Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage

Short description: none

Example of BECCS: Diagram of bioenergy power plant with carbon capture and storage.[1]

Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) is the process of extracting bioenergy from biomass and capturing and storing the carbon dioxide (CO2) that is produced.

Greenhouse gas emissions from bioenergy can be low because when vegetation is harvested for bioenergy, new vegetation can grow that will absorb CO2 from the air through photosynthesis.[2] After the biomass is harvested, energy ("bioenergy") is extracted in useful forms (electricity, heat, biofuels, etc.) as the biomass is utilized through combustion, fermentation, pyrolysis or other conversion methods.[3] Using bioenergy releases CO2. In BECCS, some of the CO2 is captured before it enters the atmosphere, and stored underground using carbon capture and storage technology.[4] Under some conditions, BECCS can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.[4]

The potential range of negative emissions from BECCS was estimated to be zero to 22 gigatonnes per year.[5] As of 2024, there are large-scale 3 BECCS projects operating in the world.[6] Wide deployment of BECCS is constrained by cost and availability of biomass.[7][8] Since biomass production is land-intensive, deployment of BECCS can pose major risks to food production, human rights, and biodiversity.[9]

## Contents

* 1 Negative emission
* 2 Cost
* 3 Technology
* 3.1 Oxy-combustion
* 3.2 Pre-combustion
* 3.3 Post-combustion
* 4 Biomass feedstocks
* 5 Projects and commercial plants
* 5.1 At ethanol plants
* 6 Challenges
* 6.1 Environmental considerations
* 6.2 Technical challenges
* 7 Alternative biomass sources
* 7.1 Agricultural and forestry residues
* 7.2 Municipal solid waste
* 7.3 Co-firing coal with biomass
* 8 Policy
* 8.1 European Union
* 8.2 United Kingdom
* 8.3 United States
* 9 Public perception
* 10 See also
* 11 References

## Negative emission

See also: Physics:Carbon sink and Carbon dioxide removal

Carbon flow schematic for different energy systems.

The main appeal of BECCS is in its ability to result in negative emissions of CO2. The capture of carbon dioxide from bioenergy sources effectively removes CO2 from the atmosphere.[10][11]

Bioenergy is derived from biomass which is a renewable energy source and serves as a carbon sink during its growth. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology is to intercept the release of CO2 released from the combustion of biofuels and redirect it into semi-permanent storage locations such as geological storage locations[12][13] or concrete.[14][15] The result is a net removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into sequestration sites.[16] In practice, the net effects of sequestration can be reduced as a result of emissions from biomass transport, from energy use in the process, and from emissions from cultivation of biomass.[17] Not all BECCS involves the capture of biogenic CO2 released from combustion. CO2 can also be capture from non-combustion biogenic sources such as the kraft pulping process or that is separated in the upgrading of biogas and ethanol. [18]

BECCS technologies trap carbon dioxide in geologic formations in a semi-permanent way, allowing the cultivation of biomass to be used to capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Duration of storage varies by the method used. Storage in natural reservoirs has a release fraction on the order of 10-7/year while storage in depleted natural gas wells has a release fraction on the order of 10-4-10-6/year.[19] In 2005, the IPCC estimated that BECCS technology would provide a "better permanence" by storing CO2 in geological formations underground, relative to other types of carbon sinks. Carbon sinks such as the ocean, trees, and soil involve a risk of adverse climate change feedback at increased temperatures.[20][21]

Decreasing the concentration CO2 in the atmosphere through absorption by conventional sinks such as trees and soil alone will be to reach low emission targets.[22] In addition to the presently accumulated emissions, there will be significant additional emissions during this century, even in the most ambitious low-emission scenarios. BECCS and Direct Air Carbon Capture are the only two methods of creating negative emissions that could reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[23][24][22][25][26] This implies that the emissions would not only be zero, but negative, so that not only the emissions, but the absolute amount of CO2 in the atmosphere would be reduced.

## Cost

Cost estimates for BECCS range from $60-$250 per ton of CO2.[27]

It was estimated that electrogeochemical methods of combining saline water electrolysis with mineral weathering powered by non-fossil fuel-derived electricity could, on average, increase both energy generation and CO2 removal by more than 50 times relative to BECCS, at equivalent or even lower cost, but further research is needed to develop such methods.[28]

## Technology

Main article: Physics:Carbon capture and storage

The main technology for CO2 capture from biotic sources generally employs the same technology as carbon dioxide capture from conventional fossil fuel sources.[29] Broadly, three different types of technologies exist: post-combustion, pre-combustion, and oxy-fuel combustion.[30]

### Oxy-combustion

See also: Physics:Oxy-fuel combustion process

Overview of oxy-fuel combustion for carbon capture from biomass, showing the key processes and stages; some purification is also likely to be required at the dehydration stage.[31]

Oxy-fuel combustion has been a common process in the glass, cement and steel industries. It is also a promising technological approach for CCS. In oxy-fuel combustion, the main difference from conventional air firing is that the fuel is burned in a mixture of O2 and recycled flue gas. The O2 is produced by an air separation unit (ASU), which removes the atmospheric N2 from the oxidizer stream. By removing the N2 upstream of the process, a flue gas with a high concentration of CO2 and water vapor is produced, which eliminates the need for a post-combustion capture plant. The water vapor can be removed by condensation, leaving a product stream of relatively high-purity CO2 which, after subsequent purification and dehydration, can be pumped to a geological storage site.[31]

Key challenges of BECCS implementation using oxy-combustion are associated with the combustion process. For the high volatile content biomass, the mill temperature has to be kept at a low temperature to reduce the risk of fire and explosion. In addition, the flame temperature is lower. Therefore, the concentration of oxygen needs to be increased up to 27-30%.[31]

### Pre-combustion

"Pre-combustion carbon capture" describes processes that capture CO2 before generating energy. This is often accomplished in five operating stages: oxygen generation, syngas generation, CO2 separation, CO2 compression, and power generation. The fuel first goes through a gasification process by reacting with oxygen to form a stream of CO and H2, which is syngas. The products will then go through a water-gas shift reactor to form CO2 and H2. The CO2 that is produced will then be captured, and the H2, which is a clean source, will be used for combustion to generate energy.[32] The process of gasification combined with syngas production is called Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC). An Air Separation Unit (ASU) can serve as the oxygen source, but some research has found that with the same flue gas, oxygen gasification is only slightly better than air gasification. Both have a thermal efficiency of roughly 70% using coal as the fuel source.[31] Thus, the use of an ASU is not really necessary in pre-combustion.

Biomass is considered "sulfur-free" as a fuel for the pre-combustion capture. However, there are other trace elements in biomass combustion such as K and Na that could accumulate in the system and finally cause the degradation of the mechanical parts.[31] Thus, further developments of the separation techniques for those trace elements are needed. And also, after the gasification process, CO2 takes up to 13% - 15.3% by mass in the syngas stream for biomass sources, while it is only 1.7% - 4.4% for coal.[31] This limit the conversion of CO to CO2 in the water gas shift, and the production rate for H2 will decrease accordingly. However, the thermal efficiency of the pre-combustion capture using biomass resembles that of coal which is around 62% - 100%. Some research found that using a dry system instead of a biomass/water slurry fuel feed was more thermally efficient and practical for biomass.[31]

### Post-combustion

In addition to pre-combustion and oxy-fuel combustion technologies, post-combustion is a promising technology which can be used to extract CO2 emission from biomass fuel resources. During the process, CO2 is separated from the other gases in the flue gas stream after the biomass fuel is burnt and undergo separation process. Because it has the ability to be retrofitted to some existing power plants such as steam boilers or other newly built power stations, post-combustion technology is considered as a better option than pre-combustion technology. According to the fact sheets U.S. CONSUMPTION OF BIO-ENERGY WITH CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE released in March 2018, the efficiency of post-combustion technology is expected to be 95% while pre-combustion and oxy-combustion capture CO
2 at an efficient rate of 85% and 87.5% respectively.[33]

Development for current post-combustion technologies has not been entirely done due to several problems. One of the major concerns using this technology to capture carbon dioxide is the parasitic energy consumption.[34] If the capacity of the unit is designed to be small, the heat loss to the surrounding is great enough to cause too many negative consequences. Another challenge of post-combustion carbon capture is how to deal with the mixture's components in the flue gases from initial biomass materials after combustion. The mixture consists of a high amount of alkali metals, halogens, acidic elements, and transition metals which might have negative impacts on the efficiency of the process. Thus, the choice of specific solvents and how to manage the solvent process should be carefully designed and operated.

## Biomass feedstocks

See also: Bioenergy

Biomass sources used in BECCS include agricultural residues & waste, forestry residue & waste, industrial & municipal wastes, and energy crops specifically grown for use as fuel.[35]

A variety of challenges must be faced to ensure that biomass-based carbon capture is feasible and carbon neutral. Biomass stocks require availability of water and fertilizer inputs, which themselves exist at a nexus of environmental challenges in terms of resource disruption, conflict, and fertilizer runoff. A second major challenge is logistical: bulky biomass products require transportation to geographical features that enable sequestration.[36]

## Projects and commercial plants

As of 2024, there are 3 large-scale BECCS projects operating in the world. All of these are ethanol plants.[6] Between 1972 and 2017, plans were announced to sequester a total of 2.2 million tonnes of CO2 per year using CCS in biomass and waste power plants. None of these plans had come to fruition by 2022.[37]

### At ethanol plants

The Illinois Industrial Carbon Capture and Storage (IL-CCS) project, initiated in the early 21st century, is the first industrial-scale Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) project. Located in Decatur, Illinois, USA, IL-CCS captures carbon dioxide (CO2) from the Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) ethanol plant and injects it into the Mount Simon Sandstone, a deep saline formation. The IL-CCS project is divided into two phases. The pilot phase, running from November 2011 to November 2014, had a capital cost of approximately $84 million. During this period, the project successfully captured and sequestered 1 million tonnes of CO2 without any detected leakage from the injection zone. Monitoring continues for future reference. Phase 2 began in November 2017, utilizing the same injection zone with a capital cost of about $208 million, including $141 million in funding from the Department of Energy. This phase has a capture capacity three times larger than the pilot project, allowing IL-CCS to capture over 1 million tonnes of CO2 annually. As of 2019, IL-CCS was the largest BECCS project in the world.[38][39][40]

In addition to IL-CCS, several other projects capture CO2 from ethanol plants on a smaller scale. Examples include:

* Arkalon in Kansas, USA: 0.18-0.29 MtCO2/year
* OCAP in the Netherlands: 0.1-0.3 MtCO2/year

## Challenges

### Environmental considerations

Some of the environmental considerations and other concerns about the widespread implementation of BECCS are similar to those of CCS. However, much of the critique towards CCS is that it may strengthen the dependency on depletable fossil fuels and environmentally invasive coal mining. This is not the case with BECCS, as it relies on renewable biomass. There are however other considerations which involve BECCS and these concerns are related to the possible increased use of biofuels. Biomass production is subject to a range of sustainability constraints, such as: scarcity of arable land and fresh water, loss of biodiversity, competition with food production and deforestation.[41][obsolete source] It is important to make sure that biomass is used in a way that maximizes both energy and climate benefits. There has been criticism to some suggested BECCS deployment scenarios, where there would be a very heavy reliance on increased biomass input.[42]

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report says: "Extensive deployment of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) and afforestation would require larger amounts of freshwater resources than used by the previous vegetation, altering the water cycle at regional scales (high confidence) with potential consequences for downstream uses, biodiversity, and regional climate, depending on prior land cover, background climate conditions, and scale of deployment (high confidence)."[43]

### Technical challenges

A challenge for applying BECCS technology, as with other carbon capture and storage technologies, is to find suitable geographic locations to build combustion plant and to sequester captured CO2. If biomass sources are not close by the combustion unit, transporting biomass emits CO2 offsetting the amount of CO2 captured by BECCS. BECCS also face technical concerns about efficiency of burning biomass. While each type of biomass has a different heating value, biomass in general is a low-quality fuel. Thermal conversion of biomass typically has an efficiency of 20-27%.[44] For comparison, coal-fired plants have an efficiency of about 37%.[45]

BECCS also faces a question whether the process is actually energy positive. Low energy conversion efficiency, energy-intensive biomass supply, combined with the energy required to power the CO2 capture and storage unit impose energy penalty on the system. This might lead to a low power generation efficiency.[46]

## Alternative biomass sources

Source | CO2 Source | Sector

|
|

Ethanol production  | Fermentation of biomass such as sugarcane, wheat or corn releases CO2 as a by-product.  | Industry
Pulp and paper mills

Cement production

* CO2 produced in recovery boilers.
* CO2 produced in lime kilns, such as when making cement.[18]
* For gasification technologies, CO2 is produced during the gasification of black liquor and biomass such as the tree bark and wood.
* Huge amounts of CO2 are also released by the combustion of syngas, a product of gasification, in the combined cycle process.

| Industry
Biogas production  | In the biogas upgrading process, CO2 is separated from the methane to produce a higher quality gas.  | Industry
Electrical power plants  | Combustion of biomass or biofuel in steam or gas powered generators releases CO2 as a by-product.  | Energy
Heat power plants  | Combustion of biofuel for heat generation releases CO2 as a by-product. Usually used for district heating.  | Energy

### Agricultural and forestry residues

Globally, 14 Gt of forestry residue and 4.4 Gt residues from crop production (mainly barley, wheat, corn, sugarcane and rice) are generated every year. This is a significant amount of biomass which can be combusted to generate 26 EJ/year and achieve a 2.8 Gt of negative CO2 emission through BECCS. Utilizing residues for carbon capture will provide social and economic benefits to rural communities. Using waste from crops and forestry is a way to avoid the ecological and social challenges of BECCS.[47]

Among the forest bioenergy strategies being promoted, forest residue gasification for electricity production has gained policy traction in many developing countries because of the abundance of forest biomass, and their affordability, given that they are a by-products of conventional forestry functioning.[48] Additionally, unlike the sporadic nature of wind and solar, forest residue gasification for electricity can be uninterrupted, and modified to meet switch in energy demand. Forest industries are well positioned to play a prominent role in facilitating the adoption and upscale of forest bioenergy strategies in response to energy security and climate change challenges.[48] However, the economic costs of forest residue utilization for bioelectricity production and its potential financial impact on conventional forestry operations are poorly represented in forest bioenergy studies. Exploring these opportunities, particularly in developing country contexts can be buttressed by investigations that assess the financial feasibility of joint production for timber and bioelectricity.[48]

Despite the growing policy directives and mandates to produce electricity from woody biomass, the uncertainty around the financial feasibility and risks to investors continue to impede the transition to this renewable energy pathway, particularly in developing countries where the demand are the highest. This is because investments in forest bioenergy projects are exposed to high levels of financial risks. The high capital costs, operation costs, and maintenance costs of harvest residue-based gasification plant and their associated risks can keep the potential investor from investing in a forest-based bioelectricity project.[48]

### Municipal solid waste

Since municipal solid waste contains some biogenic substances like food, wood and paper, waste incineration can to a degree considered a source of bioenergy. Around 44% of waste globally is estimated to consist of food and green waste; a further 17% is paper and cardboard.[49] It has been estimated that carbon capture would reduce the carbon emissions associated with waste incinerators by 700 kg CO2 per kg of waste, assuming an 85% capture rate. The specific waste composition does not greatly affect this.[50]

### Co-firing coal with biomass

See also: Cofiring

As of 2017 there were roughly 250 cofiring plants in the world, including 40 in the US.[51] Biomass cofiring with coal has efficiency near those of coal combustion.[45] Instead of co-firing, full conversion from coal to biomass of one or more generating units in a plant may be preferred.[52]

## Policy

The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with Europe, the United States, and the United Kingdom and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (June 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

|

Based on the Kyoto Protocol agreement, carbon capture and storage projects were not applicable as an emission reduction tool to be used for the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) or for Joint Implementation (JI) projects.[53] As of 2006, there had been growing support to have fossil CCS and BECCS included in the protocol and the Paris Agreement. Accounting studies on how this could be implemented, including BECCS, have also been done.[54]

### European Union

There were policies to incentivice to use bioenergy such as Renewable Energy Directive (RED) and Fuel Quality Directive (FQD), which require 20% of total energy consumption to be based on biomass, bioliquids and biogas by 2020.[55]

Sweden

The Swedish Energy Agency was commissioned by the Swedish government to design a Swedish support system for BECCS to be implemented by 2022.[56]

### United Kingdom

In 2018 the Committee on Climate Change recommended that aviation biofuels should provide up to 10% of total aviation fuel demand by 2050, and that all aviation biofuels should be produced with CCS as soon as the technology is available.[57]: 159

### United States

In 2018, the US congress increased and extended the section 45Q tax credit for sequestration of carbon oxides, a top priority of carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) supporters for several years. It increased $25.70 to $50 tax credit per tonnes of CO2 for secure geological storage and $15.30 to $35 tax credit per tonne of CO2 used in enhanced oil recovery.[58]

## Public perception

Limited studies have investigated public perceptions of BECCS. Of those studies, most originate from developed countries in the northern hemisphere and therefore may not represent a worldwide view.

In a 2018 study involving online panel respondents from the United Kingdom, United States, Australia, and New Zealand, respondents showed little prior awareness of BECCS technologies. Measures of respondents perceptions suggest that the public associate BECCS with a balance of both positive and negative attributes. Across the four countries, 45% of the respondents indicated they would support small scale trials of BECCS, whereas only 21% were opposed. BECCS was moderately preferred among other methods of carbon dioxide removal like direct air capture or enhanced weathering, and greatly preferred over methods of solar radiation management.[59]

A 2019 study in Oxfordshire, UK found that public perception of BECCS was significantly influenced by the policies used to support the practice. Participants generally approved of taxes and standards, but they had mixed feelings about the government providing funding support.[60]

## See also

* Biosequestration
* Carbon dioxide removal
* Carbon negative
* Carbon tech
* Climate change mitigation scenarios
* Climate engineering
* List of emerging technologies
* Low-carbon economy
* United Nations Environment Programme
* Virgin Earth Challenge

## References

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30. ↑ IPCC, (2005)"Chapter 3: Capture of CO2" IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage. Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Metz, B., O. Davidson, H. C. De Coninck, M. Loos, and L. A. Meyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp 105-178.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 31.6 Gough, Clair (2018). Biomass Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS): Unlocking Negative Emissions. UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. ISBN 978-1-119-23768-6.
32. ↑ Jansen, Daniel (27 July 2015). "Pre-combustion CO
2 capture". International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 40: 167–187. doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2015.05.028. http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:2aacdca7-acc4-4fc4-ae89-886ec36b3f8f. Retrieved 13 July 2019.CO2+capture&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Greenhouse+Gas+Control&rft.aulast=Jansen&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Jansen, Daniel&rft.date=27+July+2015&rft.volume=40&rft.pages=167–187&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/j.ijggc.2015.05.028&rft_id=http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:2aacdca7-acc4-4fc4-ae89-886ec36b3f8f&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage">
33. ↑ Thangaraj, P; Okoye, S; Gordon, B; Zilberman, D; Hochman, G (March 12, 2018). FACTSHEET: BIOENERGY WITH CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE.
34. ↑ Edström, Elin; Öberg, Christoffer. Review of Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) and Possibilities of Introducing a Small-Scale Unit.
35. ↑ Dubey, Rachana; Gupta, Dipak Kumar; Radhakrishnan, Sheetal K.; Gupta, Chandan Kumar; Surendhar, P.; Choudhary, A. K.; Upadhyaya, A. (2023), Rakshit, Amitava; Biswas, Asim; Sarkar, Deepranjan et al., eds., "Biomass: Sustainable Energy Solution from Agriculture" (in en), Handbook of Energy Management in Agriculture (Singapore: Springer Nature): pp. 1–29, doi:10.1007/978-981-19-7736-7_11-1, ISBN 978-981-19-7736-7
36. ↑ Buck, Holly Jean (2019). After geoengineering: climate tragedy, repair, and restoration. London. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-1-78873-036-5.
37. ↑ Kazlou, Tsimafei; Cherp, Aleh; Jewell, Jessica (October 2024). "Feasible deployment of carbon capture and storage and the requirements of climate targets" (in en). Nature Climate Change 14 (10): 1047–1055, Extended Data Fig. 1. doi:10.1038/s41558-024-02104-0. ISSN 1758-6798. PMC 11458486. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-02104-0.
38. ↑ "DOE Announces Major Milestone Reached for Illinois Industrial CCS Project" (Press release). U.S. Department of Energy. Archived from the original on 2018-12-07. Retrieved 2018-11-25.
39. ↑ Briscoe, Tony (November 23, 2017). "Decatur plant at forefront of push to pipe carbon emissions underground, but costs raise questions". Chicago Tribune. https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/breaking/ct-met-decatur-plant-carbon-storage-20171024-story.html.
40. ↑ "Archer Daniels Midland Company" (in en). https://www.energy.gov/fe/archer-daniels-midland-company.
41. ↑ Ignacy, S.: (2007) "The Biofuels Controversy" , United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 12
42. ↑ "Carbon-negative bioenergy to cut global warming could drive deforestation: An interview on BECS with Biopact's Laurens Rademakers". November 6, 2007. https://news.mongabay.com/2007/11/carbon-negative-bioenergy-to-cut-global-warming-could-drive-deforestation/.
43. ↑ "Climate information relevant for Forestry". https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/factsheets/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Sectoral_Fact_Sheet_Forestry.pdf.
44. ↑ Baxter, Larry (July 2005). "Biomass-coal co-combustion: opportunity for affordable renewable energy". Fuel 84 (10): 1295–1302. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2004.09.023. ISSN 0016-2361. Bibcode: 2005Fuel...84.1295B.
45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 "CCS Retrofit: Analysis of the Globally Installed Coal-Fired Power Plant Fleet". IEA Energy Papers. 2012-03-29. doi:10.1787/5k9crztg40g1-en. ISSN 2079-2581.
46. ↑ Bui, Mai; Fajardy, Mathilde; Mac Dowell, Niall (June 2017). "Bio-Energy with CCS (BECCS) performance evaluation: Efficiency enhancement and emissions reduction". Applied Energy 195: 289–302. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.03.063. ISSN 0306-2619. Bibcode: 2017ApEn..195..289B.
47. ↑ Pour, Nasim; Webley, Paul A.; Cook, Peter J. (July 2017). "A Sustainability Framework for Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) Technologies". Energy Procedia 114: 6044–6056. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.1741. ISSN 1876-6102. Bibcode: 2017EnPro.114.6044P.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 Ofoegbu, Chidiebere (2023-12-31). Yuan, Xiangzhou. ed. "Feasibility assessment of harvest residue gasification for bioelectricity and its financial impact on conventional plantation forestry" (in en). Sustainable Environment 9 (1). doi:10.1080/27658511.2023.2206506. ISSN 2765-8511. Bibcode: 2023SusEn...906506O. This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
49. ↑ Wienchol, Paulina; Szlęk, Andrzej; Ditaranto, Mario (May 2020). "Waste-to-energy technology integrated with carbon capture – Challenges and opportunities" (in en). Energy 198. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2020.117352. Bibcode: 2020Ene...19817352W. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S036054422030459X.
50. ↑ Bisinella, Valentina; Hulgaard, Tore; Riber, Christian; Damgaard, Anders; Christensen, Thomas H. (May 2021). "Environmental assessment of carbon capture and storage (CCS) as a post-treatment technology in waste incineration" (in en). Waste Management 128: 99–113. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2021.04.046. PMID 33975140. Bibcode: 2021WaMan.128...99B. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0956053X21002440.
51. ↑ "Projects | Bioenergy Task 32". IEA Bioenergy. https://demoplants21.bioenergy2020.eu/projects/displaymap/EGpJO2.
52. ↑ "How to switch a power station off coal". 2018-08-22. https://www.drax.com/technology/switch-power-station-off-coal/.
53. ↑ "Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS) from ec.europa.eu". http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/emission/index_en.htm.
54. ↑ Grönkvist, Stefan; Möllersten, Kenneth; Pingoud, Kim (2006). "Equal Opportunity for Biomass in Greenhouse Gas Accounting of CO
2 Capture and Storage: A Step Towards More Cost-Effective Climate Change Mitigation Regimes". Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11 (5–6): 1083. doi:10.1007/s11027-006-9034-9. Bibcode: 2006MASGC..11.1083G.CO2+Capture+and+Storage:+A+Step+Towards+More+Cost-Effective+Climate+Change+Mitigation+Regimes&rft.jtitle=Mitigation+and+Adaptation+Strategies+for+Global+Change&rft.aulast=Grönkvist&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Grönkvist, Stefan&rft.au=Möllersten, Kenneth&rft.au=Pingoud, Kim&rft.date=2006&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=5–6&rft.pages=1083&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/s11027-006-9034-9&rft_id=info:bibcode/2006MASGC..11.1083G&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage">
55. ↑ "Renewable energy directive". European Commission. 2014-07-16. https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/renewable-energy/renewable-energy-directive.
56. ↑ "Promoting carbon dioxide removals: the Nordic case study" (in en-US). 2021-10-26. https://climatestrategies.org/promoting-carbon-dioxide-removals-the-nordic-case-study/.
57. ↑ UK Committee on Climate Change (2018). Biomass in a low-carbon economy. https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Biomass-in-a-low-carbon-economy-CCC-2018.pdf.
58. ↑ "[USC04 26 USC 45Q: Credit for carbon oxide sequestration"]. http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=(title:26 section:45Q edition:prelim).
59. ↑ Carlisle, Daniel P.; Feetham, Pamela M.; Wright, Malcolm J.; Teagle, Damon A. H. (2020-04-12). "The public remain uninformed and wary of climate engineering" (in en). Climatic Change 160 (2): 303–322. doi:10.1007/s10584-020-02706-5. ISSN 1573-1480. Bibcode: 2020ClCh..160..303C. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/440717/1/Thepublic_remain_uninformed.pdf. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
60. ↑ Bellamy, Rob; Lezuan, Javier; Palmer, James (2019). "Perceptions of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage in different policy scenarios". Nature Communications 10 (1): 743. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-08592-5. PMID 30765708. Bibcode: 2019NatCo..10..743B.

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Climate change

Overview

* Causes of climate change
* Effects of climate change
* Climate change mitigation
* Climate change adaptation
* By country and region

Causes

| Overview|

* Climate system
* Greenhouse effect (Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Earth)
* Scientific consensus on climate change

|

Sources|

* Deforestation
* Fossil fuel
* Greenhouse gases
* Greenhouse gas emissions
* Carbon accounting
* Carbon footprint
* Carbon leakage
* from agriculture
* from wetlands
* World energy supply and consumption

History

* History of climate change policy and politics
* History of climate change science
* Svante Arrhenius
* James Hansen
* Charles David Keeling
* United Nations Climate Change conferences
* Years in climate change
* 2019
* 2020
* 2021
* 2022
* 2023
* 2024
* 2025
* 2026

Effects and issues

| Physical|

* Abrupt climate change
* Anoxic event
* Arctic methane emissions
* Arctic sea ice decline
* Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
* Drought
* Extreme weather
* Flood
* Coastal flooding
* Heat wave
* Marine
* Urban heat island
* Oceans
* acidification
* deoxygenation
* heat content
* sea surface temperature
* stratification
* temperature
* Ozone depletion
* Permafrost thaw
* Retreat of glaciers since 1850
* Sea level rise
* Season creep
* Climate sensitivity
* Tipping points in the climate system
* Tropical cyclones
* Water cycle
* Wildfires

|

Flora and fauna|

* Biomes
* Mass mortality event
* Birds
* Extinction risk
* Forest dieback
* Invasive species
* Marine life
* Plant biodiversity

Social and economic|

* Agriculture
* Livestock
* Multi-breadbasket failure
* In the United States
* Children
* Cities
* Civilizational collapse
* Crime
* Depopulation of settlements
* Destruction of cultural heritage
* Disability
* Economic impacts
* U.S. insurance industry
* Fisheries
* Gender
* Health
* Infectious diseases
* Mental health
* In the United Kingdom
* In the Philippines
* Human rights
* Indigenous peoples
* Migration
* Poverty
* Psychological impacts
* Security and conflict
* Urban flooding
* Water scarcity
* Water security

By country and region|

* Africa
* Americas
* Antarctica
* Arctic
* Asia
* Australia
* Caribbean
* Europe
* Middle East and North Africa
* Small island countries
* by individual country

Mitigation

| Economics and finance|

* Carbon budget
* Carbon emission trading
* Carbon offsets and credits
* Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
* Carbon price
* Carbon tax
* Climate debt
* Climate finance
* Climate risk insurance
* Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
* Economics of climate change mitigation
* Fossil fuel divestment
* Green Climate Fund
* Low-carbon economy
* Net zero emissions

|

Energy|

* Carbon capture and storage
* Energy transition
* Fossil fuel phase-out
* Nuclear power
* Renewable energy
* Sustainable energy

Preserving and enhancing
carbon sinks|

* Blue carbon
* Carbon dioxide removal
* Carbon sequestration
* Direct air capture
* Carbon farming
* Climate-smart agriculture
* Forest management
* afforestation
* forestry for carbon sequestration
* REDD+
* reforestation
* Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF and AFOLU)
* Nature-based solutions

Other|

* Earth Strike
* Fridays for Future
* Geoengineering
* Individual action on climate change
* Positive tipping points
* Sustainable architecture
* Sustainable transport

Society and adaptation

| Society|

* Business action
* Climate action
* Climate emergency declaration
* Climate movement
* School Strike for Climate
* Denial
* Ecological grief
* Governance
* Justice
* Litigation
* Politics
* Public opinion
* Women

|

Adaptation|

* Adaptation strategies on the German coast
* Adaptive capacity
* Disaster risk reduction
* Ecosystem-based adaptation
* Flood control
* Loss and damage
* Managed retreat
* Nature-based solutions
* Resilience
* Risk
* Vulnerability
* The Adaptation Fund
* National Adaptation Programme of Action

Communication|

* Climate Change Performance Index
* Climate crisis (term)
* Climate spiral
* Education
* Media coverage
* Popular culture depictions
* art
* fiction
* video games
* Warming stripes

International agreements|

* Glasgow Climate Pact
* Integrity Council for the Voluntary Carbon Market
* Taskforce on Scaling Voluntary Carbon Markets
* Kyoto Protocol
* Paris Agreement
* Cooperative mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
* Nationally determined contributions
* Sustainable Development Goal 13
* United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Background and theory

| Measurements|

* Global surface temperature
* Instrumental temperature record
* Proxy
* Satellite temperature measurement

|

Theory|

* Albedo
* Carbon cycle
* atmospheric
* biologic
* oceanic
* permafrost
* Carbon sink
* Climate sensitivity
* Climate variability and change
* Cloud feedback
* Cloud forcing
* Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
* Cryosphere
* Earth's energy budget
* Extreme event attribution
* Feedbacks
* Global warming potential
* Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
* Orbital forcing
* Radiative forcing

Research and modelling|

* Climate change scenario
* Climate model
* Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
* Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
* IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
* Paleoclimatology
* Representative Concentration Pathway
* Shared Socioeconomic Pathways

* '
* Category
* Glossary
* Index

* v
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Bioenergy

Biofuels|

* Alcohol fuel
* Algae fuel
* Bagasse
* Babassu oil
* Biobutanol
* Biodiesel
* Biogas
* Biogasoline
* Bioliquids
* Corn stover
* Ethanol
* cellulosic
* mixtures
* Methanol
* Stover
* Corn stover
* Straw
* Cooking oil
* Vegetable oil fuel
* Water hyacinth
* Wood gas

Energy from
foodstock|

* Barley
* Cassava
* Coconut oil
* Grape
* Hemp
* Maize
* Oat
* Palm oil
* Potato
* Rapeseed
* Rice
* Sorghum bicolor
* Soybean
* Sugarcane
* Sugar beet
* Sunflower
* Wheat
* Yam
* Camelina sativa

Non-food
energy crops|

* Arundo
* Big bluestem
* Camelina
* Chinese tallow
* Duckweed
* Jatropha curcas
* Millettia pinnata
* Miscanthus giganteus
* Switchgrass
* Salicornia
* Wood fuel

Technology|

* BECCS
* Bioconversion
* Biomass heating systems
* Biorefinery
* Fischer–Tropsch process
* Industrial biotechnology
* Pellets
* mill
* stove
* Thermal depolymerization

Concepts|

* Cellulosic ethanol commercialization
* Energy content of biofuel
* Energy crop
* Energy forestry
* EROEI
* Food vs. fuel
* Issues
* Sustainable biofuel

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