COVID-19 vaccine

Drug class

Map of countries by approval status

Approved for general use, mass vaccination underway

EUA (or equivalent) granted, mass vaccination underway

EUA granted, limited vaccination

Approved for general use, mass vaccination planned

EUA granted, mass vaccination planned

EUA pending

No data available

Clinical data
Uses| Prevent COVID-19
Common types| mRNA, viral vector
Subtypes| mRNA: Pfizer, Moderna
Viral vector: AstraZeneca, Janssen

* How COVID-19 vaccines work. The video shows the process of vaccination, from injection with RNA or viral vector vaccines, to uptake and translation, and on to immune system stimulation and effect.

COVID‑19 vaccine is a vaccine that provides immunity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2), the virus that causes COVID‑19. They reduce the severity and risk of deaths.[1][2] Many countries have implemented phased distribution plans that prioritized those at highest risk of complications, such as older people, and those at high risk of exposure and transmission, such as healthcare workers.[3]

Prior to the COVID‑19 pandemic, knowledge existed about the structure and function of coronavirus diseases like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). This knowledge accelerated the development of various vaccine platforms during early 2020.[4] The initial focus of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines was on preventing symptomatic, often severe illness.[5] On 10 January 2020, the SARS-CoV-2 genetic sequence data was shared through GISAID, and by 19 March, the global pharmaceutical industry announced a major commitment to address COVID‑19.[6] At least 20 different vaccines have been approved in at least one country as of 2022.[7]

As of 30 January 2022[update], more than 10 billion doses of COVID‑19 vaccine has been given worldwide.[8] About 61% of people have received at least one dose; however, in low income countries this is only 10%.[8] In the United States they are purchased by the government and provided for free.[9]

## Contents

* 1 Background
* 2 Medical uses
* 2.1 Effectiveness
* 2.2 Mix and match
* 2.3 Duration of immunity
* 3 Side effects
* 4 Types
* 4.1 mRNA
* 4.2 Adenovirus vector
* 4.3 Inactivated virus
* 4.4 Subunit
* 4.5 Other types
* 4.6 Formulation
* 5 History
* 5.1 Challenges
* 5.2 Organizations
* 6 Society and culture
* 6.1 Distribution
* 6.2 Access
* 6.2.1 Economics
* 6.3 Liability
* 6.4 Controversy
* 6.5 Misinformation
* 7 Research
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 Further reading
* 11.1 Vaccine protocols
* 12 External links

## Background[edit | edit source]

Part of a series on the

COVID-19 pandemic
Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each "ball" is an atom.

* COVID-19 (disease)
* SARS-CoV-2 (virus)

* Cases
* Deaths

Timeline

2019

2020

* January
* responses
* February
* responses
* March
* responses
* April
* responses
* May
* responses
* June
* responses
* July
* responses
* August
* responses
* September
* responses
* October
* responses
* November
* responses
* December
* responses

2021

* January
* responses
* February
* responses
* March
* responses
* April
* responses
* May
* responses
* June
* responses
* July
* responses
* August
* responses
* September
* responses
* October
* responses
* November
* responses
* December
* responses

2022

* January
* responses
* February
* responses
* March
* responses
* April
* responses
* May
* responses
* June
* responses
* July
* responses
* August
* responses
* September
* responses
* October
* responses
* November
* December

2023

Locations

By country and territory

* Africa
* Antarctica
* Asia
* Europe
* North America
* Oceania
* South America

By conveyance

* Cruise ships
* Naval ships

International response

* Endemic phase
* Evacuations
* Face masks
* International aid
* Origin
* Lockdowns
* by country
* Misinformation
* by governments
* Fake treatments
* Social distancing
* Software
* Travel
* United Nations
* World Health Organization
* WTO IP waiver
* Undercounting of deaths
* COVID-19 apps
* Zero-COVID

National responses

* Africa
* China
* European Union
* Germany
* Ghana
* India
* Ireland
* Netherlands
* New Zealand
* Nigeria
* Philippines
* Russia
* Sweden
* UK
* government
* US
* federal government
* Vietnam

Medical response

* Disease testing
* Breathalyzer
* Development
* Drug development
* Drug repurposing
* Public health mitigation

Vaccines

* History
* Research
* VITT
* Deployment
* Authorizations
* Operation Warp Speed
* Misinformation and hesitancy
* US
* Vaccine card
* Vaccine passports

Current vaccines

* CoronaVac
* Covaxin
* Convidecia
* Janssen
* Medigen
* Moderna
* Novavax
* Oxford–AstraZeneca
* Pfizer–BioNTech
* Sinopharm BIBP
* Sputnik V

Variants

Variants of concern

* Alpha
* Beta
* Gamma
* Delta
* Omicron

Other variants

* Epsilon
* Zeta
* Eta
* Theta
* Iota
* Kappa
* Lambda
* Mu
* Cluster 5
* Lineage B.1.617

Economic impact and recession

* Arts and culture
* Aviation
* Cannabis
* Cinema
* films
* Disney
* Fashion
* Financial markets
* Food industry
* Food security
* Journalism
* Music
* Performing arts
* Retail
* Shipping
* Television
* US
* sportscasting
* programs
* Tourism
* Video games

By country

* Canada
* India
* Ireland
* Malaysia
* New Zealand
* Russia
* UK
* US

By sport

* Association football
* Baseball
* Basketball
* Combat sports
* Cricket
* Disc golf
* Gaelic games
* Gridiron football
* Ice hockey
* Motorsport
* Rugby league

Impacts

* Animals
* Alzheimer's disease patients
* Black people
* Crime
* Death rates by country
* Disability
* Domestic violence
* Emergency evacuations
* Education
* Female
* Environment
* Hospitals
* Language
* LGBT community
* Long-term care
* Media coverage
* Mental health
* symptoms
* Migration
* Military
* Notable deaths
* Other health issues
* Politics
* diplomacy
* Popular culture
* Protests
* Pregnancy
* Prisons
* Religion
* Catholic Church
* Hajj
* Science and technology
* Social media
* Strikes
* Suicides
* Telehealth
* Xenophobia and racism

Society

* Ireland
* Malaysia
* New Zealand
* Russia
* UK
* US

* v
* t
* e

Prior to COVID‑19, a vaccine for an infectious disease had never been produced in less than several years - and no vaccine existed for preventing a coronavirus infection in humans.[10] However, vaccines have been produced against several animal diseases caused by coronaviruses, including (as of 2003) infectious bronchitis virus in birds, canine coronavirus, and feline coronavirus.[11] Previous projects to develop vaccines for viruses in the family Coronaviridae that affect humans have been aimed at severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). Vaccines against SARS[12] and MERS[13] have been tested in non-human animals.

According to studies published in 2005 and 2006, the identification and development of novel vaccines and medicines to treat SARS was a priority for governments and public health agencies around the world at that time.[14][15][16] There is no cure or protective vaccine proven to be safe and effective against SARS in humans.[17][18] There is also no proven vaccine against MERS.[19] When MERS became prevalent, it was believed that existing SARS research might provide a useful template for developing vaccines and therapeutics against a MERS-CoV infection.[17][20] As of March 2020, there was one (DNA-based) MERS vaccine which completed Phase I clinical trials in humans,[21] and three others in progress, all being viral-vectored vaccines: two adenoviral-vectored (ChAdOx1-MERS, BVRS-GamVac) and one MVA-vectored (MVA-MERS-S).[22]

Vaccines that use an inactive or weakened virus that has been grown in eggs typically take more than a decade to develop.[23][24] In contrast, mRNA is a molecule that can be made quickly, and research on mRNA to fight diseases was begun decades before the COVID‑19 pandemic by scientists such as Drew Weissman and Katalin Karikó, who tested on mice. Moderna began human testing of an mRNA vaccine in 2015.[23] Viral vector vaccines were also developed for the COVID‑19 pandemic after the technology was previously cleared for Ebola.[23]

As multiple COVID‑19 vaccines have been authorized or licensed for use, real-world vaccine effectiveness (RWE) is being assessed using case control and observational studies.[25] A study is investigating the long-lasting protection against SARS-CoV-2 provided by the mRNA vaccines.[26][27]

* COVID‑19 vaccine doses administered by continent as of Oct 11, 2021. For vaccines that require multiple doses, each individual dose is counted. As the same person may receive more than one dose, the number of doses can be higher than the number of people in the population.

* Map showing share of population fully vaccinated against COVID-19 relative to a country's total population[note 1]

## Medical uses[edit | edit source]

### Effectiveness[edit | edit source]

As of August 2021, studies reported that the COVID-19 vaccines available in the United States are "highly protective against severe illness, hospitalization, and death due to COVID-19".[28] In comparison with fully vaccinated people, the CDC reported that unvaccinated people were 5 times more likely to be infected, 10 times more likely to be hospitalized, and 11 times more likely to die.[29][30]

Another study found that unvaccinated people were six times more likely to test positive, 37 times more likely to be hospitalized, and 67 times more likely to die, compared to those who had been vaccinated.[31]

CDC reported that vaccine effectiveness fell from 91% against Alpha to 66% against Delta.[32] One expert stated that "those who are infected following vaccination are still not getting sick and not dying like was happening before vaccination."[33] By late August 2021 the Delta variant accounted for 99 percent of U.S. cases and was found to double the risk of severe illness and hospitalization for those not yet vaccinated.[34]

On 10 December 2021, the UK Health Security Agency reported that early data indicated a 20- to 40-fold reduction in neutralizing activity for Omicron by sera from Pfizer 2-dose vaccinees relative to earlier strains. After a booster dose (usually with an mRNA vaccine),[35] vaccine effectiveness against symptomatic disease was at 70%–75%, and the effectiveness against severe disease was expected to be higher.[36]

### Mix and match[edit | edit source]

According to studies, the combination of two different COVID-19 vaccines, also called cross vaccination or mix-and-match method, provides protection equivalent to that of mRNA vaccines – including protection against the Delta variant. Individuals who receive the combination of two different vaccines produce strong immune responses, with side effects no worse than those caused by standard regimens.[37]

### Duration of immunity[edit | edit source]

Available data show that fully vaccinated individuals and those previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 have a low risk of subsequent infection for at least 6 months.[38][39][40] Data are currently insufficient to determine an antibody titer threshold that indicates when an individual is protected from infection. Multiple studies show that antibody titers are associated with protection at the population level, but individual protection titers remain unknown. For some populations, such as the elderly and the immunocompromised, protection levels may be reduced after both vaccination and infection. Finally, current data suggest that the level of protection may not be the same for all variants of the virus.[38]

As new data continue to emerge,[41] recommendations will need to be updated periodically. It is important to note that at this time, there is no authorized or approved test that providers or the public can use to reliably determine if a person is protected from infection.[38]

## Side effects[edit | edit source]

Side effects associated vaccines targeting COVID‑19 are of high interest to the public.[42] All vaccines that are given via intramuscular injection, including COVID‑19 vaccines, have side effects related to the mild trauma associated with the procedure and introduction of a foreign substance into the body.[43] These include soreness, redness, rash, and inflammation at the injection site. Other common side effects include fatigue, headache, myalgia (muscle pain), and arthralgia (joint pain) which generally resolve within a few days.[44][45]

One less-frequent side effect (that generally occurs in less than 1 in 1,000 people) is hypersensitivity (allergy) to one or more of the vaccine's ingredients, which in some rare cases may cause anaphylaxis.[46][47][48][49] Anaphylaxis has occurred in approximately 2 to 5 people per million vaccinated in the United States.[50] An increased risk of rare and potentially fatal thrombosis events have been associated following the administration of the Janssen (Johnson and Johnson)[51][52] and Oxford-AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccines,[52][53][54][55] with the highest reported rate among females in their 30s and 40s. The rate of thrombosis events following vaccination with the Johnson and Johnson and AstraZeneca vaccines has been estimated at 1 case per 100,000 vaccinations compared to between 0.22 and 1.57 cases per 100,000 per year in the general population.[52] There is no increased risk for thrombotic events after vaccination with mRNA COVID‑19 vaccines like Pfizer and Moderna.[50]

## Types[edit | edit source]

Conceptual diagram showing three vaccine types for forming SARS‑CoV‑2 proteins to prompt an immune response: (1) RNA vaccine, (2) subunit vaccine, (3) viral vector vaccine Vaccine platforms being employed for SARS-CoV-2. Whole virus vaccines include both attenuated and inactivated forms of the virus. Protein and peptide subunit vaccines are usually combined with an adjuvant in order to enhance immunogenicity. The main emphasis in SARS-CoV-2 vaccine development has been on using the whole spike protein in its trimeric form, or components of it, such as the RBD region. Multiple non-replicating viral vector vaccines have been developed, particularly focused on adenovirus, while there has been less emphasis on the replicating viral vector constructs.[56]

At least nine different technology platforms are under research and development to create an effective vaccine against COVID‑19.[57][58] Most of the platforms of vaccine candidates in clinical trials are focused on the coronavirus spike protein (S protein) and its variants as the primary antigen of COVID‑19 infection,[57] since the S protein triggers strong B-cell and T-cell immune responses.[59][60] However, other coronavirus proteins are also being investigated for vaccine development, like the nucleocapsid, because they also induce a robust T-cell response and their genes are more conserved and recombine less frequently (compared to Spike).[60][61][62]

Platforms developed in 2020 involved nucleic acid technologies (nucleoside-modified messenger RNA and DNA), non-replicating viral vectors, peptides, recombinant proteins, live attenuated viruses, and inactivated viruses.[10][57][63][64]

Many vaccine technologies being developed for COVID‑19 are not like vaccines already in use to prevent influenza, but rather are using "next-generation" strategies for precise targeting of COVID‑19 infection mechanisms.[57][63][64] Several of the synthetic vaccines use a 2P mutation to lock the spike protein into its prefusion configuration, stimulating an adaptive immune response to the virus before it attaches to a human cell.[65] Vaccine platforms in development may improve flexibility for antigen manipulation, and effectiveness for targeting mechanisms of COVID‑19 infection in susceptible population subgroups, such as healthcare workers, the elderly, children, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems.[57][63]

### mRNA[edit | edit source]

Further information: mRNA vaccine

Diagram of the operation of an RNA vaccine. Messenger RNA contained in the vaccine enters cells and is translated into foreign proteins, which trigger an immune response.

Several COVID‑19 vaccines, including the Pfizer–BioNTech and Moderna vaccines, have been developed to use RNA to stimulate an immune response. When introduced into human tissue, the vaccine contains either self-replicating RNA or messenger RNA (mRNA), which both cause cells to express the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. This teaches the body how to identify and destroy the corresponding pathogen. RNA vaccines often, but not always, use nucleoside-modified messenger RNA. The delivery of mRNA is achieved by a coformulation of the molecule into lipid nanoparticles which protect the RNA strands and help their absorption into the cells.[66][67][68][69]

RNA vaccines were the first COVID‑19 vaccines to be authorized in the United Kingdom, the United States and the European Union.[70][71] Authorized vaccines of this type are the Pfizer–BioNTech[72][73][74] and Moderna vaccines.[75][76] The CVnCoV RNA vaccine from CureVac failed in clinical trials.[77]

Severe allergic reactions are rare. In December 2020, 1,893,360 first doses of Pfizer–BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine administration resulted in 175 cases of severe allergic reaction, of which 21 were anaphylaxis.[78] For 4,041,396 Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine dose administrations in December 2020 and January 2021, only ten cases of anaphylaxis were reported.[78] Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) were most likely responsible for the allergic reactions.[78]

### Adenovirus vector[edit | edit source]

These vaccines are examples of non-replicating viral vector vaccines, using an adenovirus shell containing DNA that encodes a SARS‑CoV‑2 protein.[79][80] The viral vector-based vaccines against COVID‑19 are non-replicating, meaning that they do not make new virus particles, but rather produce only the antigen which elicits a systemic immune response.[79]

Authorized vaccines of this type are the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine,[81][82][83] the Sputnik V COVID‑19 vaccine,[84] Convidecia, and the Janssen COVID‑19 vaccine.[85][86]

Convidecia and the Janssen COVID‑19 vaccine are both one-shot vaccines which offer less complicated logistics and can be stored under ordinary refrigeration for several months.[87][88]

Sputnik V uses Ad26 for its first dose, which is the same as Janssen's only dose, and Ad5 for the second dose, which is the same as Convidecia's only dose.[89]

On 11 August 2021, the developers of Sputnik V proposed, in view of the Delta case surge, that Pfizer test the Ad26 component (termed its 'Light' version)[90] as a booster shot:

> Delta cases surge in US & Israel shows mRNA vaccines need a heterogeneous booster to strengthen & prolong immune response. #SputnikV pioneered mix&match approach, combo trials & showed 83.1% efficacy vs Delta. Today RDIF offers Pfizer to start trial with Sputnik Light as booster.[91]

### Inactivated virus[edit | edit source]

Inactivated vaccines consist of virus particles that are grown in culture and then killed using a method such as heat or formaldehyde to lose disease producing capacity, while still stimulating an immune response.[92]

Authorized vaccines of this type are the Chinese CoronaVac[93][94][95] and the Sinopharm BIBP[96] and WIBP vaccines; the Indian Covaxin; later this year the Russian CoviVac;[97] the Kazakhstani vaccine QazVac;[98] and the Iranian COVIran Barekat.[99] Vaccines in clinical trials include the Valneva COVID‑19 vaccine.[100][unreliable source?][101]

### Subunit[edit | edit source]

Subunit vaccines present one or more antigens without introducing whole pathogen particles. The antigens involved are often protein subunits, but can be any molecule that is a fragment of the pathogen.[102]

The authorized vaccines of this type are the peptide vaccine EpiVacCorona,[103] ZF2001,[58] MVC-COV1901,[104] and Corbevax.[105][106] Vaccines with pending authorizations or include the Novavax COVID‑19 vaccine,[107] Soberana 02 (a conjugate vaccine), and the Sanofi–GSK vaccine.

The V451 vaccine was previously in clinical trials, which were terminated because it was found that the vaccine may potentially cause incorrect results for subsequent HIV testing.[108][109][unreliable source?]

### Other types[edit | edit source]

Additional types of vaccines that are in clinical trials include virus-like particle vaccines, multiple DNA plasmid vaccines,[110][111][112][113][114][115] at least two lentivirus vector vaccines,[116][117] a conjugate vaccine, and a vesicular stomatitis virus displaying the SARS‑CoV‑2 spike protein.[118]

Scientists investigated whether existing vaccines for unrelated conditions could prime the immune system and lessen the severity of COVID‑19 infection.[119] There is experimental evidence that the BCG vaccine for tuberculosis has non-specific effects on the immune system, but no evidence that this vaccine is effective against COVID‑19.[120]

### Formulation[edit | edit source]

As of September 2020[update], eleven of the vaccine candidates in clinical development use adjuvants to enhance immunogenicity.[57] An immunological adjuvant is a substance formulated with a vaccine to elevate the immune response to an antigen, such as the COVID‑19 virus or influenza virus.[121] Specifically, an adjuvant may be used in formulating a COVID‑19 vaccine candidate to boost its immunogenicity and efficacy to reduce or prevent COVID‑19 infection in vaccinated individuals.[121][122] Adjuvants used in COVID‑19 vaccine formulation may be particularly effective for technologies using the inactivated COVID‑19 virus and recombinant protein-based or vector-based vaccines.[122] Aluminum salts, known as "alum", were the first adjuvant used for licensed vaccines, and are the adjuvant of choice in some 80% of adjuvanted vaccines.[122] The alum adjuvant initiates diverse molecular and cellular mechanisms to enhance immunogenicity, including release of proinflammatory cytokines.[121][122]

In November 2021, the full nucleotide sequences of the AstraZeneca and Pfizer/BioNTech vaccines were released by the UK Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, in response to a freedom of information request.[123]

## History[edit | edit source]

Main article: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

Since January 2020, vaccine development has been expedited via unprecedented collaboration in the multinational pharmaceutical industry and between governments.[57]

Multiple steps along the entire development path are evaluated, including:[10][124]

* the level of acceptable toxicity of the vaccine (its safety),
* targeting vulnerable populations,
* the need for vaccine efficacy breakthroughs,
* the duration of vaccination protection,
* special delivery systems (such as oral or nasal, rather than by injection),
* dose regimen,
* stability and storage characteristics,
* emergency use authorization before formal licensing,
* optimal manufacturing for scaling to billions of doses, and
* dissemination of the licensed vaccine.

### Challenges[edit | edit source]

There have been several unique challenges with COVID‑19 vaccine development.

The urgency to create a vaccine for COVID‑19 led to compressed schedules that shortened the standard vaccine development timeline, in some cases combining clinical trial steps over months, a process typically conducted sequentially over several years.[125] Public health programs have been described as in "[a] race to vaccinate individuals" with the early wave vaccines.[126]

Timelines for conducting clinical research - normally a sequential process requiring years - are being compressed into safety, efficacy, and dosing trials running simultaneously over months, potentially compromising safety assurance.[125][127] As an example, Chinese vaccine developers and the government Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention began their efforts in January 2020,[128] and by March were pursuing numerous candidates on short timelines, with the goal to showcase Chinese technology strengths over those of the United States, and to reassure the Chinese people about the quality of vaccines produced in China.[125][129]

The rapid development and urgency of producing a vaccine for the COVID‑19 pandemic was expected to increase the risks and failure rate of delivering a safe, effective vaccine.[63][64][130] Additionally, research at universities is obstructed by physical distancing and closing of laboratories.[131][132]

Vaccines must progress through several phases of clinical trials to test for safety, immunogenicity, effectiveness, dose levels and adverse effects of the candidate vaccine.[133][134] Vaccine developers have to invest resources internationally to find enough participants for Phase II–III clinical trials when the virus has proved to be a "moving target" of changing transmission rates across and within countries, forcing companies to compete for trial participants.[135] Clinical trial organizers also may encounter people unwilling to be vaccinated due to vaccine hesitancy[136] or disbelief in the science of the vaccine technology and its ability to prevent infection.[137] As new vaccines are developed during the COVID‑19 pandemic, licensure of COVID‑19 vaccine candidates requires submission of a full dossier of information on development and manufacturing quality.[138][139][140]

### Organizations[edit | edit source]

Internationally, the Access to COVID‑19 Tools Accelerator is a G20 and World Health Organization (WHO) initiative announced in April 2020.[141][142] It is a cross-discipline support structure to enable partners to share resources and knowledge. It comprises four pillars, each managed by two to three collaborating partners: Vaccines (also called "COVAX"), Diagnostics, Therapeutics, and Health Systems Connector.[143] The WHO's April 2020 "R&D Blueprint (for the) novel Coronavirus" documented a "large, international, multi-site, individually randomized controlled clinical trial" to allow "the concurrent evaluation of the benefits and risks of each promising candidate vaccine within 3–6 months of it being made available for the trial." The WHO vaccine coalition will prioritize which vaccines should go into Phase II and III clinical trials, and determine harmonized Phase III protocols for all vaccines achieving the pivotal trial stage.[144]

National governments have also been involved in vaccine development. Canada announced funding of 96 projects for development and production of vaccines at Canadian companies and universities with plans to establish a "vaccine bank" that could be used if another coronavirus outbreak occurs,[145] and to support clinical trials and develop manufacturing and supply chains for vaccines.[146]

China provided low-rate loans to one vaccine developer through its central bank, and "quickly made land available for the company" to build production plants.[127] Three Chinese vaccine companies and research institutes are supported by the government for financing research, conducting clinical trials, and manufacturing.[147]

The United Kingdom government formed a COVID‑19 vaccine task force in April 2020 to stimulate local efforts for accelerated development of a vaccine through collaborations of industry, universities, and government agencies. The UK's Vaccine Taskforce contributed to every phase of development from research to manufacturing.[148]

In the United States, the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA), a federal agency funding disease-fighting technology, announced investments to support American COVID‑19 vaccine development, and manufacture of the most promising candidates.[127][149] In May 2020, the government announced funding for a fast-track program called Operation Warp Speed.[150][151] By March 2021, BARDA had funded an estimated $19.3 billion in COVID‑19 vaccine development.[152]

Large pharmaceutical companies with experience in making vaccines at scale, including Johnson & Johnson, AstraZeneca, and GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), formed alliances with biotechnology companies, governments, and universities to accelerate progression toward effective vaccines.[127][125]

## Society and culture[edit | edit source]

### Distribution[edit | edit source]

Main article: Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines

Note about table to the right: Number and percentage of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID‑19 vaccine (unless noted otherwise). May include vaccination of non-citizens, which can push totals beyond 100% of the local population. Table is updated daily by a bot.[note 2]

* v
* t
* e

[expand]

[collapse]

Updated June 12, 2024.

Template:Import-blanktable

COVID-19 vaccine distribution by country[153] | Location  | Vaccinated[lower-alpha 1] | Percent[lower-alpha 2]

|
|
|

| World[lower-alpha 3][lower-alpha 4] | 5,631,262,611  | 70.61%
| China[lower-alpha 5] | 1,310,292,000  | 91.89%
| India | 1,027,438,694  | 72.50%
| European Union[lower-alpha 6] | 338,119,454  | 75.11%
| United States[lower-alpha 7] | 270,227,181  | 81.39%
| Indonesia | 203,878,473  | 74.00%
| Brazil | 189,643,431  | 88.08%
| Pakistan | 165,567,890  | 70.21%
| Bangladesh | 151,507,162  | 88.50%
| Japan | 104,705,133  | 84.47%
| Mexico | 97,179,493  | 76.22%
| Nigeria | 92,261,510  | 42.22%
| Vietnam | 90,272,853  | 91.94%
| Russia | 89,081,596  | 61.56%
| Philippines | 78,484,848  | 67.92%
| Iran | 65,199,831  | 73.63%
| Germany | 64,876,299  | 77.82%
| Turkey | 57,941,051  | 67.89%
| Thailand | 57,005,497  | 79.62%
| Egypt | 56,907,319  | 51.27%
| France | 54,677,678  | 80.63%
| United Kingdom | 53,806,963  | 79.97%
| Italy[lower-alpha 8] | 50,936,719  | 86.28%
| South Korea | 44,784,499  | 86.43%
| Ethiopia | 44,073,766  | 35.72%
| Colombia | 43,012,174  | 82.92%
| Argentina | 41,529,058  | 91.25%
| Spain | 41,351,234  | 86.95%
| Myanmar | 34,777,314  | 64.64%
| Canada | 34,763,194  | 90.40%
| Tanzania | 34,434,933  | 52.57%
| Peru | 30,563,708  | 89.76%
| Malaysia | 28,138,232  | 82.91%
Template:Country data Nepal | Nepal | 27,883,196  | 91.28%
| Saudi Arabia | 27,041,364  | 74.27%
| Morocco | 25,020,168  | 66.80%
| South Africa | 24,209,938  | 40.42%
| Poland | 22,877,472  | 57.40%
| Mozambique | 22,869,646  | 69.37%
| Australia | 22,236,698  | 84.95%
| Venezuela | 22,157,232  | 78.29%
| Taiwan | 21,899,240  | 91.65%
| Uzbekistan | 21,674,823  | 62.59%
| Uganda | 19,488,104  | 41.25%
| Afghanistan | 18,896,999  | 45.95%
| Chile | 18,088,517  | 92.27%
| Sri Lanka | 17,143,761  | 78.53%
| Angola | 16,522,932  | 46.43%
| Ukraine | 15,729,617  | 36.19%
| Democratic Republic of the Congo | 15,388,889  | 15.54%
| Ecuador | 15,333,873  | 85.18%
| Cambodia | 15,315,251  | 91.34%
| Sudan | 15,207,452  | 32.44%
| Kenya | 14,494,372  | 26.83%
| Ivory Coast | 13,568,372  | 48.18%
| Ghana | 13,221,421  | 39.50%
| Netherlands | 12,596,446  | 71.72%
| Zambia | 11,637,730  | 58.14%
| Iraq | 11,332,925  | 25.47%
| Kazakhstan | 10,858,101  | 55.98%
| Cuba | 10,805,570  | 96.37%
| Rwanda | 10,572,981  | 76.75%
| United Arab Emirates | 9,991,089  | 100.00%
| Portugal | 9,791,341  | 95.33%
| Belgium | 9,267,479  | 79.51%
| Somalia | 8,972,167  | 50.99%
| Guatemala | 8,933,623  | 50.07%
| Romania | 8,187,976  | 41.65%
| Greece | 7,937,992  | 76.44%
| Algeria | 7,840,131  | 17.75%
| Sweden | 7,775,726  | 73.71%
Template:Country data Guinea | Guinea | 7,679,918  | 55.41%
Template:Country data Dominican Republic | Dominican Republic | 7,367,193  | 65.61%
| Bolivia | 7,361,008  | 60.94%
| Tunisia | 7,218,871  | 58.42%
| Czech Republic | 6,981,982  | 66.53%
| Hong Kong | 6,919,667  | 92.40%
| Austria | 6,899,873  | 77.18%
| Israel | 6,723,119  | 71.15%
| Honduras | 6,596,213  | 63.23%
| Belarus | 6,527,591  | 68.46%
Template:Country data Zimbabwe | Zimbabwe | 6,437,808  | 40.25%
| Hungary | 6,420,813  | 64.42%
Template:Country data Nicaragua | Nicaragua | 6,260,823  | 90.10%
Template:Country data Chad | Chad | 6,254,729  | 35.29%
| Niger | 6,217,508  | 23.72%
| Switzerland | 6,096,911  | 69.75%
| Burkina Faso | 6,089,089  | 26.86%
Template:Country data Laos | Laos | 5,888,649  | 79.31%
| Azerbaijan | 5,373,253  | 52.10%
Template:Country data Malawi | Malawi | 5,343,858  | 26.19%
Template:Country data Tajikistan | Tajikistan | 5,282,863  | 54.18%
Template:Country data Sierra Leone | Sierra Leone | 5,252,127  | 61.03%
| Singapore | 5,160,551  | 91.55%
| Jordan | 4,821,579  | 43.25%
| Denmark | 4,752,101  | 80.79%
| El Salvador | 4,652,597  | 73.69%
| Costa Rica | 4,641,899  | 89.60%
| Finland | 4,524,288  | 81.65%
| Mali | 4,354,292  | 19.27%
| Norway | 4,346,995  | 79.99%
| New Zealand | 4,301,605  | 82.96%
Template:Country data South Sudan | South Sudan | 4,287,160  | 39.28%
| Republic of Ireland | 4,112,237  | 81.87%
| Paraguay | 3,993,938  | 58.90%
Template:Country data Liberia | Liberia | 3,825,381  | 72.14%
Template:Country data Cameroon | Cameroon | 3,753,733  | 13.45%
Template:Country data Benin | Benin | 3,697,190  | 27.69%
| Panama | 3,533,477  | 80.15%
| Kuwait | 3,457,498  | 80.99%
| Serbia | 3,354,075  | 48.81%
| Syria | 3,295,630  | 14.90%
| Oman | 3,257,365  | 71.18%
| Uruguay | 3,010,451  | 87.95%
| Qatar | 2,852,178  | 105.83%
| Slovakia | 2,822,919  | 51.82%
| Lebanon | 2,740,227  | 49.92%
Template:Country data Madagascar | Madagascar | 2,700,391  | 9.12%
| Senegal | 2,684,696  | 15.50%
Template:Country data Central African Republic | Central African Republic | 2,600,389  | 46.61%
| Croatia | 2,323,025  | 57.64%
| Libya | 2,316,327  | 34.00%
| Mongolia | 2,272,965  | 68.27%
Template:Country data Togo | Togo | 2,255,579  | 25.49%
| Bulgaria | 2,108,377  | 31.09%
| Mauritania | 2,103,754  | 44.42%
| Palestine | 2,012,767  | 38.34%
| Lithuania | 1,958,288  | 71.21%
Template:Country data Botswana | Botswana | 1,951,054  | 74.18%
| Kyrgyzstan | 1,736,541  | 26.19%
| Georgia | 1,654,504  | 44.03%
| Albania | 1,348,396  | 47.44%
| Latvia | 1,346,184  | 71.84%
| Slovenia | 1,265,802  | 59.72%
| Bahrain | 1,241,174  | 84.31%
Template:Country data Mauritius | Mauritius | 1,123,773  | 86.48%
| Armenia | 1,122,040  | 40.35%
| Moldova | 1,108,879  | 33.88%
| Yemen | 1,050,112  | 3.12%
| Lesotho | 1,014,073  | 43.98%
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | 943,394  | 28.91%
Template:Country data Gambia | Gambia | 934,799  | 34.55%
| Kosovo | 906,858  | 50.89%

1. REDIRECT Template:Country data East Timor

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* To a country data template: This is a redirect from an alias for that country data template. See Template:Country showdata § Redirect aliases for more information.

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|

Timor-Leste | 886,838  | 66.12%
| Estonia | 870,180  | 65.62%
| Jamaica | 859,773  | 30.41%
| North Macedonia | 854,570  | 40.82%
| Trinidad and Tobago | 753,588  | 49.39%
Template:Country data Guinea-Bissau | Guinea-Bissau | 747,057  | 35.48%
| Fiji | 712,025  | 76.58%
| Bhutan | 699,116  | 89.35%
Template:Country data Republic of the Congo | Republic of the Congo | 695,760  | 11.92%
Template:Country data Macau | Macau | 679,703  | 97.77%
| Cyprus | 670,969  | 74.88%
| Namibia | 629,767  | 24.53%
Template:Country data Eswatini | Eswatini | 526,050  | 43.78%
Template:Country data Haiti | Haiti | 521,396  | 4.50%
Template:Country data Guyana | Guyana | 495,285  | 61.24%
| Luxembourg | 481,957  | 74.42%
Template:Country data Malta | Malta | 478,953  | 89.81%
Template:Country data Brunei | Brunei | 451,149  | 100.48%
Template:Country data Comoros | Comoros | 438,825  | 53.41%
Template:Country data Djibouti | Djibouti | 421,573  | 37.61%
Template:Country data Maldives | Maldives | 399,308  | 76.23%
| Papua New Guinea | 382,020  | 3.77%

1. REDIRECT Template:Country data Cape Verde

| Cabo Verde | 356,734  | 60.68%
Template:Country data Solomon Islands | Solomon Islands | 343,821  | 47.47%
| Gabon | 311,040  | 13.02%
| Iceland | 309,770  | 84.00%
| Northern Cyprus | 301,673  | 78.80%
| Montenegro | 292,783  | 46.63%
| Equatorial Guinea | 270,109  | 16.53%
Template:Country data Suriname | Suriname | 267,820  | 45.26%
Template:Country data Belize | Belize | 258,473  | 63.78%
Template:Country data New Caledonia | New Caledonia | 192,375  | 66.35%
Template:Country data Samoa | Samoa | 191,403  | 86.07%
Template:Country data French Polynesia | French Polynesia | 190,908  | 62.33%
Template:Country data Vanuatu | Vanuatu | 176,624  | 54.06%
Template:Country data Bahamas | Bahamas | 174,810  | 42.64%
Template:Country data Barbados | Barbados | 163,846  | 58.17%
Template:Country data Sao Tome and Principe | Sao Tome and Principe | 140,256  | 61.68%
Template:Country data Curaçao | Curaçao | 108,601  | 56.81%
Template:Country data Kiribati | Kiribati | 100,900  | 76.88%
Template:Country data Aruba | Aruba | 90,546  | 85.05%
Template:Country data Seychelles | Seychelles | 88,520  | 82.62%
Template:Country data Tonga | Tonga | 87,342  | 81.73%
Template:Country data Jersey | Jersey | 84,365  | 76.14%
Template:Country data Isle of Man | Isle of Man | 69,560  | 81.44%
Template:Country data Antigua and Barbuda | Antigua and Barbuda | 64,290  | 68.97%
| Cayman Islands | 62,023  | 90.25%
| Saint Lucia | 60,140  | 33.43%
Template:Country data Andorra | Andorra | 57,901  | 72.52%
Template:Country data Guernsey | Guernsey | 54,223  | 85.62%
Template:Country data Bermuda | Bermuda | 48,554  | 75.65%
| Grenada | 44,241  | 35.26%
Template:Country data Gibraltar | Gibraltar | 42,175  | 129.07%
Template:Country data Faroe Islands | Faroe Islands | 41,715  | 85.04%
Template:Country data Greenland | Greenland | 41,243  | 72.52%
Template:Country data Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 37,527  | 36.10%
Template:Country data Burundi | Burundi | 36,909  | 0.29%
Template:Country data Saint Kitts and Nevis | Saint Kitts and Nevis | 33,794  | 70.88%
Template:Country data Dominica | Dominica | 32,995  | 45.57%
Template:Country data Turks and Caicos Islands | Turks and Caicos Islands | 32,815  | 71.76%
| Turkmenistan | 32,240  | 0.53%
| Sint Maarten | 29,788  | 67.41%
Template:Country data Liechtenstein | Liechtenstein | 26,771  | 68.02%
Template:Country data Monaco | Monaco | 26,672  | 67.49%
Template:Country data San Marino | San Marino | 26,357  | 77.50%
Template:Country data British Virgin Islands | British Virgin Islands | 19,466  | 62.55%
| Caribbean Netherlands | 19,109  | 72.26%
Template:Country data Cook Islands | Cook Islands | 15,112  | 88.73%
Template:Country data Nauru | Nauru | 13,106  | 103.27%
Template:Country data Anguilla | Anguilla | 10,854  | 68.36%
Template:Country data Wallis and Futuna | Wallis and Futuna | 7,150  | 61.66%
Template:Country data Tuvalu | Tuvalu | 6,368  | 53.40%
| Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha | 4,361  | 71.83%
| Falkland Islands | 2,632  | 75.57%
| Tokelau | 2,203  | 116.38%
Template:Country data Montserrat | Montserrat | 2,104  | 47.68%
| Niue | 1,650  | 102.23%
| Pitcairn Islands | 47  | 100.00%
| North Korea | 0  | 0.00%

1. ↑ Number of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine (unless noted otherwise).
2. ↑ Percentage of population that has received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine. May include vaccination of non-citizens, which can push totals beyond 100% of the local population.
3. ↑ Countries which do not report data for a column are not included in that column's world total.
4. ↑ Vaccination note: Countries which do not report the number of people who have received at least one dose are not included in the world total.
5. ↑ Does not include special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau) or Taiwan.
6. ↑ Data on member states of the European Union are individually listed, but are also summed here for convenience. They are not double-counted in world totals.
7. ↑ Vaccination note: Includes Freely Associated States
8. ↑ Vaccination note: Includes Vatican City

As of 25 January 2022[update], 9.87 billion COVID-19 vaccine doses have been administered worldwide, with 60.5 percent of the global population having received at least one dose. While 27.83 million vaccines were then being administered daily, only 9.5 percent of people in low-income countries had received at least a first vaccine by January 2022, according to official reports from national health agencies, which are collated by Our World in Data.[154]

During a pandemic on the rapid timeline and scale of COVID-19 cases in 2020, international organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) and Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), vaccine developers, governments, and industry evaluated the distribution of the eventual vaccine(s).[144] Individual countries producing a vaccine may be persuaded to favor the highest bidder for manufacturing or provide first-service to their own country.[10][155][156][127] Experts emphasize that licensed vaccines should be available and affordable for people at the frontline of healthcare and having the greatest need.[10][155][127]

In April 2020, it was reported that the UK agreed to work with 20 other countries and global organizations including France, Germany and Italy to find a vaccine and to share the results, and that UK citizens would not get preferential access to any new COVID‑19 vaccines developed by taxpayer-funded UK universities.[157] Several companies planned to initially manufacture a vaccine at artificially low pricing, then increase prices for profitability later if annual vaccinations are needed and as countries build stock for future needs.[127]

An April 2020 CEPI report stated: "Strong international coordination and cooperation between vaccine developers, regulators, policymakers, funders, public health bodies, and governments will be needed to ensure that promising late-stage vaccine candidates can be manufactured in sufficient quantities and equitably supplied to all affected areas, particularly low-resource regions."[63] The WHO and CEPI are developing financial resources and guidelines for global deployment of several safe, effective COVID‑19 vaccines, recognizing the need is different across countries and population segments.[144][158][159][160][excessive citations] For example, successful COVID‑19 vaccines would be allocated early to healthcare personnel and populations at greatest risk of severe illness and death from COVID‑19 infection, such as the elderly or densely-populated impoverished people.[161][162]

The WHO had set out the target to vaccinate 40% of the population of all countries by the end-2021 and 70% by mid-2022,[163] but many countries missed the 40% target at the end of 2021.[164][165]

* Share of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine relative to a country's total population. Date is on the map. Commons source.

* COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people by country. Date is on the map. Commons source.

### Access[edit | edit source]

Further information: Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines § Equitable access

Production of Sputnik V vaccine in Brazil, January 2021. An elderly man receiving second dose of CoronaVac vaccine in Brazil, April 2021.

Countries have extremely unequal access to the COVID-19 vaccine. Vaccine equity has not been achieved, or even approximated. The inequity has harmed both countries with poor access and countries with good access.[166]

Nations pledged to buy doses of the COVID‑19 vaccine before the doses were available. Though high-income nations represent only 14% of the global population, as of 15 November 2020, they had contracted to buy 51% of all pre-sold doses. Some high-income nations bought more doses than would be necessary to vaccinate their entire populations.[167]

On 18 January 2021, WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus warned of problems with equitable distribution: "More than 39 million doses of vaccine have now been administered in at least 49 higher-income countries. Just 25 doses have been given in one lowest-income country. Not 25 million; not 25 thousand; just 25."[168]

In March, it was revealed the US attempted to convince Brazil not to purchase the Sputnik V COVID‑19 vaccine, fearing "Russian influence" in Latin America.[169] Some nations involved in long-standing territorial disputes have reportedly had their access to vaccines blocked by competing nations; Palestine has accused Israel of blocking vaccine delivery to Gaza, while Taiwan has suggested that China has hampered its efforts to procure vaccine doses.[170][171][172]

A single dose of the COVID‑19 vaccine by AstraZeneca would cost 47 Egyptian pounds (EGP), and the authorities are selling it between 100 and 200 EGP. A report by Carnegie Endowment for International Peace cited the poverty rate in Egypt as around 29.7 percent, which constitutes approximately 30.5 million people, and claimed that about 15 million of the Egyptians would be unable to gain access to the luxury of vaccination. A human rights lawyer, Khaled Ali, launched a lawsuit against the government, forcing them to provide vaccination free of cost to all members of the public.[173]

According to immunologist Dr. Anthony Fauci, mutant strains of the virus and limited vaccine distribution pose continuing risks and he said: "we have to get the entire world vaccinated, not just our own country."[174] Edward Bergmark and Arick Wierson are calling for a global vaccination effort and wrote that the wealthier nations' "me-first" mentality could ultimately backfire because the spread of the virus in poorer countries would lead to more variants, against which the vaccines could be less effective.[175]

On 10 March 2021, the United States, Britain, European Union member states and some other members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) blocked a push by more than eighty developing countries to waive COVID‑19 vaccine patent rights in an effort to boost production of vaccines for poor nations.[176] On 5 May 2021, the US government under President Joe Biden announced that it supports waiving intellectual property protections for COVID‑19 vaccines.[177] The Members of the European Parliament have backed a motion demanding the temporary lifting of intellectual properties rights for COVID‑19 vaccines.[178]

COVID‑19 mass vaccination queue in Finland, June 2021. A drive-through COVID‑19 vaccination center in Iran, August 2021.

In a meeting in April 2021, the World Health Organization's emergency committee addressed concerns of persistent inequity in the global vaccine distribution.[179] Although 9 percent of the world's population lives in the 29 poorest countries, these countries had received only 0.3% of all vaccines administered as of May 2021.[180] On 15 March, Brazilian journalism agency Agência Pública reported that the country vaccinated about twice as many people who declare themselves white than black and noted that mortality from COVID‑19 is higher in the black population.[181]

In May 2021, UNICEF made an urgent appeal to industrialised nations to pool their excess COVID‑19 vaccine capacity to make up for a 125-million-dose gap in the COVAX program. The program mostly relied on the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine produced by Serum Institute of India, which faced serious supply problems due to increased domestic vaccine needs in India from March to June 2021. Only a limited amount of vaccines can be distributed efficiently, and the shortfall of vaccines in South America and parts of Asia are due to a lack of expedient donations by richer nations. International aid organisations have pointed at Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Maldives as well as Argentina and Brazil, and some parts of the Caribbean as problem areas, where vaccines are in short supply. In mid-May 2021, UNICEF was also critical of the fact that most proposed donations of Moderna and Pfizer vaccines were not slated for delivery until the second half of 2021, or early in 2022.[182]

On 1 July 2021, the heads of the World Bank Group, the International Monetary Fund, the World Health Organization, and the World Trade Organization said in a joint statement: "As many countries are struggling with new variants and a third wave of COVID‑19 infections, accelerating access to vaccines becomes even more critical to ending the pandemic everywhere and achieving broad-based growth. We are deeply concerned about the limited vaccines, therapeutics, diagnostics, and support for deliveries available to developing countries."[183][184] In July 2021, The BMJ reported that countries have thrown out over 250,000 vaccine doses as supply exceeded demand and strict laws prevented the sharing of vaccines.[185] A survey by The New York Times found that over a million doses of vaccine had been thrown away in ten U.S. states because federal regulations prohibit recalling them, preventing their redistribution abroad.[186] Furthermore, doses donated close to expiration often cannot be administered quickly enough by recipient countries and end up having to be discarded.[187]

Amnesty International and Oxfam International have criticized the support of vaccine monopolies by the governments of producing countries, noting that this is dramatically increasing the dose price by five times and often much more, creating an economic barrier to access for poor countries.[188][189] Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors without Borders) has also criticized vaccine monopolies and repeatedly called from their suspension, supporting the TRIPS Waiver. The waiver was first proposed in October 2020, and has support from most countries, but delayed by opposition from EU (especially Germany - major EU countries such as France, Italy and Spain support the exemption),[190] UK, Norway, and Switzerland, among others. MSF called for a Day of Action in September 2021 to put pressure on the WTO Minister's meeting in November, which is expected to discuss the TRIPS IP waiver.[191][192][193]

Inside of a vaccination center in Brussels, Belgium, February 2021.

On 4 August 2021, to reduce unequal distribution between rich and poor countries, the WHO called for a moratorium on a booster dose at least until the end of September. However, on 18 August, the United States government announced plans to offer booster doses 8 months after the initial course to the general population, starting with priority groups. Before the announcement, the WHO harshly criticized this type of decision, citing the lack of evidence for the need for boosters, except for patients with specific conditions. At this time, vaccine coverage of at least one dose was 58% in high-income countries and only 1.3% in low-income countries, and 1.14 million Americans already received an unauthorized booster dose. US officials argued that waning efficacy against mild and moderate disease might indicate reduced protection against severe disease in the coming months. Israel, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom have also started planning boosters for specific groups.[194][195][196] On 14 September 2021, more than 140 former world leaders, and Nobel laureates, including former President of France François Hollande, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Gordon Brown, former Prime Minister of New Zealand Helen Clark, and Professor Joseph Stiglitz, called on the candidates to be the next German chancellor to declare themselves in favour of waiving intellectual property rules for COVID‑19 vaccines and transferring vaccine technologies.[197] In November 2021, nursing unions in 28 countries have filed a formal appeal with the United Nations over the refusal of the UK, EU, Norway, Switzerland, and Singapore to temporarily waive patents for Covid vaccines.[198]

During his first international trip, President of Peru Pedro Castillo spoke at the seventy-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly on 21 September 2021, proposing the creation of an international treaty signed by world leaders and pharmaceutical companies to guarantee universal vaccine access, arguing "The battle against the pandemic has shown us the failure of the international community to cooperate under the principle of solidarity".[199][200]

Optimizing the societal benefit of vaccination may benefit from a strategy that is tailored to the state of the pandemic, the demographics of a country, the age of the recipients, the availability of vaccines, and the individual risk for severe disease: In the UK, the interval between prime and boost dose was extended to vaccinate as many persons as early as possible,[201] many countries are starting to give an additional booster shot to the immunosuppressed[202][203] and the elderly,[204] and research predicts an additional benefit of personalizing vaccine dose in the setting of limited vaccine availability when a wave of virus Variants of Concern hits a country.[205]

While vaccines substantially reduce the probability of infection, it is still possible for fully vaccinated people to contract and spread COVID‑19.[206] Public health agencies have recommended that vaccinated people continue using preventive measures (wear face masks, social distance, wash hands) to avoid infecting others, especially vulnerable people, particularly in areas with high community spread. Governments have indicated that such recommendations will be reduced as vaccination rates increase and community spread declines.[207]

#### Economics[edit | edit source]

> Moreover, an unequal distribution of vaccines will deepen inequality and exaggerate the gap between rich and poor and will reverse decades of hard-won progress on human development.
>  — United Nations, COVID vaccines: Widening inequality and millions vulnerable[208]

Vaccine inequity damages the global economy, disrupting the global supply chain.[166] Most vaccines were being reserved for wealthy countries, as of September 2021[update],[208] some of which have more vaccine than is needed to fully vaccinate their populations.[167] When people, undervaccinated, needlessly die, suffer disability, and live under lockdown restrictions, they cannot supply the same goods and services. This harms the economies of undervaccinated and overvaccinated countries alike. Since rich countries have larger economies, rich countries may lose more money to vaccine inequity than poor ones,[166] though the poor ones will lose a higher percentage of GDP and suffer longer-term effects.[209] High-income countries would profit an estimated US$4.80 for every $1 spent on giving vaccines to lower-income countries.[166]

The International Monetary Fund sees the vaccine divide between rich and poor nations as a serious obstacle to a global economic recovery.[210] Vaccine inequity disproportionately affects refuge-providing states, as they tend to be poorer, and refugees and displaced people are economically more vulnerable even within those low-income states, so they have suffered more economically from vaccine inequity.[211]

### Liability[edit | edit source]

Several governments agreed to shield pharmaceutical companies like Pfizer and Moderna from negligence claims related to COVID‑19 vaccines (and treatments), as in previous pandemics, when governments also took on liability for such claims.

In the US, these liability shields took effect on 4 February 2020, when the US Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar published a notice of declaration under the Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act (PREP Act) for medical countermeasures against COVID‑19, covering "any vaccine, used to treat, diagnose, cure, prevent, or mitigate COVID‑19, or the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 or a virus mutating therefrom". The declaration precludes "liability claims alleging negligence by a manufacturer in creating a vaccine, or negligence by a health care provider in prescribing the wrong dose, absent willful misconduct." In other words, absent "willful misconduct", these companies can not be sued for money damages for any injuries that occur between 2020 and 2024 from the administration of vaccines and treatments related to COVID‑19.[212] The declaration is effective in the United States through 1 October 2024.[212]

In December 2020, the UK government granted Pfizer legal indemnity for its COVID‑19 vaccine.[213]

In the European Union, the COVID‑19 vaccines are licensed under a Conditional Marketing Authorisation which does not exempt manufacturers from civil and administrative liability claims.[214] While the purchasing contracts with vaccine manufacturers remain secret, they do not contain liability exemptions even for side-effects not known at the time of licensure.[215]

The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, a nonprofit news organization, reported in an investigation that unnamed officials in some countries, such as Argentina and Brazil, said that Pfizer demanded guarantees against costs of legal cases due to adverse effects in the form of liability waivers and sovereign assets such as federal bank reserves, embassy buildings or military bases, going beyond the expected from other countries such as the US.[216] During the pandemic parliamentary inquiry in Brazil, Pfizer's representative said that its terms for Brazil are the same as for all other countries with which it has signed deals.[217]

### Controversy[edit | edit source]

In June 2021, a report revealed that the UB-612 vaccine, developed by the US-based COVAXX, was a venture initiated for profits by the Blackwater founder Erik Prince. In a series of text messages to Paul Behrends, the close associate recruited for the COVAXX project, Prince described the profit-making possibilities in selling the COVID‑19 vaccines. COVAXX provided no data from the clinical trials on safety or efficacy. The responsibility of creating distribution networks was assigned to an Abu Dhabi-based entity, which was mentioned as "Windward Capital" on the COVAXX letterhead but was actually Windward Holdings. The firm's sole shareholder, which handled "professional, scientific and technical activities", was Erik Prince. In March 2021, COVAXX raised $1.35 billion in a private placement.[218]

### Misinformation[edit | edit source]

A protest against COVID‑19 vaccination in London, United Kingdom

Anti-vaccination activists and other people in many countries have spread a variety of unfounded conspiracy theories and other misinformation about COVID-19 vaccines based on misunderstood or misrepresented science, religion, exaggerated claims about side effects, a story about COVID-19 being spread by 5G, misrepresentations about how the immune system works and when and how COVID-19 vaccines are made, and other false or distorted information. This misinformation has proliferated and made many people averse to vaccination.[219] This has led to governments and private organisations around the world introducing measures to encourage vaccination such as lotteries,[220] mandates[221] and free entry to events,[222] which has in turn led to further misinformation about the legality and effect of these measures themselves.[223] In January 2022, a systematic review and meta-analysis concluded that nocebo responses accounted for 72% after the first COVID-19 vaccine dose and 52% after the second dose.[224][225][226]

## Research[edit | edit source]

Main article: COVID-19 vaccine clinical research

Further information: COVID-19 vaccine

COVID-19 vaccine clinical research uses clinical research to establish the characteristics of COVID-19 vaccines. These characteristics include efficacy, effectiveness and safety. Thirty vaccines are authorized for use by national governments, including eight approved for emergency or full use by at least one WHO-recognised stringent regulatory authority; while five are in Phase IV. 204 vaccines are undergoing clinical trials that have yet to be authorized. Nine clinical trials consider heterologous vaccination courses.

Thirty vaccines are authorized by at least one national regulatory authority for public use:[227][228]

As of July 2021, 330 vaccine candidates were in various stages of development, with 102 in clinical research, including 30 in Phase I trials, 30 in Phase I–II trials, 25 in Phase III trials, and 8 in Phase IV development.[227]

## See also[edit | edit source]

* 2009 swine flu pandemic vaccine
* COVID‑19 drug development
* COVID-19 vaccine clinical research: Effectiveness
* COVID‑19 drug repurposing research
* COVID‑19 vaccine card
* Universal coronavirus vaccine
* Vaccine passports during the COVID‑19 pandemic
* List of COVID-19 vaccine authorizations

## Notes[edit | edit source]

1. ↑ Our World in Data (OWID) vaccination maps. Click on the download tab to download the map. The table tab has a table of the exact data by country. The source tab says the data is from verifiable public official sources Archived 2021-12-21 at the Wayback Machine collated by Our World in Data. The map at the source is interactive and provides more detail. Run your cursor over the color bar legend to see the countries that apply to that point in the legend. There is an OWID vaccination info FAQ Archived 2021-03-10 at the Wayback Machine.
2. ↑ The table data is automatically updated daily by a bot; see Template:COVID-19 data for more information. Scroll down past the table to find the documentation and the main reference. See also: Category:Automatically updated COVID-19 pandemic table templates.

## References[edit | edit source]

1. ↑ Vergano D (5 June 2021). "COVID-19 Vaccines Work Way Better Than We Had Ever Expected. Scientists Are Still Figuring Out Why". BuzzFeed News. Archived from the original on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021.
2. ↑ Mallapaty S, Callaway E, Kozlov M, Ledford H, Pickrell J, Van Noorden R (16 December 2021). "How COVID vaccines shaped 2021 in eight powerful charts". Nature. 600 (7890): 580–583. Bibcode:2021Natur.600..580M. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-03686-x. PMID 34916666. S2CID 245262732.
3. ↑ Beaumont P (18 November 2020). "Covid-19 vaccine: who are countries prioritising for first doses?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
4. ↑ Li YD, Chi WY, Su JH, Ferrall L, Hung CF, Wu TC (December 2020). "Coronavirus vaccine development: from SARS and MERS to COVID-19". Journal of Biomedical Science. 27 (1): 104. doi:10.1186/s12929-020-00695-2. PMC 7749790. PMID 33341119.
5. ↑ Subbarao K (July 2021). "The success of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and challenges ahead". Cell Host & Microbe. 29 (7): 1111–1123. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2021.06.016. PMC 8279572. PMID 34265245.
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## Further reading[edit | edit source]

* Krause PR, Fleming TR, Longini IM, Peto R, Briand S, Heymann DL, et al. (July 2021). "SARS-CoV-2 Variants and Vaccines". N Engl J Med. 385 (2): 179–186. doi:10.1056/NEJMsr2105280. PMC 8262623. PMID 34161052.
* Kyriakidis NC, López-Cortés A, González EV, Grimaldos AB, Prado EO (February 2021). "SARS-CoV-2 vaccines strategies: a comprehensive review of phase 3 candidates". NPJ Vaccines. 6 (1): 28. doi:10.1038/s41541-021-00292-w. PMC 7900244. PMID 33619260.
* Ramsay M, ed. (2020). "Chapter 14a: COVID-19". Immunisation against infectious disease. Public Health England. Archived from the original on 2019-11-12. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* Development and Licensure of Vaccines to Prevent COVID-19: Guidance for Industry (PDF) (Report). U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). June 2020. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2022-01-26.

### Vaccine protocols[edit | edit source]

* "Protocol mRNA-1273-P301" (PDF). Moderna. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-09-28. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* "Protocol C4591001 PF-07302048 (BNT162 RNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccines)" (PDF). Pfizer. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
* "Protocol AZD1222 – D8110C00001" (PDF). AstraZeneca. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-09-28. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* "Protocol VAC31518COV3001; Phase 3 (Ensemble)" (PDF). Janssen Vaccines & Prevention. Archived from the original on 2021-02-02. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* "Protocol VAC31518COV3009; Phase 3 (Ensemble 2)" (PDF). Janssen Vaccines & Prevention. Archived from the original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* "Protocol VAT00008 – Study of Monovalent and Bivalent Recombinant Protein Vaccines against COVID-19 in Adults 18 Years of Age and Older Protocol" (PDF). Sanofi Pasteur. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-07-23. Retrieved 2022-01-26.

## External links[edit | edit source]

| Wikiquote has quotations related to: COVID-19 vaccine

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* "The different types of COVID-19 vaccines". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 2021-02-16. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* "COVID-19 vaccine tracker and landscape". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 2020-10-11. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* COVID‑19 Vaccine Tracker Archived 2020-03-23 at the Wayback Machine. Regulatory Affairs Professionals Society (RAPS)
* "STAT's Covid-19 Drugs and Vaccines Tracker". Stat. 27 April 2020. Archived from the original on 27 April 2020. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
* "COVID-19 vaccines: development, evaluation, approval and monitoring". European Medicines Agency (EMA). Archived from the original on 2021-02-26. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* "Vaccine Development – 101". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 27 August 2021. Archived from the original on 12 November 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
* "Tracking Omicron and Other Coronavirus Variants". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2021-11-30. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* M.I.T. Lecture 10: Kizzmekia Corbett, Vaccines on YouTube
* M.I.T. Lecture 12: Dan Barouch, Covid-19 Vaccine Development on YouTube
* "COVID-19 vaccines: research and development". European Medicines Agency (EMA). Archived from the original on 2021-11-11. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* "The 5 Stages of COVID-19 Vaccine Development: What You Need to Know About How a Clinical Trial Works". Johnson & Johnson. 23 September 2020. Archived from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
* "How patent laws get in the way of the global coronavirus vaccine rollout". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 2021-11-14. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* "A New Entry in the Race for a Coronavirus Vaccine: Hope". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2020-05-20. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* "Halting Progress and Happy Accidents: How mRNA Vaccines Were Made". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-01-19. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* "Coronavirus vaccine – weekly summary of Yellow Card reporting". Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). Archived from the original on 2021-05-20. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
* "Joint Statement from HHS Public Health and Medical Experts on COVID-19 Booster Shots". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 18 August 2021. Archived from the original on 10 November 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2022.

* v
* t
* e

COVID-19 pandemic

* COVID-19 (disease)
* SARS-CoV-2 (virus)

Timeline

| Pre-pandemic|

* Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
* Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)
* Crimson Contagion
* Disease X
* Event 201
* Exercise Cygnus
* 2019

|

2020|

* January
* responses
* February
* responses
* March
* responses
* April
* responses
* May
* responses
* June
* responses
* July
* responses
* August
* responses
* September
* responses
* October
* responses
* November
* responses
* December
* responses

2021|

* January
* responses
* February
* responses
* March
* responses
* April
* responses
* May
* responses
* June
* responses
* July
* responses
* August
* responses
* September
* responses
* October
* responses
* November
* responses
* December
* responses

2022|

* January
* responses
* February
* responses
* March
* responses
* April
* responses
* May
* responses
* June
* responses
* July
* responses
* August
* responses
* September
* responses
* October
* responses
* November
* December

2023 and after|

* 2023
* 2024

Locations

* Africa
* Asia
* Europe
* North America
* Oceania
* South America
* Antarctica
* Cruise ships
* Naval ships

Impact

| Culture and
entertainment|

| Arts and
cultural heritage|

* References in popular culture
* Cinema
* films affected
* Corona-chan
* Disney
* Fashion industry
* Music industry
* Performing arts
* Television
* U.S.
* U.S. sports
* programs affected
* Video games

|

Education|

* Female education
* Homeschooling

By country|

* Ghana
* Ireland
* United Kingdom
* exam grading controversy
* United States

Sports|

* Bio-secure bubble

By country|

* Ireland
* Philippines

By sport|

* Association football
* Baseball
* Basketball
* NBA
* Combat sports
* Cricket
* Disc golf
* Gaelic games
* Gridirion football (NCAAF, NFL, and CFL)
* Ice hockey
* Motorsport
* Rugby league

Society
and rights|

| Social impact|

* Social media
* Stigma
* COVID-19 parties
* Children
* foster care in the U.S.
* Pandemic baking

|

Labor|

* Healthcare workers
* Indian migrant workers
* Great Resignation
* Strikes

Human rights|

* Argentina
* Hong Kong
* Myanmar
* North Korea
* Turkmenistan

Legal|

* Abortion in the U.S.
* Crime
* Domestic violence
* Prisons
* U.S. immigration detention

Minority|

* Gender
* LGBT community
* African communities
* Disability community
* Native American communities
* Xenophobia and racism

Religion|

* Catholic Church
* Hajj

Economic|

* Charitable activity
* COVID-19 scams
* Travel restrictions

By country|

* Canada
* India
* Ireland
* COVID-19 Pandemic Unemployment Payment
* Malaysia
* New Zealand
* Russia
* U.K.
* U.S.

By industry|

* Aviation
* Airlines
* Cannabis industry
* Food industry
* meat industry in Canada
* meat industry in the U.S.
* restaurant industry in the U.S.
* Hospitals
* ICU capacity
* Long-term care facilities
* Mink farming
* Public transport
* Retail
* Tourism

Supply and trade|

* Shortages
* Chip supply
* Energy
* Global supply chain
* Oil price war
* Food security

Financial markets|

* Global stock market crash
* COVID-19 recession
* Inflation

Information|

* Journalism
* Media coverage
* Wikipedia's response

Misinformation|

* Governments
* China
* United States
* By country
* Canada
* Philippines
* Ivermectin
* Plandemic

Politics|

* National responses
* Legislation
* European Union

Political impact|

* Ireland
* Malaysia
* Russia

Protests|

* Abkhazia
* Argentina
* Australia
* Convoy to Canberra
* Azerbaijan
* Belarus
* Belgium
* Brazil
* 2020 protests
* 2021 protests
* Bulgaria
* Canada
* convoy protest
* Chile
* China
* Beijing Sitong Bridge protest
* healthcare reform protests
* Colombia
* 2021 protests
* 2022 protests
* Cuba
* France
* Yellow vests protests
* labor protests
* French West Indies social unrest
* convoy protest
* Germany
* Idar-Oberstein shooting
* Greece
* Israel
* protests against Benjamin Netanyahu
* Italy
* Mongolia
* Netherlands
* curfew riots
* New Zealand
* Wellington protest
* Paraguay
* Serbia
* Tunisia
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Open the States

International relations|

* Aid
* Italy
* Moldovan–Romanian collaboration
* Nicaragua–Taiwan relations
* Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan
* Vaccine diplomacy

Language|

* Anthropause
* Doomscrolling
* Flattening the curve
* Green recovery
* Long COVID
* Quarantini
* Social distancing
* Superspreader
* Twindemic
* Zero-COVID
* Zoom
* Zoom towns

Others|

* Animals
* Cluster 5
* Environment
* Military
* Pregnant women
* Science and technology

Health issues

| Medical topics|

* Transmission
* Symptoms
* Cancer
* Endemic COVID-19
* Skin manifestations
* Long COVID
* Mental health
* neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes
* Pregnancy
* Non-COVID-19–related health issues
* Shortages
* Raise the line
* Rehabilitation
* Unproven medical methods

|

Testing and
epidemiology|

* Datasets
* Death rates by country
* Disease testing
* Breathalyzer
* Operation Moonshot
* Test to Release
* UK Rapid Test Consortium
* AbC-19 rapid antibody test
* investigations into the origins
* lab leak theory
* Rapid antigen test
* Software
* Surveillance
* Undercounting COVID-19 deaths

Apps|

* Aarogya Setu
* BlueTrace
* careFIJI
* Coronavirus Australia
* Corona-Warn-App
* COVID-19 Contact-Confirming Application
* COVID Alert (Canada)
* COVID AlertSA (South Africa)
* COVIDSafe
* COVID Tracker Ireland
* Covid Watch
* Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing
* Exposure Notification
* Health Code
* Healthy Together
* Immuni
* Koronavilkku
* LeaveHomeSafe
* MySejahtera
* NHS COVID-19
* NZ COVID Tracer
* NZ Pass Verifier
* PathCheck
* PeduliLindungi
* SafeEntry
* SafePass
* StaySafe.ph
* SwissCovid
* TCN Protocol
* Test, Trace, Protect
* Thai Chana
* TousAntiCovid
* TraceTogether
* Valtrace
* Zoe Health Study

Prevention|

* Air purifier (Corsi–Rosenthal Box)
* Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine
* COVID fatigue
* Evacuations
* Face masks
* Anti-mask sentiment
* United States
* Flattening the curve
* Great Barrington Declaration
* International aid
* Lockdowns
* Public health mitigation
* Safe Hands Challenge
* Social distancing
* Workplace hazard controls
* Zero-COVID

Vaccines|

| Topics|

* Authorizations
* Clinical research
* Deployment
* Development
* EU Certificate
* Misinformation and hesitancy
* Deaths of anti-vaccine advocates
* US
* Operation Warp Speed (U.S.)
* Post-vaccination complications
* Vaccine card
* Vaccine passports

|

Authorized|

| DNA|

* ZyCoV-D

|

Inactivated|

* Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences
* CoronaVac
* Covaxin
* COVIran Barekat
* CoviVac (Russia)
* FAKHRAVAC
* Minhai
* QazCovid-in
* Sinopharm BIBP
* Sinopharm WIBP
* Turkovac
* Valneva

mRNA|

* Moderna
* Pfizer–BioNTech

Subunit|

* Abdala
* Corbevax (Bio E COVID-19)
* COVAX-19
* EpiVacCorona
* IndoVac
* MVC
* Noora
* Novavax
* Razi Cov Pars
* Sinopharm CNBG
* Soberana 02
* Soberana Plus
* ZF2001 (Zifivax)

Viral vector|

* Convidecia
* Janssen
* Oxford–AstraZeneca
* Sputnik V
* Sputnik Light

Virus-like particles|

* CoVLP

In trials|

| Attenuated|

* COVI-VAC (United States)

|

DNA|

* AG0302-COVID‑19
* GX-19
* Inovio

Inactivated|

* KD-414
* NDV-HXP-S

RNA|

* ARCT-021
* ARCT-154
* Bangavax
* CureVac (terminated)
* HGC019
* mRNA-1283
* PTX-COVID19-B
* Sanofi–Translate Bio (terminated)
* Stemirna COVID-19 vaccine
* Walvax

Subunit|

* 202-CoV
* AKS-452
* EuCorVac-19
* IVX-411
* Nanocovax
* ReCOV
* Sanofi–GSK
* S-268019
* SCB-2019
* SCTV01C
* Skycovione
* UB-612
* V-01
* V451 (terminated)
* Vabiotech
* West China Hospital
* Zhongyianke Biotech–Liaoning Maokangyuan Biotech

Viral vector|

* AdCLD-CoV19
* BriLife
* COH04S1
* DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT
* GRAd-COV2
* ImmunityBio
* iNCOVACC
* INNA-051
* NDV-HXP-S
* Vaxart COVID-19 vaccine

Virus-like particles|

* ABNCoV2
* LYB001
* MigVax-101
* VBI-2902

Deployment
by location|

| Africa|

* Algeria
* Angola
* Benin
* Botswana
* Burkina Faso
* Burundi
* Cameroon
* Cape Verde
* Cameroon
* Chad
* Comoros
* Democratic Republic of the Congo
* Djibouti
* Egypt
* Equatorial Guinea
* Eswatini
* Ghana
* Morocco
* Nigeria
* Senegal
* South Africa
* Zimbabwe

|

Asia|

* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* Mainland China
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Israel
* Japan
* Kazakhstan
* Malaysia
* Nepal
* Philippines
* Russia
* Singapore
* South Korea
* Sri Lanka
* Taiwan
* Thailand
* Turkey
* United Arab Emirates
* Vietnam

Europe|

* Albania
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Denmark
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Iceland
* Ireland
* Italy
* Moldova
* Norway
* Portugal
* Romania
* Russia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom

North America|

* Canada
* Ontario
* Quebec
* Cuba
* Haiti
* Mexico
* United States
* mandates

Oceania|

* Australia
* Fiji
* New Zealand

South America|

* Argentina
* Brazil
* Colombia
* Peru

Others|

* Antarctica

Treatment|

* Drug development
* Drug repurposing research
* Baricitinib
* Dexamethasone
* Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation
* Open-source ventilator
* PANORAMIC trial (UK)
* RECOVERY Trial (UK)
* Solidarity trial (WHO)

Monoclonal antibodies|

* Bamlanivimab/etesevimab
* Bamlanivimab
* Etesevimab
* Bebtelovimab
* Casirivimab/imdevimab
* Regdanvimab
* Sarilumab
* Sotrovimab
* Tixagevimab/cilgavimab
* Tocilizumab

Small molecule antivirals|

* Broad-spectrum
* Ensitrelvir
* Molnupiravir
* Remdesivir
* Co-packaged
* Nirmatrelvir
* ritonavir

Variants

| Specific|

* Alpha
* Beta
* Gamma
* Delta
* Epsilon
* Zeta
* Eta
* Theta
* Iota
* Kappa
* Lambda
* Mu
* Omicron
* timeline

|

General|

* Cluster 5
* Lineage B.1.617
* Lineage B.1.640.2
* Variant of concern

Institutions

| Hospitals and
medical clinics|

| Mainland China|

* Central Hospital of Wuhan
* Dabie Mountain Regional Medical Centre
* Fangcang hospitals
* Huoshenshan Hospital
* Leishenshan Hospital
* Xinjia Express Hotel
* Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital

|

Others|

* Hospital ships
* Garran Surge Centre (Australia)
* Hospital El Salvador
* SevenHills Hospital (India)
* Kemayoran Athletes Village (Indonesia)
* Pyongyang General Hospital (North Korea)
* Malaysia Agro Exposition Park Serdang (Malaysia)
* Mega Ligtas COVID Centers (Philippines)
* Kandakadu Treatment and Rehabilitation Centre (Sri Lanka)
* Sancaktepe Prof. Dr. Feriha Öz Emergency Hospital (Turkey)
* Yeşilköy Prof. Dr. Murat Dilmener Emergency Hospital (Turkey)
* COVID-19 hospitals in the United Kingdom
* NHS Nightingale Hospitals (England)
* Birmingham
* London
* North East
* North West
* Yorkshire and the Humber
* NHS Louisa Jordan (Scotland)
* Dragon's Heart Hospital (Wales)

Organizations|

| Global|

|

By location|

* National Cabinet (Australia)
* ScienceUpFirst (Canada)
* Wuhan Institute of Virology (China)
* Independent SAGE (United Kingdom)

Health
institutes|

* Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (African Union)
* Ghana Infectious Disease Centre (Ghana)
* Department of Health (Hong Kong)
* Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency (South Korea)
* National Institute for Communicable Diseases (South Africa)
* Taiwan Centers for Disease Control (Taiwan)

Pandemic
institutes|

* National COVID-19 Commission Advisory Board (Australia)
* COVID-19 Immunity Task Force (Canada)
* COVID-19 Supply Council (Canada)
* PREPARE (European Union)
* National Expert Group on Vaccine Administration for COVID-19 (India)
* COVID-19 Response Acceleration Task Force (Indonesia)
* National Public Health Emergency Team (Ireland)
* Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting (Japan)
* Crisis Preparedness and Response Centre (Malaysia)
* Defeat COVID-19 Ad Hoc Committee (Philippines)
* Inter-Agency Task Force for the Management of Emerging Infectious Diseases (Philippines)
* Central Epidemic Command Center (Taiwan)
* Coronavirus Scientific Advisory Board (Turkey)
* COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium (United Kingdom)
* Imperial College COVID-19 Response Team (United Kingdom)
* Joint Biosecurity Centre (United Kingdom)
* Vaccine Taskforce (United Kingdom)
* COVID-19 Advisory Board (United States)
* Great American Economic Revival Industry Groups (United States)
* White House Coronavirus Task Force (United States)
* White House COVID-19 Response Team (United States)
* GACH (Uruguay)

Relief funds|

* PM CARES Fund (India)
* SAARC COVID-19 Emergency Fund (India)
* Artist Relief (United States)

People

| Medical
professionals|

* Ai Fen
* Corona Rintawan
* Li Wenliang
* Liu Wen
* Xie Linka
* Zhang Wenhong

|

Researchers|

* Awang Bulgiba Awang Mahmud
* Roberto Burioni
* Chen Wei
* Kizzmekia Corbett
* Andrea Crisanti
* Peter Daszak
* Christian Drosten
* Neil Ferguson
* Dale Fisher
* George F. Gao
* Azra Ghani
* Sarah Gilbert
* Guan Yi
* Kentaro Iwata
* Katalin Karikó
* Matt Keeling
* Trudie Lang
* Li Lanjuan
* W. Ian Lipkin
* Ma Xiaowei
* Shabir Madhi
* Allison McGeer
* Camilla Rothe
* Shi Zhengli
* Moncef Slaoui
* Mike Tildesley
* John Todd
* Wang Chen
* Wang Guangfa
* Drew Weissman
* Yuen Kwok-yung
* Zeng Guang
* Zhang Jixian
* Zhang Yongzhen
* Zhong Nanshan

Officials|

| WHO|

* Tedros Adhanom (Director-General of the WHO)
* Bruce Aylward (Team lead of WHO-China COVID-19 mission)
* Maria Van Kerkhove (Technical Lead for COVID-19 response)
* Michael J. Ryan (Executive Director of the WHO Health Emergencies Programme)

|

By location|

* Frank Atherton (Wales)
* Ashley Bloomfield (New Zealand)
* Catherine Calderwood (Scotland)
* Chang Shan-chwen (Taiwan)
* Anutin Charnvirakul (Thailand)
* Chen Shih-chung (Taiwan)
* Kenneth Chuang Yin-ching (Taiwan)
* Victor Costache (Romania)
* Fabrizio Curcio (Italy)
* Carmen Deseda (Puerto Rico)
* Jaap van Dissel (the Netherlands)
* Christian Drosten (Germany)
* Francisco Duque III (Philippines)
* Anthony Fauci (United States)
* Francesco Paolo Figliuolo (Italy)
* Graça Freitas (Portugal)
* Henrique Gouveia e Melo (Portugal)
* Matt Hancock (United Kingdom)
* Hamad Hasan (Lebanon)
* Greg Hunt (Australia)
* Tony Holohan (Ireland)
* Jeong Eun-kyeong (South Korea)
* Fahrettin Koca (Turkey)
* Li Keqiang (China)
* Hugo López-Gatell Ramírez (Mexico)
* Michael McBride (Northern Ireland)
* Oriol Mitjà (Andorra)
* Zweli Mkhize (South Africa)
* Doni Monardo (Indonesia)
* Alma Möller (Iceland)
* Saeed Namaki (Iran)
* Ala Nemerenco (Moldova)
* Nguyễn Thanh Long (Vietnam)
* Noor Hisham Abdullah (Malaysia)
* Ali Pilli (Northern Cyprus)
* Daniel Salinas (Uruguay)
* Jérôme Salomon (France)
* Fernando Simón (Spain)
* Gregor Smith (Scotland)
* Su Ih-jen (Taiwan)
* Łukasz Szumowski (Poland)
* Theresa Tam (Canada)
* Anders Tegnell (Sweden)
* Þórólfur Guðnason (Iceland)
* Sotiris Tsiodras (Greece)
* Harsh Vardhan (India)
* Víðir Reynisson (Iceland)
* Carla Vizzotti (Argentina)
* Vlad Voiculescu (Romania)
* Chris Whitty (United Kingdom)
* Lawrence Wong (Singapore)
* Jeff Zients (United States)

Others|

* Chen Qiushi
* Brett Crozier
* Fang Bin
* Fang Fang
* Joseph Ashitey Hammond
* Li Zehua
* Captain Tom Moore
* Qiu Menghuang
* Ren Zhiqiang

Deaths|

* List

Data (templates)

* Cases, deaths, recoveries by country
* WHO situation reports
* cases
* January 2020
* February 2020
* March 2020
* April 2020
* May 2020
* June 2020
* July 2020
* August 2020
* September 2020
* October 2020
* November 2020
* December 2020
* January 2021
* February 2021
* March 2021
* April 2021
* May 2021
* June 2021
* July 2021
* August 2021
* deaths
* World map by countries: confirmed per capita
* Hospital beds by country
* Lockdowns

* v
* t
* e

Artificial induction of immunity / Immunization: Vaccines, Vaccination, Infection, Inoculation (J07)

Development|

* Adjuvants
* Vaccine ingredients (List)
* Mathematical modelling
* Storage
* Timeline
* Trials

Classes|

* Conjugate vaccine
* Inactivated vaccine
* Live vaccine
* Attenuated vaccine
* Heterologous vaccine
* Subunit/component / Peptide / Virus-like particle / Synthetic
* DNA / RNA
* Toxoid

Administration|

* Global:
* GAVI Alliance
* NITAG
* Policy
* Schedule
* Vaccine injury
* US:
* ACIP
* Vaccine court
* Vaccines for Children Program
* VAERS
* VSD

Vaccines|

| Bacterial|

* Anthrax
* Brucellosis
* Cholera#
* Diphtheria#
* Hib#
* Leptospirosis
* Lyme disease‡
* Meningococcus#
* MeNZB
* NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135
* Pertussis#
* Plague
* Pneumococcal#
* PCV
* PPSV
* Q fever
* Tetanus#
* Tuberculosis
* BCG#
* Typhoid#
* Ty21a
* ViCPS
* Typhus
* combination:
* DPT/DTwP/DTaP
* Td/Tdap
* research:
* Clostridioides difficile
* Group B streptococcal disease
* Shigellosis

|

Viral|

* Adenovirus
* Ebola
* rVSV-ZEBOV
* Flu#
* H1N1 (Pandemrix)
* H5N1
* LAIV
* Hantavirus
* Hepatitis A#
* Hepatitis B#
* Hepatitis E
* HPV
* Cervarix
* Gardasil
* Japanese encephalitis#
* Measles#
* Mumps#
* Mumpsvax
* Polio#
* Sabin
* Salk
* Rabies#
* Rotavirus#
* Rubella#
* SARS-CoV-2
* Bharat Biotech†
* CanSino†
* CoronaVac†
* EpiVacCorona†
* Johnson & Johnson†
* Moderna†
* Oxford–AstraZeneca†
* Pfizer–BioNTech†
* Sinopharm†
* Sputnik V†
* Smallpox
* Dryvax
* Tick-borne encephalitis
* Varicella zoster
* Chicken pox#
* Shingles
* Yellow fever#
* combination:
* Hepatitis A and B
* MMR
* MMRV
* research:
* Chikungunya
* Cytomegalovirus
* Dengue
* Epstein–Barr virus
* Hepatitis C
* Herpes simplex
* HIV
* Respiratory syncytial virus
* Zika

Protozoan|

* Malaria
* RTS,S
* research:
* Trypanosomiasis

Helminthiasis|

* research:
* Hookworm
* Schistosomiasis

Other|

* Androvax (androstenedione albumin)
* Cancer vaccines
* ALVAC-CEA
* BCG#
* Hepatitis B#
* HPV
* Cervarix
* Gardasil
* Prostvac
* NicVAX
* Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin)
* TA-CD
* TA-NIC
* combination:
* DTaP-IPV/Hib
* DTaP-IPV-HepB
* Hexavalent vaccine
* Pentavalent vaccine

Inventors/researchers|

* Edward Jenner
* Louis Pasteur
* Hilary Koprowski
* Jonas Salk
* John Franklin Enders
* Maurice Hilleman
* Stanley Plotkin
* H. Fred Clark
* Paul Offit
* Anthony Fauci

Controversy|

* General
* MMR (Lancet MMR autism fraud)
* NCVIA
* Infection party
* Pox
* Flu
* CoV
* Thiomersal
* Vaccines and SIDS
* Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services
* Alternative vaccination schedule

Related|

* Epidemiology
* Eradication of infectious diseases
* Every Child by Two
* List of vaccine topics

* #WHO-EM
* ‡Withdrawn from market
* Clinical trials:
* †Phase III
* §Never to phase III

*[EUA]: emergency use authorization
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