Circumstances affecting the Heat of the Sun's Rays". The American Journal of Science and Arts 22: 382–383. https://books.google.com/books?id=6xhFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA382. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
447. ↑ Nord, D. C. (2020). Nordic Perspectives on the Responsible Development of the Arctic: Pathways to Action. Springer Polar Sciences. Springer International Publishing. p. 51. ISBN 978-3-030-52324-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=KmMGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA51. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
448. ↑ Van Der Gun, Jac (2021). "Groundwater resources sustainability". Global Groundwater. pp. 331–345. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-818172-0.00024-4. ISBN 978-0-12-818172-0.
449. ↑ von Humboldt, A.; Wulf, A. (2018). Selected Writings of Alexander von Humboldt: Edited and Introduced by Andrea Wulf. Everyman's Library Classics Series. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-101-90807-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=xal2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR10. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
450. ↑ Erdkamp, Paul; Manning, Joseph G.; Verboven, Koenraad (2021). Climate Change and Ancient Societies in Europe and the Near East: Diversity in Collapse and Resilience. Palgrave Studies in Ancient Economies. Springer International Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-3-030-81103-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbdMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR6. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
451. ↑ Archer & Pierrehumbert 2013, pp. 10–14
452. ↑ Foote, Eunice (November 1856). "Circumstances affecting the Heat of the Sun's Rays". The American Journal of Science and Arts 22: 382–383. https://books.google.com/books?id=6xhFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA382. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
453. ↑ Huddleston 2019
454. ↑ "Coal Consumption Affecting Climate". Rodney and Otamatea Times, Waitemata and Kaipara Gazette (Warkworth, New Zealand): p. 7. 14 August 1912. https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/ROTWKG19120814.2.56.5. Text was earlier published in Popular Mechanics, March 1912, p. 341.
455. ↑ Tyndall 1861.
456. ↑ Archer & Pierrehumbert 2013, pp. 39–42; Fleming 2008, Tyndall
457. ↑ Lapenis 1998.
458. ↑ 458.0 458.1 458.2 Weart "The Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Effect"; Fleming 2008, Arrhenius
459. ↑ Callendar 1938; Fleming 2007.
460. ↑ Cook, John; Oreskes, Naomi; Doran, Peter T.; Anderegg, William R. L. et al. (2016). "Consensus on consensus: a synthesis of consensus estimates on human-caused global warming". Environmental Research Letters 11 (4). doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/048002. Bibcode: 2016ERL....11d8002C.
461. ↑ Myers, Krista F.; Doran, Peter T.; Cook, John; Kotcher, John E.; Myers, Teresa A. (20 October 2021). "Consensus revisited: quantifying scientific agreement on climate change and climate expertise among Earth scientists 10 years later". Environmental Research Letters 16 (10): 104030. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac2774. Bibcode: 2021ERL....16j4030M.
462. ↑ Weart "Suspicions of a Human-Caused Greenhouse (1956–1969)"
463. ↑ Charney, Jule; Arakawa, Akio; Baker, D. James; Bolin, Bert; Dickinson, Robert E; Goody, Richard M; Leith, Cecil; Stommel, Henry et al. (1979). Carbon Dioxide and Climate: A Scientific Assessment. National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/12181. ISBN 978-0-309-11910-8. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/12181/chapter/1.
464. ↑ Shabecoff, Philip (24 June 1988). "Global Warming Has Begun, Expert Tells Senate". New York Times: p. 1. https://www.nytimes.com/1988/06/24/us/global-warming-has-begun-expert-tells-senate.html. "...Dr. James E. Hansen of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration told a Congressional committee that it was 99 percent certain that the warming trend was not a natural variation but was caused by a buildup of carbon dioxide and other artificial gases in the atmosphere."
465. ↑ Weart 2013, p. 3567.
466. ↑ Royal Society 2005.
467. ↑ National Academies 2008, p. 2; Oreskes 2007, p. 68; Gleick, 7 January 2017
468. ↑ Joint statement of the (G8+5 Academies 2009); Gleick, 7 January 2017.
469. ↑ 469.0 469.1 Herring, Stephanie C.; Hoell, Andrew; Hoerling, Martin P.; Kossin, James P.; Schreck III, Carl J.; Stott, Peter A. (1 December 2016). "Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society / Introduction to Explaining Extreme Events of 2015 from a Climate Perspective". American Meteorological Society. https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/97/12/bams-d-16-0313.1.xml?tab_body=pdf.
470. ↑ Attribution of Extreme Weather Events in the Context of Climate Change. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). 2016. doi:10.17226/21852. ISBN 978-0-309-38094-2. Bibcode: 2016nap..book21852N. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/21852/attribution-of-extreme-weather-events-in-the-context-of-climate-change.
471. ↑ McSweeney, Robert; Tandon, Ayesha (18 November 2024). "Mapped: How climate change affects extreme weather around the world". Climate Central. https://interactive.carbonbrief.org/attribution-studies/index.html.
472. ↑ Clarke, Ben; Otto, Friederike (2021). "Reporting extreme weather and climate change A guide for journalists". World Weather Attribution. https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/wp-content/uploads/ENG_WWA-Reporting-extreme-weather-and-climate-change.pdf.
473. ↑ 473.0 473.1 Sneed, Annie (2 January 2017). "Yes, Some Extreme Weather Can Be Blamed on Climate Change". Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/yes-some-extreme-weather-can-be-blamed-on-climate-change/.

### Sources

#### IPCC reports

Fourth Assessment Report

* Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/contents.html.
* Le Treut, H.; Somerville, R.; Cubasch, U.; Ding, Y. et al. (2007). "Chapter 1: Historical Overview of Climate Change Science". IPCC AR4 WG1 2007. pp. 93–127. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter1.pdf.
* Randall, D. A.; Wood, R. A.; Bony, S.; Colman, R. et al. (2007). "Chapter 8: Climate Models and their Evaluation". IPCC AR4 WG1 2007. pp. 589–662. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter8.pdf.
* Hegerl, G. C.; Zwiers, F. W. (2007). "Chapter 9: Understanding and Attributing Climate Change". IPCC AR4 WG1 2007. pp. 663–745. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter9.pdf.

* Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-521-88010-7. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/contents.html.
* Schneider, S. H.; Semenov, S.; Patwardhan, A.; Burton, I. et al. (2007). "Chapter 19: Assessing key vulnerabilities and the risk from climate change". IPCC AR4 WG2 2007. pp. 779–810. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter19.pdf.

* Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/contents.html.
* Rogner, H.-H.; Zhou, D.; Bradley, R.; Crabbé, P. et al. (2007). "Chapter 1: Introduction". IPCC AR4 WG3 2007. pp. 95–116. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg3/ar4-wg3-chapter1.pdf.

Fifth Assessment report

* Stocker, T. F.; Qin, D.; Plattner, G.-K. et al., eds (2013). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05799-9. http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/report/WG1AR5_ALL_FINAL.pdf. . AR5 Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis – IPCC
* "Summary for Policymakers". IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. 2013. https://ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_SPM_FINAL.pdf.
* Hartmann, D. L.; Klein Tank, A. M. G.; Rusticucci, M.; Alexander, L. V. et al. (2013). "Chapter 2: Observations: Atmosphere and Surface". IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. pp. 159–254. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2017/09/WG1AR5_Chapter02_FINAL.pdf.
* Rhein, M.; Rintoul, S. R.; Aoki, S.; Campos, E. et al. (2013). "Chapter 3: Observations: Ocean". IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. pp. 255–315. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WG1AR5_Chapter03_FINAL.pdf.
* Masson-Delmotte, V.; Schulz, M.; Abe-Ouchi, A.; Beer, J. et al. (2013). "Chapter 5: Information from Paleoclimate Archives". IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. pp. 383–464. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WG1AR5_Chapter05_FINAL.pdf.
* Bindoff, N. L.; Stott, P. A.; AchutaRao, K. M.; Allen, M. R. et al. (2013). "Chapter 10: Detection and Attribution of Climate Change: from Global to Regional". IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. pp. 867–952. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WG1AR5_Chapter10_FINAL.pdf.
* Collins, M.; Knutti, R.; Arblaster, J. M.; Dufresne, J.-L. et al. (2013). "Chapter 12: Long-term Climate Change: Projections, Commitments and Irreversibility". IPCC AR5 WG1 2013. pp. 1029–1136. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_Chapter12_FINAL.pdf.

* Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-1-107-05807-1. . Chapters 1–20, SPM, and Technical Summary.
* Olsson, L.; Opondo, M.; Tschakert, P.; Agrawal, A. et al. (2014). "Chapter 13: Livelihoods and Poverty". IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014. pp. 793–832. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap13_FINAL.pdf.
* Cramer, W.; Yohe, G. W.; Auffhammer, M.; Huggel, C. et al. (2014). "Chapter 18: Detection and Attribution of Observed Impacts". IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014. pp. 979–1037. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap18_FINAL.pdf.
* Oppenheimer, M.; Campos, M.; Warren, R.; Birkmann, J. et al. (2014). "Chapter 19: Emergent Risks and Key Vulnerabilities". IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014. pp. 1039–1099. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap19_FINAL.pdf.
* Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York: Cambridge University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-1-107-05816-3. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-PartB_FINAL.pdf. . Chapters 21–30, Annexes, and Index.
* Larsen, J. N.; Anisimov, O. A.; Constable, A.; Hollowed, A. B. et al. (2014). "Chapter 28: Polar Regions". IPCC AR5 WG2 B 2014. pp. 1567–1612. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap28_FINAL.pdf.

* Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-1-107-05821-7.
* Lucon, O.; Ürge-Vorsatz, D.; Ahmed, A.; Akbari, H. et al. (2014). "Chapter 9: Buildings". IPCC AR5 WG3 2014. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter9.pdf.
* Edenhofer, O.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Sokona, Y.; Farahani, E. et al. (2014). "Annex III: Technology-specific Cost and Performance Parameters". IPCC AR5 WG3 2014. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_annex-iii.pdf.
* Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. 2014. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/.
* "Summary for Policymakers". IPCC AR5 SYR 2014 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFIPCC_AR5_SYR2014 (help). 2014. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf.+harvnb+error:+no+target:+CITEREFIPCC_AR5_SYR2014+([[:Category:Harv+and+Sfn+template+errors|help]])&rft.date=2014&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* "Annex II: Glossary". IPCC AR5 SYR 2014 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFIPCC_AR5_SYR2014 (help). 2014. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_Annexes.pdf.+harvnb+error:+no+target:+CITEREFIPCC_AR5_SYR2014+([[:Category:Harv+and+Sfn+template+errors|help]])&rft.date=2014&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">

Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5 °C

* Global Warming of 1.5 °C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2018. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_Full_Report_High_Res.pdf. Global Warming of 1.5 °C –.
* "Summary for Policymakers". IPCC SR15 2018. 2018. pp. 3–24. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_SPM_version_report_HR.pdf.
* Allen, M. R.; Dube, O. P.; Solecki, W.; Aragón-Durand, F. et al. (2018). "Chapter 1: Framing and Context". IPCC SR15 2018. pp. 49–91. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter1_High_Res.pdf.
* "Chapter 2: Mitigation Pathways Compatible with 1.5 °C in the Context of Sustainable Development". IPCC SR15 2018. 2018. pp. 93–174. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter2_High_Res.pdf.
* Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Jacob, D.; Taylor, M.; Bindi, M. et al. (2018). "Chapter 3: Impacts of 1.5 °C Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems". IPCC SR15 2018. pp. 175–311. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter3_High_Res.pdf.
* de Coninck, H.; Revi, A.; Babiker, M.; Bertoldi, P. et al. (2018). "Chapter 4: Strengthening and Implementing the Global Response". IPCC SR15 2018. pp. 313–443. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter4_High_Res.pdf.
* Roy, J.; Tschakert, P.; Waisman, H.; Abdul Halim, S. et al. (2018). "Chapter 5: Sustainable Development, Poverty Eradication and Reducing Inequalities". IPCC SR15 2018. pp. 445–538. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter5_High_Res.pdf.

Special Report: Climate change and Land

* IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse gas fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems. In press. 2019. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/11/SRCCL-Full-Report-Compiled-191128.pdf.
* "Summary for Policymakers". IPCC SRCCL 2019. 2019. pp. 3–34. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/4/2019/12/02_Summary-for-Policymakers_SPM.pdf.
* Jia, G.; Shevliakova, E.; Artaxo, P. E.; De Noblet-Ducoudré, N. et al. (2019). "Chapter 2: Land-Climate Interactions". IPCC SRCCL 2019. pp. 131–247. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/11/05_Chapter-2.pdf.
* Mbow, C.; Rosenzweig, C.; Barioni, L. G.; Benton, T. et al. (2019). "Chapter 5: Food Security". IPCC SRCCL 2019. pp. 437–550. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/11/08_Chapter-5.pdf.

Special Report: The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

* IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. In press. 2019. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/12/SROCC_FullReport_FINAL.pdf.
* "Summary for Policymakers". IPCC SROCC 2019. 2019. pp. 3–35. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/11/03_SROCC_SPM_FINAL.pdf.
* Oppenheimer, M.; Glavovic, B.; Hinkel, J.; van de Wal, R. et al. (2019). "Chapter 4: Sea Level Rise and Implications for Low Lying Islands, Coasts and Communities". IPCC SROCC 2019. pp. 321–445. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/11/08_SROCC_Ch04_FINAL.pdf.
* Bindoff, N. L.; Cheung, W. W. L.; Kairo, J. G.; Arístegui, J. et al. (2019). "Chapter 5: Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities". IPCC SROCC 2019. pp. 447–587. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/11/09_SROCC_Ch05_FINAL.pdf.

Sixth Assessment Report

* Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A. et al., eds (2021). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press (In Press). https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_FullReport_small.pdf.
* "Summary for Policymakers". IPCC AR6 WG1 2021. 2021. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf.
* Arias, Paola A.; Bellouin, Nicolas; Coppola, Erika; Jones, Richard G. et al. (2021). "Technical Summary". IPCC AR6 WG1 2021. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_TS.pdf.
* Gulev, Sergey K.; Thorne, Peter W.; Ahn, Jinho; Dentener, Frank J. et al. (2021). "Chapter 2: Changing state of the climate system". Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter_02.pdf.
* Lee, June-Yi; Marotzke, Jochem; Bala, Govindasamy; Cao, Long et al. (2021). "Chapter 4: Future Global Climate: Scenario-Based Projections and Near-Term Information". Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/chapter-4/.
* Canadell, Josep G.; Monteiro, Pedro M.S.; Costa, Marcos H.; Cotrim da Cunha, Leticia et al. (2021). "Chapter 5: Global Carbon and other Biogeochemical Cycles and Feedbacks". Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/chapter-5/.
* Seneviratne, Sonia I.; Zhang, Xuebin; Adnan, M.; Badi, W. et al. (2021). "Chapter 11: Weather and climate extreme events in a changing climate". IPCC AR6 WG1 2021. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter_11.pdf.
* IPCC (2022). Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009325844. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/.
* IPCC (2022). "Summary for Policymakers". IPCC AR6 WG2 2022. pp. 3–33. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf.
* IPCC (2022). "Technical Summary". IPCC AR6 WG2 2022. pp. 37–118. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.002. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_TechnicalSummary.pdf.
* Bezner Kerr, R.; Hasegawa, T.; Lasco, R.; Bhatt, I.; Deryng, D.; Farrell, A.; Gurney-Smith, H.; Ju, H. et al. (2022). "Food, Fibre and Other Ecosystem Products". IPCC AR6 WG2 2022. pp. 713–906. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.007. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter05.pdf.
* Dodman, D.; Hayward, B.; Pelling, M.; Castan Broto, V.; Chow, W.; Chu, E.; Dawson, R.; Khirfan, L. et al. (2022). "Cities, Settlements and Key Infrastructure". IPCC AR6 WG2 2022. pp. 907–1040. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.008. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter06.pdf.
* O'Neill, B.; van Aalst, M.; Zaiton Ibrahim, Z.; Berrang Ford, L.; Bhadwal, S.; Buhaug, H.; Diaz, D.; Frieler, K. et al. (2022). "Key Risks across Sectors and Regions". IPCC AR6 WG2 2022. pp. 2411–2538. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.025. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter16.pdf.
* IPCC (2022). Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009157926. ISBN 978-1-009-15792-6. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/.
* "Summary for Policymakers". IPCC AR6 WG3 2022. 2022. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf.
* Pathak, M.; Slade, R.; Shukla, P.R.; Skea, J.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Ürge-Vorsatz, D. (2022). "Technical Summary". IPCC AR6 WG3 2022. pp. 51–148. doi:10.1017/9781009157926.002. ISBN 978-1-009-15792-6. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_TechnicalSummary.pdf.
* Riahi, K.; Schaeffer, R.; Arango, J.; Calvin, K.; Guivarch, C.; Hasegawa, T.; Jiang, K.; Kriegler, E. et al. (2022). "Mitigation Pathways Compatible with Long-term Goals". IPCC AR6 WG3 2022. pp. 295–408. doi:10.1017/9781009157926.005. ISBN 978-1-009-15792-6. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter03.pdf.
* Patt, Anthony; Rajamani, Lavanya; Bhandari, Preety; Caparrós, Alejandro et al. (2022). "Chapter 14: International Cooperation". Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/chapter/chapter-14/.
* IPCC (2023). Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. doi:10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647. ISBN 978-92-9169-164-7. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_SYR_FullVolume.pdf.
* "Summary for Policymakers". IPCC AR6 SYR 2023. 2023. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_SYR_SPM.pdf.

#### Other peer-reviewed sources

* Albrecht, Bruce A. (1989). "Aerosols, Cloud Microphysics, and Fractional Cloudiness". Science 245 (4923): 1227–1239. doi:10.1126/science.245.4923.1227. PMID 17747885. Bibcode: 1989Sci...245.1227A.
* Balsari, S.; Dresser, C.; Leaning, J. (2020). "Climate Change, Migration, and Civil Strife". Curr Environ Health Report 7 (4): 404–414. doi:10.1007/s40572-020-00291-4. PMID 33048318. Bibcode: 2020CEHR....7..404B.
* Bamber, Jonathan L.; Oppenheimer, Michael; Kopp, Robert E.; Aspinall, Willy P.; Cooke, Roger M. (2019). "Ice sheet contributions to future sea-level rise from structured expert judgment". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (23): 11195–11200. doi:10.1073/pnas.1817205116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 31110015. Bibcode: 2019PNAS..11611195B.
* Bednar, Johannes; Obersteiner, Michael; Wagner, Fabian (2019). "On the financial viability of negative emissions". Nature Communications 10 (1): 1783. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09782-x. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 30992434. Bibcode: 2019NatCo..10.1783B.
* Berrill, P.; Arvesen, A.; Scholz, Y.; Gils, H. C. et al. (2016). "Environmental impacts of high penetration renewable energy scenarios for Europe". Environmental Research Letters 11 (1). doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/1/014012. Bibcode: 2016ERL....11a4012B.
* Björnberg, Karin Edvardsson; Karlsson, Mikael; Gilek, Michael; Hansson, Sven Ove (2017). "Climate and environmental science denial: A review of the scientific literature published in 1990–2015". Journal of Cleaner Production 167: 229–241. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.066. ISSN 0959-6526. Bibcode: 2017JCPro.167..229B.
* Boulianne, Shelley; Lalancette, Mireille; Ilkiw, David (2020). ""School Strike 4 Climate": Social Media and the International Youth Protest on Climate Change". Media and Communication 8 (2): 208–218. doi:10.17645/mac.v8i2.2768. ISSN 2183-2439. https://www.cogitatiopress.com/mediaandcommunication/article/view/2768.
* Bui, M. et al. (2018). "Carbon capture and storage (CCS): the way forward". Energy & Environmental Science 11 (5): 1062–1176. doi:10.1039/c7ee02342a. Bibcode: 2018EnEnS..11.1062B.
* Burke, Claire; Stott, Peter (2017). "Impact of Anthropogenic Climate Change on the East Asian Summer Monsoon". Journal of Climate 30 (14): 5205–5220. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0892.1. ISSN 0894-8755. Bibcode: 2017JCli...30.5205B.
* Callendar, G. S. (1938). "The artificial production of carbon dioxide and its influence on temperature". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 64 (275): 223–240. doi:10.1002/qj.49706427503. Bibcode: 1938QJRMS..64..223C.
* Cattaneo, Cristina; Beine, Michel; Fröhlich, Christiane J.; Kniveton, Dominic et al. (2019). "Human Migration in the Era of Climate Change". Review of Environmental Economics and Policy 13 (2): 189–206. doi:10.1093/reep/rez008.
* Cohen, Judah; Screen, James; Furtado, Jason C.; Barlow, Mathew et al. (2014). "Recent Arctic amplification and extreme mid-latitude weather". Nature Geoscience 7 (9): 627–637. doi:10.1038/ngeo2234. ISSN 1752-0908. Bibcode: 2014NatGe...7..627C.
* Curtis, P.; Slay, C.; Harris, N.; Tyukavina, A. et al. (2018). "Classifying drivers of global forest loss". Science 361 (6407): 1108–1111. doi:10.1126/science.aau3445. PMID 30213911. Bibcode: 2018Sci...361.1108C.
* Davidson, Eric (2009). "The contribution of manure and fertilizer nitrogen to atmospheric nitrous oxide since 1860". Nature Geoscience 2: 659–662. doi:10.1016/j.chemer.2016.04.002.
* DeConto, Robert M.; Pollard, David (2016). "Contribution of Antarctica to past and future sea-level rise". Nature 531 (7596): 591–597. doi:10.1038/nature17145. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 27029274. Bibcode: 2016Natur.531..591D.
* Deutsch, Curtis; Brix, Holger; Ito, Taka; Frenzel, Hartmut et al. (2011). "Climate-Forced Variability of Ocean Hypoxia". Science 333 (6040): 336–339. doi:10.1126/science.1202422. PMID 21659566. Bibcode: 2011Sci...333..336D.
* Doney, Scott C.; Fabry, Victoria J.; Feely, Richard A.; Kleypas, Joan A. (2009). "Ocean Acidification: The Other CO
2 Problem". Annual Review of Marine Science 1 (1): 169–192. doi:10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163834. PMID 21141034. Bibcode: 2009ARMS....1..169D.CO2+Problem&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Marine+Science&rft.aulast=Doney&rft.aufirst=Scott+C.&rft.au=Doney, Scott+C.&rft.au=Fabry, Victoria+J.&rft.au=Feely, Richard+A.&rft.au=Kleypas, Joan+A.&rft.date=2009&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=169–192&rft_id=info:doi/10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163834&rft_id=info:pmid/21141034&rft_id=info:bibcode/2009ARMS....1..169D&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Fahey, D. W.; Doherty, S. J.; Hibbard, K. A.; Romanou, A.; Taylor, P. C. (2017). "Chapter 2: Physical Drivers of Climate Change". In USGCRP2017. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/downloads/CSSR_Ch2_Physical_Drivers.pdf.
* Fischer, Tobias P.; Aiuppa, Alessandro (2020). "AGU Centennial Grand Challenge: Volcanoes and Deep Carbon Global CO2 Emissions From Subaerial Volcanism - Recent Progress and Future Challenges". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 21 (3). doi:10.1029/2019GC008690. ISSN 1525-2027. Bibcode: 2020GGG....2108690F.
* Friedlingstein, Pierre; Jones, Matthew W.; O'Sullivan, Michael; Andrew, Robbie M. et al. (2019). "Global Carbon Budget 2019". Earth System Science Data 11 (4): 1783–1838. doi:10.5194/essd-11-1783-2019. ISSN 1866-3508. Bibcode: 2019ESSD...11.1783F.
* Forster, P. M.; Smith, C. J.; Walsh, T.; Lamb, W. F. et al. (2024). "Indicators of Global Climate Change 2023: annual update of large-scale indicators of the state of the climate system and human influence". Earth System Science Data 16 (6): 2625–2658. doi:10.5194/essd-16-2625-2024. Bibcode: 2023ESSD...15.2295F. https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/2625/2024/essd-16-2625-2024.pdf. Retrieved 1 November 2024.
* Goyal, Rishav; England, Matthew H.; Sen Gupta, Alex; Jucker, Martin (2019). "Reduction in surface climate change achieved by the 1987 Montreal Protocol". Environmental Research Letters 14 (12): 124041. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab4874. ISSN 1748-9326. Bibcode: 2019ERL....14l4041G.
* Grubb, M. (2003). "The Economics of the Kyoto Protocol". World Economics 4 (3): 144–145. http://ynccf.net/pdf/CDM/The_economic_of_Kyoto_protocol.pdf.
* Gunningham, Neil (2018). "Mobilising Civil Society: Can the Climate Movement Achieve Transformational Social Change". Interface 10 (1–2): 149–169.
* Hagmann, David; Ho, Emily H.; Loewenstein, George (2019). "Nudging out support for a carbon tax". Nature Climate Change 9 (6): 484–489. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0474-0. Bibcode: 2019NatCC...9..484H.
* Hansen, James; Sato, Makiko; Hearty, Paul; Ruedy, Reto et al. (2016). "Ice melt, sea level rise and superstorms: evidence from paleoclimate data, climate modeling, and modern observations that 2 °C global warming could be dangerous". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 16 (6): 3761–3812. doi:10.5194/acp-16-3761-2016. Bibcode: 2016ACP....16.3761H.
* Harvey, Jeffrey A.; Van den Berg, Daphne; Ellers, Jacintha; Kampen, Remko et al. (2018). "Internet Blogs, Polar Bears, and Climate-Change Denial by Proxy". BioScience 68 (4): 281–287. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix133. ISSN 0006-3568. PMID 29662248. (Erratum: doi:10.1093/biosci/biy033, PMID 29608770, Retraction Watch)
* Hawkins, Ed; Ortega, Pablo; Suckling, Emma; Schurer, Andrew et al. (2017). "Estimating Changes in Global Temperature since the Preindustrial Period". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 98 (9): 1841–1856. doi:10.1175/bams-d-16-0007.1. ISSN 0003-0007. Bibcode: 2017BAMS...98.1841H.
* He, Yanyi; Wang, Kaicun; Zhou, Chunlüe; Wild, Martin (2018). "A Revisit of Global Dimming and Brightening Based on the Sunshine Duration". Geophysical Research Letters 45 (9): 4281–4289. doi:10.1029/2018GL077424. ISSN 1944-8007. Bibcode: 2018GeoRL..45.4281H.
* Hodder, Patrick; Martin, Brian (2009). "Climate Crisis? The Politics of Emergency Framing". Economic and Political Weekly 44 (36): 53–60. ISSN 0012-9976.
* Joo, Gea-Jae; Kim, Ji Yoon; Do, Yuno; Lineman, Maurice (2015). "Talking about Climate Change and Global Warming". PLOS ONE 10 (9). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138996. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 26418127. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1038996L.
* Kabir, Russell; Khan, Hafiz T. A.; Ball, Emma; Caldwell, Khan (2016). "Climate Change Impact: The Experience of the Coastal Areas of Bangladesh Affected by Cyclones Sidr and Aila". Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2016. doi:10.1155/2016/9654753. PMID 27867400.
* Kaczan, David J.; Orgill-Meyer, Jennifer (2020). "The impact of climate change on migration: a synthesis of recent empirical insights". Climatic Change 158 (3): 281–300. doi:10.1007/s10584-019-02560-0. Bibcode: 2020ClCh..158..281K.
* Kennedy, J. J.; Thorne, W. P.; Peterson, T. C.; Ruedy, R. A. et al. (2010). "How do we know the world has warmed?". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 91 (7): S26-S27. doi:10.1175/BAMS-91-7-StateoftheClimate.
* Kopp, R. E.; Hayhoe, K.; Easterling, D. R.; Hall, T. et al. (2017). "Chapter 15: Potential Surprises: Compound Extremes and Tipping Elements". In USGCRP 2017. pp. 1–470. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/15/.
* Kossin, J. P.; Hall, T.; Knutson, T.; Kunkel, K. E.; Trapp, R. J.; Walizer, D. E.; Wehner, M. F. (2017). "Chapter 9: Extreme Storms". In USGCRP2017. pp. 1–470. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/9/.
* Knutson, T. (2017). "Appendix C: Detection and attribution methodologies overview.". In USGCRP2017. pp. 1–470. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/appendix-c/.
* Kreidenweis, Ulrich; Humpenöder, Florian; Stevanović, Miodrag; Bodirsky, Benjamin Leon et al. (July 2016). "Afforestation to mitigate climate change: impacts on food prices under consideration of albedo effects". Environmental Research Letters 11 (8). doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/8/085001. Bibcode: 2016ERL....11h5001K.
* Kvande, H. (2014). "The Aluminum Smelting Process". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 56 (5 Suppl): S2–S4. doi:10.1097/JOM.0000000000000154. PMID 24806722.
* Lapenis, Andrei G. (1998). "Arrhenius and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change". Eos 79 (23): 271. doi:10.1029/98EO00206. Bibcode: 1998EOSTr..79..271L.
* Levermann, Anders; Clark, Peter U.; Marzeion, Ben; Milne, Glenn A. et al. (2013). "The multimillennial sea-level commitment of global warming". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (34): 13745–13750. doi:10.1073/pnas.1219414110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 23858443. Bibcode: 2013PNAS..11013745L.
* Lenoir, Jonathan; Bertrand, Romain; Comte, Lise; Bourgeaud, Luana et al. (2020). "Species better track climate warming in the oceans than on land". Nature Ecology & Evolution 4 (8): 1044–1059. doi:10.1038/s41559-020-1198-2. PMID 32451428. Bibcode: 2020NatEE...4.1044L. https://hal.science/hal-02995372.
* Liepert, Beate G.; Previdi, Michael (2009). "Do Models and Observations Disagree on the Rainfall Response to Global Warming?". Journal of Climate 22 (11): 3156–3166. doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2472.1. Bibcode: 2009JCli...22.3156L. https://zenodo.org/record/896855.
* Liverman, Diana M. (2009). "Conventions of climate change: constructions of danger and the dispossession of the atmosphere". Journal of Historical Geography 35 (2): 279–296. doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2008.08.008.
* Loeb, Norman G.; Johnson, Gregory C.; Thorsen, Tyler J.; Lyman, John M.; Rose, Fred G.; Kato, Seiji (2021). "Satellite and Ocean Data Reveal Marked Increase in Earth's Heating Rate". Geophysical Research Letters (American Geophysical Union (AGU)) 48 (13): e2021GL093047. doi:10.1029/2021gl093047. Bibcode: 2021GeoRL..4893047L.
* Mach, Katharine J.; Kraan, Caroline M.; Adger, W. Neil; Buhaug, Halvard et al. (2019). "Climate as a risk factor for armed conflict". Nature 571 (7764): 193–197. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1300-6. PMID 31189956. Bibcode: 2019Natur.571..193M.
* Matthews, H. Damon; Gillett, Nathan P.; Stott, Peter A.; Zickfeld, Kirsten (2009). "The proportionality of global warming to cumulative carbon emissions". Nature 459 (7248): 829–832. doi:10.1038/nature08047. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 19516338. Bibcode: 2009Natur.459..829M.
* Matthews, Tom (2018). "Humid heat and climate change". Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment 42 (3): 391–405. doi:10.1177/0309133318776490. Bibcode: 2018PrPG...42..391M. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0309133318776490.
* McNeill, V. Faye (2017). "Atmospheric Aerosols: Clouds, Chemistry, and Climate". Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering 8 (1): 427–444. doi:10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-060816-101538. ISSN 1947-5438. PMID 28415861.
* Melillo, J. M.; Frey, S. D.; DeAngelis, K. M.; Werner, W. J. et al. (2017). "Long-term pattern and magnitude of soil carbon feedback to the climate system in a warming world". Science 358 (6359): 101–105. doi:10.1126/science.aan2874. PMID 28983050. Bibcode: 2017Sci...358..101M.
* Mercure, J.-F.; Pollitt, H.; Viñuales, J. E.; Edwards, N. R. et al. (2018). "Macroeconomic impact of stranded fossil fuel assets". Nature Climate Change 8 (7): 588–593. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0182-1. Bibcode: 2018NatCC...8..588M.
* Mitchum, G. T.; Masters, D.; Hamlington, B. D.; Fasullo, J. T. et al. (2018). "Climate-change–driven accelerated sea-level rise detected in the altimeter era". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115 (9): 2022–2025. doi:10.1073/pnas.1717312115. PMID 29440401. Bibcode: 2018PNAS..115.2022N.
* Mora, Camilo; Dousset, Bénédicte; Caldwell, Iain R.; Powell, Farrah E.; Geronimo, Rollan C.; Bielecki, Coral R.; Counsell, Chelsie W. W.; Dietrich, Bonnie S. et al. (2017). "Global risk of deadly heat". Nature Climate Change 7 (7): 501–506. doi:10.1038/nclimate3322. Bibcode: 2017NatCC...7..501M. https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/71263/1/Mora_etal_heatwaves.pdf.
* ((National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine)) (2019). ﻿Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda﻿ (Report). Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/25259. ISBN 978-0-309-48455-8.
* National Research Council (2011). "Causes and Consequences of Climate Change". America's Climate Choices. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/12781. ISBN 978-0-309-14585-5. Bibcode: 2011nap..book12781N. https://www.nap.edu/read/12781/chapter/4. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
* Neukom, Raphael; Steiger, Nathan; Gómez-Navarro, Juan José; Wang, Jianghao et al. (2019a). "No evidence for globally coherent warm and cold periods over the preindustrial Common Era". Nature 571 (7766): 550–554. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1401-2. PMID 31341300. Bibcode: 2019Natur.571..550N.
* Neukom, Raphael; Barboza, Luis A.; Erb, Michael P.; Shi, Feng et al. (2019b). "Consistent multidecadal variability in global temperature reconstructions and simulations over the Common Era". Nature Geoscience 12 (8): 643–649. doi:10.1038/s41561-019-0400-0. ISSN 1752-0908. PMID 31372180. Bibcode: 2019NatGe..12..643P.
* O'Neill, Saffron J.; Boykoff, Max (2010). "Climate denier, skeptic, or contrarian?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107 (39): E151. doi:10.1073/pnas.1010507107. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 20807754. Bibcode: 2010PNAS..107E.151O.
* Poloczanska, Elvira S.; Brown, Christopher J.; Sydeman, William J.; Kiessling, Wolfgang et al. (2013). "Global imprint of climate change on marine life". Nature Climate Change 3 (10): 919–925. doi:10.1038/nclimate1958. ISSN 1758-6798. Bibcode: 2013NatCC...3..919P. https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:318633/UQ318633_peer_review.pdf.
* Rahmstorf, Stefan; Cazenave, Anny; Church, John A.; Hansen, James E. et al. (2007). "Recent Climate Observations Compared to Projections". Science 316 (5825): 709. doi:10.1126/science.1136843. PMID 17272686. Bibcode: 2007Sci...316..709R.
* Ramanathan, V.; Carmichael, G. (2008). "Global and Regional Climate Changes due to Black Carbon". Nature Geoscience 1 (4): 221–227. doi:10.1038/ngeo156. Bibcode: 2008NatGe...1..221R.
* Randel, William J.; Shine, Keith P.; Austin, John; Barnett, John et al. (2009). "An update of observed stratospheric temperature trends". Journal of Geophysical Research 114 (D2): D02107. doi:10.1029/2008JD010421. Template:HAL. Bibcode: 2009JGRD..114.2107R.
* Rauner, Sebastian; Bauer, Nico; Dirnaichner, Alois; Van Dingenen, Rita; Mutel, Chris; Luderer, Gunnar (2020). "Coal-exit health and environmental damage reductions outweigh economic impacts". Nature Climate Change 10 (4): 308–312. doi:10.1038/s41558-020-0728-x. Bibcode: 2020NatCC..10..308R.
* Rogelj, Joeri; Forster, Piers M.; Kriegler, Elmar; Smith, Christopher J. et al. (2019). "Estimating and tracking the remaining carbon budget for stringent climate targets". Nature 571 (7765): 335–342. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1368-z. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31316194. Bibcode: 2019Natur.571..335R.
* Romanello, M (2022). "The 2022 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: health at the mercy of fossil fuels". The Lancet 400 (10363): 1619–1654. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01540-9. PMID 36306815. PMC 7616806. https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/117227/.
* Romanello, M (2023). "The 2023 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: the imperative for a health-centred response in a world facing irreversible harms". The Lancet 402 (10419): 2346–2394. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01859-7. PMID 37977174. PMC 7616810. https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/120864/.
* Ruseva, Tatyana; Hedrick, Jamie; Marland, Gregg; Tovar, Henning et al. (2020). "Rethinking standards of permanence for terrestrial and coastal carbon: implications for governance and sustainability". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 45: 69–77. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2020.09.009. Bibcode: 2020COES...45...69R.
* Samset, B. H.; Sand, M.; Smith, C. J.; Bauer, S. E. et al. (2018). "Climate Impacts From a Removal of Anthropogenic Aerosol Emissions". Geophysical Research Letters 45 (2): 1020–1029. doi:10.1002/2017GL076079. ISSN 1944-8007. PMID 32801404. PMC 7427631. Bibcode: 2018GeoRL..45.1020S. http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/126653/7/Samset_et_al-2018-Geophysical_Research_Letters.pdf.
* Sand, M.; Berntsen, T. K.; von Salzen, K.; Flanner, M. G. et al. (2015). "Response of Arctic temperature to changes in emissions of short-lived climate forcers". Nature 6 (3): 286–289. doi:10.1038/nclimate2880. Bibcode: 2016NatCC...6..286S.
* Schmidt, Gavin A.; Ruedy, Reto A.; Miller, Ron L.; Lacis, Andy A. (2010). "Attribution of the present-day total greenhouse effect". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 115 (D20): D20106. doi:10.1029/2010JD014287. ISSN 2156-2202. Bibcode: 2010JGRD..11520106S.
* Serdeczny, Olivia; Adams, Sophie; Baarsch, Florent; Coumou, Dim et al. (2016). "Climate change impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa: from physical changes to their social repercussions". Regional Environmental Change 17 (6): 1585–1600. doi:10.1007/s10113-015-0910-2. ISSN 1436-378X. https://climateanalytics.org/media/ssa_final_published.pdf.
* Sutton, Rowan T.; Dong, Buwen; Gregory, Jonathan M. (2007). "Land/sea warming ratio in response to climate change: IPCC AR4 model results and comparison with observations". Geophysical Research Letters 34 (2): L02701. doi:10.1029/2006GL028164. Bibcode: 2007GeoRL..34.2701S.
* Smale, Dan A.; Wernberg, Thomas; Oliver, Eric C. J.; Thomsen, Mads; Harvey, Ben P. (2019). "Marine heatwaves threaten global biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services". Nature Climate Change 9 (4): 306–312. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0412-1. ISSN 1758-6798. Bibcode: 2019NatCC...9..306S. https://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/en/publications/9240f4f9-512b-4185-bef0-96f370e9138b.
* Smith, Joel B.; Schneider, Stephen H.; Oppenheimer, Michael; Yohe, Gary W. et al. (2009). "Assessing dangerous climate change through an update of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 'reasons for concern'". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (11): 4133–4137. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812355106. PMID 19251662. Bibcode: 2009PNAS..106.4133S.
* Smith, N.; Leiserowitz, A. (2013). "The role of emotion in global warming policy support and opposition.". Risk Analysis 34 (5): 937–948. doi:10.1111/risa.12140. PMID 24219420.
* Stroeve, J.; Holland, Marika M.; Meier, Walt; Scambos, Ted et al. (2007). "Arctic sea ice decline: Faster than forecast". Geophysical Research Letters 34 (9): L09501. doi:10.1029/2007GL029703. Bibcode: 2007GeoRL..34.9501S.
* Storelvmo, T.; Phillips, P. C. B.; Lohmann, U.; Leirvik, T.; Wild, M. (2016). "Disentangling greenhouse warming and aerosol cooling to reveal Earth's climate sensitivity". Nature Geoscience 9 (4): 286–289. doi:10.1038/ngeo2670. ISSN 1752-0908. Bibcode: 2016NatGe...9..286S. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/410581/1/ClimSens_012116_nofigs2.pdf.
* The Cenozoic CO2 Proxy Integration Project (CenCOPIP) Consortium; Hönisch, Bärbel; Royer, Dana L.; Breecker, Daniel O.; Polissar, Pratigya J.; Bowen, Gabriel J.; Henehan, Michael J.; Cui, Ying et al. (2023). "Toward a Cenozoic history of atmospheric CO2". Science 382 (6675). doi:10.1126/science.adi5177. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 38060645. Bibcode: 2023Sci...382i5177T. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adi5177.
* Turetsky, Merritt R.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Jones, Miriam C.; Anthony, Katey Walter et al. (2019). "Permafrost collapse is accelerating carbon release". Nature 569 (7754): 32–34. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-01313-4. PMID 31040419. Bibcode: 2019Natur.569...32T.
* Turner, Monica G.; Calder, W. John; Cumming, Graeme S.; Hughes, Terry P. et al. (2020). "Climate change, ecosystems and abrupt change: science priorities". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 375 (1794). doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0105. PMID 31983326.
* Twomey, S. (1977). "The Influence of Pollution on the Shortwave Albedo of Clouds". J. Atmos. Sci. 34 (7): 1149–1152. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1977)034<1149:TIOPOT>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0469. Bibcode: 1977JAtS...34.1149T.
* Tyndall, John (1861). "On the Absorption and Radiation of Heat by Gases and Vapours, and on the Physical Connection of Radiation, Absorption, and Conduction". Philosophical Magazine. 4 22: 169–194, 273–285. http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/151/1.full.pdf+html.
* Urban, Mark C. (2015). "Accelerating extinction risk from climate change". Science 348 (6234): 571–573. doi:10.1126/science.aaa4984. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 25931559. Bibcode: 2015Sci...348..571U.
* USGCRP (2009). Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-14407-0. https://www.globalchange.gov/reports/global-climate-change-impacts-united-states. Retrieved 19 January 2024.
* USGCRP (2017). Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Global Change Research Program. pp. 1–470. doi:10.7930/J0J964J6. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/.
* Vandyck, T.; Keramidas, K.; Kitous, A.; Spadaro, J. et al. (2018). "Air quality co-benefits for human health and agriculture counterbalance costs to meet Paris Agreement pledges". Nature Communications 9 (4939): 4939. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06885-9. PMID 30467311. Bibcode: 2018NatCo...9.4939V.
* Velders, G. J. M.; Andersen, S. O. et al. (2007). "The importance of the Montreal Protocol in protecting climate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104 (12): 4814–4819. doi:10.1073/pnas.0610328104. PMID 17360370. Bibcode: 2007PNAS..104.4814V.
* Velders, G. J. M. et al. (2022). "Projections of hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) emissions and the resulting global warming based on recent trends in observed abundances and current policies". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 22 (9): 6087–6101. doi:10.5194/acp-22-6087-2022. Bibcode: 2022ACP....22.6087V. https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/22/6087/2022/acp-22-6087-2022.html.
* Wuebbles, D. J.; Easterling, D. R.; Hayhoe, K.; Knutson, T. et al. (2017). "Chapter 1: Our Globally Changing Climate". In USGCRP2017. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/downloads/CSSR_Ch1_Our_Globally_Changing_Climate.pdf.
* Walsh, John; Wuebbles, Donald; Hayhoe, Katherine; Kossin, Kossin et al. (2014). "Appendix 3: Climate Science Supplement". Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment. US National Climate Assessment. http://s3.amazonaws.com/nca2014/low/NCA3_Full_Report_Appendix_3_Climate_Science_Supplement_LowRes.pdf?download=1.
* Wang, Bin; Shugart, Herman H.; Lerdau, Manuel T. (2017). "Sensitivity of global greenhouse gas budgets to tropospheric ozone pollution mediated by the biosphere". Environmental Research Letters 12 (8): 084001. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aa7885. ISSN 1748-9326. Bibcode: 2017ERL....12h4001W.
* Watts, Nick; Amann, Markus; Arnell, Nigel; Ayeb-Karlsson, Sonja et al. (2019). "The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate". The Lancet 394 (10211): 1836–1878. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32596-6. PMID 31733928. Bibcode: 2019Lanc..394.1836W.
* Weart, Spencer (2013). "Rise of interdisciplinary research on climate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (Supplement 1): 3657–3664. doi:10.1073/pnas.1107482109. PMID 22778431.
* Wild, M.; Gilgen, Hans; Roesch, Andreas; Ohmura, Atsumu et al. (2005). "From Dimming to Brightening: Decadal Changes in Solar Radiation at Earth's Surface". Science 308 (5723): 847–850. doi:10.1126/science.1103215. PMID 15879214. Bibcode: 2005Sci...308..847W.
* Williams, Richard G; Ceppi, Paulo; Katavouta, Anna (2020). "Controls of the transient climate response to emissions by physical feedbacks, heat uptake and carbon cycling". Environmental Research Letters 15 (9): 0940c1. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab97c9. Bibcode: 2020ERL....15i40c1W.
* Wolff, Eric W.; Shepherd, John G.; Shuckburgh, Emily; Watson, Andrew J. (2015). "Feedbacks on climate in the Earth system: introduction". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 373 (2054). doi:10.1098/rsta.2014.0428. PMID 26438277. Bibcode: 2015RSPTA.37340428W.
* Young, Paul J.; Harper, Anna B.; Huntingford, Chris et al. (2021). "The Montreal Protocol protects the terrestrial carbon sink". Nature 596 (7872): 384–388. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03737-3. PMID 34408332. Bibcode: 2021Natur.596..384Y.
*   * Zeng, Ning; Yoon, Jinho (2009). "Expansion of the world's deserts due to vegetation-albedo feedback under global warming". Geophysical Research Letters 36 (17): L17401. doi:10.1029/2009GL039699. ISSN 1944-8007. Bibcode: 2009GeoRL..3617401Z.
* Zhang, Jinlun; Lindsay, Ron; Steele, Mike; Schweiger, Axel (2008). "What drove the dramatic arctic sea ice retreat during summer 2007?". Geophysical Research Letters 35 (11): 1–5. doi:10.1029/2008gl034005. Bibcode: 2008GeoRL..3511505Z.

#### Books, reports and legal documents

* "G8+5 Academies' joint statement: Climate change and the transformation of energy technologies for a low carbon future". The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. May 2009. http://www.nationalacademies.org/includes/G8+5energy-climate09.pdf.
* Archer, David; Pierrehumbert, Raymond (2013). The Warming Papers: The Scientific Foundation for the Climate Change Forecast. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-68733-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=sPY9HOfnuS0C&pg=PT10.
* Bridle, Richard; Sharma, Shruti; Mostafa, Mostafa; Geddes, Anna (June 2019). ﻿Fossil Fuel to Clean Energy Subsidy Swaps﻿ (Report). https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/fossil-fuel-clean-energy-subsidy-swap.pdf.
* Climate Focus (December 2015). "The Paris Agreement: Summary. Climate Focus Client Brief on the Paris Agreement III". https://climatefocus.com/sites/default/files/20151228 COP 21 briefing FIN.pdf.
* Conceição (2020). ﻿Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene﻿ (Report). United Nations Development Programme. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
* DeFries, Ruth et al. (September 2019). ﻿The missing economic risks in assessments of climate change impacts﻿ (Report). Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, London School of Economics and Political Science. https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/The-missing-economic-risks-in-assessments-of-climate-change-impacts-2.pdf.
* Dessler, Andrew E. and Edward A. Parson, eds. The science and politics of global climate change: A guide to the debate (Cambridge University Press, 2019).
* Dessai, Suraje (2001). "The climate regime from The Hague to Marrakech: Saving or sinking the Kyoto Protocol?". Tyndall Centre Working Paper 12. Tyndall Centre. http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/sites/default/files/wp12.pdf.
* Dunlap, Riley E.; McCright, Aaron M. (2011). "Chapter 10: Organized climate change denial". The Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society. Oxford University Press. pp. 144–160. ISBN 978-0-19-956660-0.
* Dunlap, Riley E.; McCright, Aaron M. (2015). "Chapter 10: Challenging Climate Change: The Denial Countermovement". Climate Change and Society: Sociological Perspectives. Oxford University Press. pp. 300–332. ISBN 978-0-19-935611-9.
* Ebi, Kristie L.; Balbus, John; Luber, George; Bole, Aparna; Crimmins, Allison R.; Glass, Gregory E.; Saha, Shubhayu; Shimamoto, Mark M. et al. (2018). ﻿Chapter 14: Human Health. Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: The Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II﻿ (Report). doi:10.7930/nca4.2018.ch14.
* Flavell, Alex (2014). ﻿IOM outlook on migration, environment and climate change﻿ (Report). Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Migration (IOM). ISBN 978-92-9068-703-0. OCLC 913058074. https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/mecc_outlook.pdf.
* Fleming, James Rodger (2007). The Callendar Effect: the life and work of Guy Stewart Callendar (1898–1964). Boston: American Meteorological Society. ISBN 978-1-878220-76-9.
* Flynn, C.; Yamasumi, E.; Fisher, S.; Snow, D. et al. (January 2021). ﻿Peoples' Climate Vote﻿ (Report). UNDP and University of Oxford. https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/publications/UNDP-Oxford-Peoples-Climate-Vote-Results.pdf. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
* Flynn, C.; Jardon, S. T. et al. (June 2024). ﻿Peoples' Climate Vote 2024 Results﻿ (Report). UNDP and University of Oxford. https://peoplesclimate.vote/document/Peoples_Climate_Vote_Report_2024.pdf. Retrieved 1 November 2024.
* Global Methane Initiative (2020). ﻿Global Methane Emissions and Mitigation Opportunities﻿ (Report). Global Methane Initiative. https://www.globalmethane.org/documents/gmi-mitigation-factsheet.pdf.
* Hallegatte, Stephane; Bangalore, Mook; Bonzanigo, Laura; Fay, Marianne et al. (2016). Shock Waves: Managing the Impacts of Climate Change on Poverty. Climate Change and Development. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0673-5. ISBN 978-1-4648-0674-2. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/22787/9781464806735.pdf?sequence=13&isAllowed=y.
* Haywood, Jim (2016). "Atmospheric Aerosols and Their Role in Climate Change". Climate Change. pp. 449–463. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63524-2.00027-0. ISBN 978-0-444-63524-2.
* IEA (December 2020). ﻿Energy Efficiency 2020﻿ (Report). Paris, France.
* IEA (October 2021). ﻿Net Zero By 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector﻿ (Report). Paris, France. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/deebef5d-0c34-4539-9d0c-10b13d840027/NetZeroby2050-ARoadmapfortheGlobalEnergySector_CORR.pdf. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
* IEA (October 2023). ﻿World Energy Outlook 2023﻿ (Report). Paris, France. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/26ca51d0-4a42-4649-a7c0-552d75ddf9b2/WorldEnergyOutlook2023.pdf. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
* Krogstrup, Signe; Oman, William (2019). "Macroeconomic and Financial Policies for Climate Change Mitigation". IMF Working Papers 19 (185). doi:10.5089/9781513511955.001.
* Leiserowitz, A.; Carman, J.; Buttermore, N.; Wang, X. et al. (2021). ﻿International Public Opinion on Climate Change﻿ (Report). New Haven, CT: Yale Program on Climate Change Communication and Facebook Data for Good. https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/international-climate-opinion-february-2021d.pdf. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
* Letcher, Trevor M., ed (2020). Future Energy: Improved, Sustainable and Clean Options for our Planet (Third ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-102886-5.
* Meinshausen, Malte (2019). "Implications of the Developed Scenarios for Climate Change". Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals. pp. 459–469. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2_12. ISBN 978-3-030-05842-5.
* Miller, J.; Du, L.; Kodjak, D. (2017). ﻿Impacts of World-Class Vehicle Efficiency and Emissions Regulations in Select G20 Countries﻿ (Report). Washington, D.C.: The International Council on Clean Transportation. https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_G20-briefing-paper_Jan2017_vF.pdf.
* Müller, Benito (February 2010). Copenhagen 2009: Failure or final wake-up call for our leaders? EV 49. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. p. i. ISBN 978-1-907555-04-6. https://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/EV49-Copenhagen2009Failureorfinalwake-upcallforourleaders-BenitoMuller-2010.pdf. Retrieved 18 May 2010.
* National Academies (2008). ﻿Understanding and responding to climate change: Highlights of National Academies Reports, 2008 edition﻿ (Report). National Academy of Sciences. http://dels.nas.edu/resources/static-assets/materials-based-on-reports/booklets/climate_change_2008_final.pdf. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
* National Research Council (2012). ﻿Climate Change: Evidence, Impacts, and Choices﻿ (Report). Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/download/14673. Retrieved 21 November 2023.
* Newell, Peter (14 December 2006). Climate for Change: Non-State Actors and the Global Politics of the Greenhouse. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-02123-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=ing21MGmh5UC. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
* NOAA. "January 2017 analysis from NOAA: Global and Regional Sea Level Rise Scenarios for the United States". https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/techrpt83_Global_and_Regional_SLR_Scenarios_for_the_US_final.pdf.
* Olivier, J. G. J.; Peters, J. A. H. W. (2019). Trends in global CO2 and total greenhouse gas emissions. The Hague: PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. https://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/downloads/pbl-2020-trends-in-global-co2-and-total-greenhouse-gas-emissions-2019-report_4068.pdf.
* Oreskes, Naomi (2007). "The scientific consensus on climate change: How do we know we're not wrong?". Climate Change: What It Means for Us, Our Children, and Our Grandchildren. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-54193-0.
* Oreskes, Naomi; Conway, Erik (2010). Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (first ed.). Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1-59691-610-4.
* Pew Research Center (November 2015). ﻿Global Concern about Climate Change, Broad Support for Limiting Emissions﻿ (Report). https://www.pewresearch.org/global/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/11/Pew-Research-Center-Climate-Change-Report-FINAL-November-5-2015.pdf. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
* REN21 (2020). Renewables 2020 Global Status Report. Paris: REN21 Secretariat. ISBN 978-3-948393-00-7. https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2020_full_report_en.pdf.
* Template:Citation/core
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite conference
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite conference
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite journal
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Citation
* Template:Citation
* Template:Citation
* Template:Citation
* Template:Citation
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite book

Template:Refend

#### Non-technical sources

Template:Refbegin

* Associated Press
* Template:Cite web
* BBC
* Template:Cite news
* Template:Cite web
* Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
* Template:Cite news
* Carbon Brief
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Climate.gov
* Template:Cite web
* Deutsche Welle
* Template:Cite news
* EPA
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* EUobserver
* Template:Cite web
* European Parliament
* Template:Cite web
* The Guardian
* Template:Cite news
* Template:Cite news
* Template:Cite news
* Template:Cite web
* International Energy Agency
* Template:Cite web
* NASA
* Template:Cite news
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* National Conference of State Legislators
* Template:Cite web
* National Geographic
* Template:Cite web
* National Science Digital Library
* Template:Cite web
* Natural Resources Defense Council
* Template:Cite web
* The New York Times
* Template:Cite news
* NOAA
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Our World in Data
* Template:Cite journal
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Pew Research Center
* Template:Cite web
* Politico
* Template:Cite web
* RIVM
* Template:Cite AV media
* Salon
* Template:Cite news
* ScienceBlogs
* Template:Cite news
* Scientific American
* Template:Cite magazine
* Smithsonian
* Template:Cite web
* The Sustainability Consortium
* Template:Cite web
* UNFCCC
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Union of Concerned Scientists
* Template:Cite web
* Vice
* Template:Cite news
* The Verge
* Template:Cite web
* Vox
* Template:Cite web
* World Health Organization
* Template:Cite web
* World Resources Institute
* Template:Cite journal
* Template:Cite journal
* Yale Climate Connections
* Template:Cite web

Template:Refend

## External links

Template:Scholia Template:Library resources box

* Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: IPCC (IPCC)
* UN: Climate Change (UN)
* Met Office: Climate Guide (Met Office)
* National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: Climate (NOAA)
* Royal Society. Climate change: Evidence and causes (Royal Society)

Template:Climate change Template:Human impact on the environment Template:Earth Template:Subject bar

Template:Sourceattribution

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Earth:Climate_change&oldid=4530389"