Shehua

Short description: Sinitic language of China

Shehua

Shanha
Native to| Fujian, Zhejiang
Ethnicity| She

Native speakers

| 400,000 (2002)[1][2]

Language family

Sino-Tibetan

* Sinitic
* Chinese
* Hakka?[1][3]
* Shehua

Language codes
ISO 639-3| None (`mis`)
Linguasphere| `79-AAA-gbf`

Shehua (畲话, Shēhuà, meaning 'She speech') is an unclassified Sinitic language spoken by the She people of Southeastern China. It is also called Shanha, San-hak (山哈)[4] or Shanhahua (山哈话). Shehua speakers are located mainly in Fujian and Zhejiang provinces of Southeastern China, with smaller numbers of speakers in a few locations of Jiangxi (in Guixi and Yanshan County), Guangdong (in Chaozhou and Fengshun County) and Anhui (in Ningguo) provinces.[1]

Shēhuà (畲话) is not to be confused with Shēyǔ (畲语, also known as Ho Ne), which is a Hmong–Mien language spoken in East-Central Guangdong. Shehua and Sheyu speakers have separate histories and identities, although both are officially classified by the Chinese government as She people. The Dongjia of Majiang County, Guizhou are also officially classified as She people, but speak a Western Hmongic language closely related to Chong'anjiang Miao (重安江苗语).

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Classification
* 3 Dialects
* 4 Distribution
* 5 Phonology
* 5.1 Consonants
* 5.2 Vowels
* 5.3 Tones
* 6 Lexicon
* 6.1 Unique vocabulary
* 6.2 Swadesh list
* 7 Further reading
* 8 Notes
* 9 References
* 9.1 Citations
* 9.2 Sources

## History

During the Tang dynasty, Shehua speakers lived in the Jiangxi-Guangdong-Fujian border region. Afterwards, they moved to their present locations further to the northeast.[1]

## Classification

Some linguists consider Shehua to be a variety of Hakka Chinese, while others consider it to be an unclassified variety of Chinese that has received some influence from Hakka and is part of Hakka.[1] Hiroki Nakanishi (2010) considers Shehua to be a Hakka dialect that may have a Sheyu (Hmongic) substratum.[3] However, Zhao (2004) considers Shehua to be an independent branch of Chinese, and that it should not be classified within Hakka.[5]

Depending on their locations, Shehua dialects have been variously influenced by Hakka, Gan, Wu, and Min.

## Dialects

You (2002:31-35)[1] divides Shehua into 9 dialectal areas (fangyan qu 方言区), and with respective locations and speaker demographics from You (2002) listed as well. The Eastern Fujian and Southern Zhejiang dialectal areas each have over 100,000 speakers, while the smallest dialectal areas are in Guangdong and Jiangxi, with each having only a few thousand speakers. Altogether, there are more than 400,000 Shehua speakers in China.[1]

* Mindong (闽东区, Eastern Fujian), spoken in the counties of Fu'an 福安, Fuding 福鼎, Xiapu 霞浦, Ningde 宁德, Shouning 寿宁, Zhouning 周宁, Zherong 柘荣, Pingnan 屏南, Luoyuan 罗源, Lianjiang 连江, Fuzhou 福州郊区, Minhou 闽侯, Minqing 闽清, and Yongqin 永泰. 184,000 speakers. In contact with Eastern Min.
* Minbei (闽北区, Northern Fujian), spoken in the counties of Nanping 南平, Jian'ou 建瓯, Jianyang 建阳, Shaowu 邵武, Shunchang 顺昌, and Guangze 光泽. 21,000 speakers. In contact with Northern Min.
* Minzhong (闽中区, Central Fujian), spoken in the counties of Sanming 三明, Yong'an 永安, Shaxian 沙县, and Ninghua 宁化. Also spoken in Shuangguishan 双贵山, Youxi County, Fujian.[4] 12,000 speakers. In contact with Central Min.
* Minnan (闽南区, Southern Fujian), spoken in the counties of Licheng District 鲤城区 (in Quanzhou), Anxi 安溪, Dehua 德化, Yongchun 永春, Hua'an 华安, Longyan 龙岩, and Zhangping 漳平. 12,000 speakers. In contact with Southern Min. In Zhangping City, Shanyangge Shehua 山羊隔畲话[6] is spoken by over 800 people in the two villages of Shanyangge 山羊隔, Guilin Township 桂林乡, and Jianci 尖祠, Xi'nan Township 溪南乡.[7] Shanyangge Shehua is distinct from Shejiake 畲家客, which is a Southern Min dialect spoken by over 100 people in Zhangping County in the two villages of Changta Village 长塔村, Xianghu Township 象湖乡 and Wei Village 尾村, Shuangyang Township 双洋乡.[7]
* Zhenan (浙南区, Southern Zhejiang), spoken in the counties of Pingyang 平阳, Cangnan 苍南, Rui'an 瑞安, Wencheng 文成, Taishun 泰顺, Lishui 丽水, Jingning 景宁, Yunhe 云和, Longquan 龙泉, Songyang 松阳, Qingtian 青田, and Wuyi 武义. 120,000 speakers. In contact with Wu Chinese.
* Zhezhong (浙中区, Central Zhejiang), spoken in the counties of Longyou 龙游, Quxian 衢县, Lanxi 兰溪, Jinhua 金华, and Suichang 遂昌. 23,000 speakers. In contact with Wu Chinese.
* Zhebei (浙北区, Northern Zhejiang), spoken in the counties of Tonglu 桐庐, Jiande 建德, Lin'an 临安, Fuyang 富阳, and Anji 安吉. 13,000 speakers. In contact with Wu Chinese.
* Yuedong (粤东区, Eastern Guangdong), spoken in the counties of Chaozhou 潮州 and Fengshun 丰顺. 2,200 speakers. In contact with the Teochew dialect of Southern Min. In Fengshun County, it is spoken in Fengping Village 凤坪村, Tanjiang Town 潭江镇.[8] You, Lei & Lan (2005) document the Shehua variety of Fenghuangshan 凤凰山 ("Phoenix Mountain") in eastern Guangdong.[9]
* Gandong (赣东区, Eastern Jiangxi), spoken in the counties of Guixi 贵溪 and Yanshan 铅山. 4,000 speakers. In contact with Gan Chinese. The Shehua variety of Taiyuan 太源畲族乡, Yanshan County, Jiangxi has been documented in detail by Hu & Hu (2013),[10] while the Shehua variety of Zhangping Township 樟坪畲族乡, Guixi City, Jiangxi has been documented in detail by Liu (2008).[11]

In Anhui Province, there is also a Shehua dialect spoken by about 2,400 people in Yunti She Ethnic Township (云梯畲族乡), Ningguo City that has been influenced by Lower Yangtze Mandarin.[12][13]

You (2002)[1] provides a comparative vocabulary list for the following 13 datapoints. The Zhebei dialectal area 浙北方言区 has not been included by You (2002).

1. Fu'an 福安, Ningde, Fujian (Mindong dialectal area 闽东方言区)
2. Fuding 福鼎, Ningde, Fujian (Mindong dialectal area 闽东方言区; includes Xiamen She Ethnic Township 硖门畲族乡)
3. Luoyuan 罗源, Fuzhou, Fujian (Mindong dialectal area 闽东方言区)
4. Sanming 三明, Fujian (Minzhong dialectal area 闽中方言区)
5. Shunchang 顺昌, Nanping 南平, Fujian (Minbei dialectal area 闽北方言区)
6. Hua'an 华安, Zhangzhou 华安, southern Fujian (Minnan dialectal area 闽北方言区)
7. Guixi 贵溪, Yingtan 鹰潭, Jiangxi (Gandong dialectal area 赣东方言区)
8. Cangnan 苍南, Wenzhou 温州, Zhejiang (Zhe'nan dialectal area 浙南方言区)
9. Jingning 景宁, Lishui 丽水, Zhejiang (Zhe'nan dialectal area 浙南方言区)
10. Lishui 丽水, Zhejiang (Zhe'nan dialectal area 浙南方言区)
11. Longyou 龙游, Quzhou 衢州, Zhejiang (Zhezhong dialectal area 浙中方言区; includes Muchen She Ethnic Township 沐尘畲族乡)
12. Chaozhou 潮州, Guangdong (Yuedong dialectal area 粤东方言区)
13. Fengshun 丰顺, Meizhou 梅州, Guangdong (Yuedong dialectal area 粤东方言区)

## Distribution

The following maps show ethnic She townships and other administrative divisions (highlighted in magenta) in Zhejiang, Fujian, and Jiangxi provinces. The She people of these three provinces speak Shehua, while the She of central Guangdong and Guizhou speak Hmongic languages.

The most Shehua speakers are located in Ningde Prefecture, Fujian, and Wenzhou and Lishui Prefectures, Zhejiang. Smaller communities of Shehua speakers are located in central Zhejiang, southern Fujian, the mountainous interior of western Fujian, southeastern Anhui, eastern Guangdong, and northeastern Jiangxi near its border with Fujian.[1] It is not known whether Shehua is spoken by She people living in central and southern Jiangxi.

* She ethnic county, townships and towns in Zhejiang

* She ethnic townships in Fujian

* She ethnic townships in Jiangxi

## Phonology

Shehua is a very dialectally uniform language. Like many southern Chinese languages, it has syllables with stop codas, traditionally considered as part of a separate tone class. Much like its sister branch Hakka Chinese, it has the same three nasal codas as well as three stop codas. However, the /k/ coda has evolved into a glottal stop.

### Consonants

In addition to the consonants listed below, Shehua also has a null initial, often realized as a glottal stop.

| Labial  | Dental  | Alveopalatal  | Velar  | Glottal

|
|
|
|
|

Nasal  | m | n |  | ŋ |
Plosive  | tenuis | p | t |  | k | ʔ[lower-alpha 1]
aspirated | pʰ | tʰ |  | kʰ |
Affricate  | tenuis |  | ts | (tʃ)[lower-alpha 2] |  |
aspirated |  | tsʰ | (tʃʰ)[lower-alpha 2] |  |
Fricative  | central |  | s | (ʃ)[lower-alpha 2] |  | h
lateral |  | (ɬ)[lower-alpha 2] |  |  |
Approximant  |  | l |  |  |

1. ↑ This consonant only appears phonemically in syllable coda position.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Consonants in parentheses are present in only some dialects.

Some dialects of Shehua in eastern Fujian (including the Fú'ān and Fúdǐng varieties) have the initial voiceless lateral fricative ɬ- where other Shehua dialects have an initial s-.

Only a limited number of consonants can act as a coda, including the nasals and the plain labial, dental, and glottal stops.

### Vowels

| Front  | Central  | Back

|
|
|

unrounded | rounded
Close  | i | y[lower-alpha 1] |  | u
Close-mid  | e | (ø)[lower-alpha 2] |  | o
Open-mid  | (ɛ)[lower-alpha 2] |  |  | ɔ
Open  |  |  | a |

1. ↑ This vowel is present in most dialects.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Vowels in parentheses are present in only some dialects.

The syllabic coronal consonant /z̩/, frequently known in Chinese linguistics as the apical vowel, is also found in some dialects of Shehua.

### Tones

Shehua has 4 phonemic contour tones, which can be organized into the following 6 tone categories (You 2002:80-83); the Dark Going tone has merged into the Dark Level tone in the development of Shehua. Almost all Shehua dialects have identical tone values in each tone category, which are provided below.

| Tone category

|

Level 平  | Rising 上  | Going 去  | Entering 入
Tone
register  | Dark 陰  | 1\. 陰平
[˦] (44)[lower-alpha 1]
Dark Level  | 3\. 上聲
[˧˥] (35)[lower-alpha 2]
Rising tone  |  | 7\. 陰入
[˥] (5)
Dark Entering
Light 陽  | 2\. 陽平
[˨] (22)
Light Level  |  | 6\. 陽去
[˨˩]/[˦˨] (21 or 42)
Light Going  | 8\. 陽入
[˨] (2)
Light Entering

1. ↑ Two dialects have different tone values: Yóu records the Huá'ān dialect as having [˧] (33)[14] and Zhào records a Jǐngníng dialect as having a tone value of [˦˧] (43).[15]
2. ↑ Several dialects also have tone values of [˨˩˧] (213), and Zhào records a Jǐngníng dialect as having a tone value of [˧˨˥] (325).[15]

The Tàiyuán dialect may have more divergent tone values. Hú recorded the dialect as having [˨˩˨] (212) for its Light Level tone, [˨˥] (25) on its Rising tone, and [˦] (4) for its Dark Entering tone.[16]

## Lexicon

### Unique vocabulary

You (2002:183-216)[1] notes that Shehua has many unique vocabulary items that have no cognates in Hakka, Gan, Wu, or any other Chinese language. Instead, many words have parallels in Hmong-Mien languages (You 2002:490-504), and in Tai and Kam-Sui languages (You 2002:458-489). Other words appear to have no parallels in any other language family or branch (You 2002:505-518).

### Swadesh list

Below is a vocabulary table comparing Swadesh lists of Shehua (Fengshun), Hakka (Boluo), and She (Boluo), from Gan (2011:188-191).[17]

Chinese
gloss | English
gloss | Shehua
(Fengshun) | Hakka
(Boluo) | She
(Boluo)

|
|
|
|

我 | I | ŋai1 | ŋai2 | vaŋ4
你 | you | ŋi1 | ŋi2 | muŋ2
我们 | we | ŋai1nai6ŋin2 | ŋai2ne6 | pa1
这 | this | kai6 | lia6 | lja3
那 | that | hɔŋ6 | kai6 | u3
谁 | who | mɔi6ŋin2 | nai5ŋin2 | pe4le2
什么 | what | mat7kai1 | mat7kai5 | ha5la5
不 | not | — | m1 | a6
全部 | all | — | tsʰiɛn2pu5 | tsʰjen5pʰu4
多 | many | tɔ1 | tɔ1 | u5
一 | one | ʒit7 | it2 | i6
二 | two | ŋi6 | ŋi5 | u1
大 | big | tʰai6 | tʰai6 | vɔŋ2
长 | long | tʃʰɔŋ2 | tsʰɔŋ2 | ka1ta3
小 | small | sai1 | sɛ5 | sɔŋ1
女人 | female | pu1ŋioŋ2ŋin2 | ŋi3ŋin2 | le2va3
男人 | male | nam2ŋin2 | lam2ŋin2 | le2pu3
人 | person | ŋin2 | ŋin2 | le2
鱼 | fish | ŋiu2 | ŋ̩2 | pja4
鸟 | bird | tau3 | tiau1 | lɔ4taŋ1
狗 | dog | kou3 | kiu3 | kja3
虱子 | louse | sɛt7ŋioŋ2 | set7 | taŋ5
树 | tree | ʃu6 | su6 | tɔŋ5
种子 | seed | — | tsuŋ3tsi3 | ka3lɔ1
叶子 | leaf | ʒep3 | jap8 | pjɔŋ2
根 | root |  | kin1 | kʰjuŋ2
树皮 | bark | — | su5pi2 | tɔŋ5kʰu5
皮肤 | skin | pʰi2 | pʰi2 | kʰu5
肉 | meat | pi3 | ŋiuk7 | kwe2
血 | blood | — | hiet7 | si3
骨头 | bone |  | kut7 | suŋ3kɔ3
脂肪 | fat | — | — | —
鸡蛋 | egg | lan3 | kai1tsʰun2 | kwe1kja5
角 | horn | — | kɔk7 | kaŋ1
尾 | tail | mui1 | mui1 | ka1tɔ3
羽毛 | feather | — | iuŋ2mau1 | pi1
头发 | hair | tʰeu2mou1 | tʰiu2mau1 | kaŋ6kʰu5pi1
头 | head | tʰeu2 | tʰiu2 | kaŋ6kʰu5
耳朵 | ear | ŋi3kʰuŋ6 | ŋi3kuŋ1 | ka2kʰuŋ3
眼睛 | eye | ȵian3kʰiʔ8 | ŋan2 | ka1kʰɔ3
鼻子 | nose | pʰi6kuŋ6 | pʰi6 | ŋ̩3pju4
嘴 | mouth | tsɔi1 | tsɔi5 | tjɔ2
牙齿 | tooth | ŋa2tʃʰi3 | ŋa2 | mun3
舌头 | tongue | ʃet8ma2 | set8ma2 | pi6
爪子 | claw | tsau3 | tsau3 | tsau5
脚 | foot | kioʔ7 | kiɔk7 | tɔ5
膝 | knee | kioʔ7puʔ7tʰeu3 | tsʰit7tʰiu2 | tɔ5tʰju4kui3[lower-alpha 1]
手 | hand | ʃeu3 | siu3 | kʰwa4
肚子 | belly | tu3ʃi3 | tu3pʰat8 | ŋiɔ3ka3
脖子 | neck | kiaŋ3 | kjaŋ3 | ka3kjen1
乳房 | breast | — | ŋiɛn5pʰɔŋ2 | ŋjuŋ3
心脏 | heart | ɕim1 | sim1 | fun1
肝 | liver | kan1 | kɔn1 | fun1
喝 | drink | — | hɔt7 | hɔ6
吃 | eat | ʃiʔ8 | sit8 | luŋ2
咬 | bite | ŋieʔ8 | ŋau1 | tʰu6
看见 | see | tʰai3 | tʰe3tʰau2 | mɔ6pʰu6
听见 | hear | tʰaŋ5 | tʰaŋ5tʰau2 | kuŋ5
知道 | know | tɛ1 | ti1 | pe1
睡 | sleep | fun2 | sɔi5 | pɔ5
死 | die | — | si2 | tʰa4
杀 | kill | laʔ7 | sat7 | ta5
游泳 | swim | — | ju2sui3 | ka1tu6kwe2
飞 | fly | pui1 | fui1 | ŋi5
走 | go | ham2 | tsiu2 | ka1pi1
来 | come | lɔi2 | lɔi4 | lu4
躺 | lie | — | sɔi5 | ɔŋ2
坐 | sit | tsʰɔŋ3 | tsʰɔ1 | ŋjuŋ1
站 | stand | kʰi1 | kʰi1 | su3
给 | give | pun1 | pi1 | puŋ1
说 | say | va6kɔŋ3 | kuŋ3 | kuŋ1
太阳 | sun | ŋiet8tʰeu2 | tʰai5jɔŋ1 | lɔ1kɔ3
月亮 | moon | ŋiɔt8hau6 | ŋiet7kɔŋ1 | le5
星星 | star | saŋ6 | sin1 | le5taŋ1
水 | water | ʃui3 | sui3 | ɔŋ2
雨 | rain | ʃui3 | sui1 | luŋ1
石头 | stone | ʃaʔ8 | sak8tʰiu2 | za1kɔ3
沙子 | sand | ʃa6 | sa1 | hja1
土地 | earth | tʰi6 | tu2 | ta1
云 | cloud | vun2 | vun2 | tsɔŋ1ɔŋ2
烟 | smoke | ien1 | iɛn1 | in1
火 | fire | — | fɔ3 | tʰɔ4
灰 | ash | fɔi1 | fɔi1 | si3[lower-alpha 2]
烧 | burn | — | sau1 | fa3
路 | road | lu6 | lu6 | kja3
山 | mountain | san1 | san1 | kje6
红 | red | fuŋ2 | fuŋ2 | si5
绿 | green | luʔ8 | luk8 | ka6pʰu2
黄 | yellow | vɔŋ3 | vɔŋ2 | kʰun2
白 | white | pʰaʔ8 | pʰak8 | kjɔ1
黑 | black | vu1 | u1 | kjaŋ1
晚上 | night | am1pu6ʃi2 | man1sɔŋ5 | lɔ3kaŋ4tsʰi2
热 | hot | ŋiet8 | ŋiet8 | kʰaŋ1
冷 | cold | laŋ1 | laŋ1 | kjɔŋ5
满 | full | — | man1 | paŋ3
新 | new | ɕin1 | sin1 | tu6fun1
好 | good | hou3 | hau2 | ŋɔŋ5
圆 | round | ʒen2 | jin2 | zin2
干 | dry | — | kɔn1 | kʰui1
名字 | name | — | miaŋ2 | mui2

## Further reading

* Liu Lunxin 刘纶鑫. 2008. Guixi Zhangping Shehua yanjiu 贵溪樟坪畲话研究. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社.
* Zhao Zeling 赵则玲. 2004. Zhejiang Shehua yanjiu 浙江畲话硏究. Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Press 浙江人民出版社.
* Wu Chong-chieh 吳中杰. 2004. Languages of She Minority / Shezu yuyan yanjiu 畬族語言研究. Ph.D. dissertation. Hsinchu, Taiwan: National Tsing Hua University 國立清華大學語言研究所.
* Chang Kuang-yu 張光宇. 2008. Guangdong Chao'an Shehua diaocha yanjiu 廣東潮安畬話調查研究. Hsinchu, Taiwan: National Tsing Hua University 國立清華大學語言研究所.
* Fujian Provincial Gazetteer 福建省志 方言志. Appendix: The Fujian She language 附：福建畲语.
* 曹志耘. 2002. 南部吴语语音研究. 北京: 商务印书馆. 2002年9月. ISBN 7-100-03533-3
* 傅国通. 2010. 方言丛稿. 北京: 中华书局. 2010年9月. ISBN 978-7-101-06896-2 （繁体中文）
* Luo Meizhen 罗美珍. 1980. Shezu suo shuo de Kejiahua 畲族所说的客家话. In 中央民族学院学报 1980年01期.
* 傅根清. 2003. 从景宁畲话的语音特点论其与客家话的关系. 山东大学学报, 2003, (5).
* Deng, Xiaohua 邓晓华. 1999. Kejiahua gen Miao-yao Zhuangdongyu de Guanxi wenti 客家话跟苗瑶壮侗语的关系问题. Minzu Yuwen 民族语文 3:42-49.
* Hsiu, Andrew. 2018. The origins of Shehua. Archive.org : https://web.archive.org/web/20190420131003/https://sites.google.com/site/msealangs/home/blog/shehua

## Notes

1. ↑ kneecap 膝盖
2. ↑ ash of grass/wood 草木灰

## References

### Citations

1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 You Wenliang 游文良. 2002. Shezu yuyan 畲族语言. Fuzhou: Fujian People's Press 福建人民出版社. ISBN 7-211-03885-3
2. ↑ You (2002:29)
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Nakanishi 2010.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Wu Chong-chieh 吳中杰. 2014. Northern and Southern Vernaculars of She (San-hak): On Shuangguishan, Youxi County, Fujian Province / 畲話的南北分片問題：以閩中尤溪雙貴山為例的探討. In 客家研究第七卷第二期, 2014 年12 月39-62 頁.
5. ↑ 赵则玲. 2004. 试论畲话的归属. 《语言科学》2004年第5期87-94,共8页.
6. ↑ 林清书. 2008. 山羊隔畲族村的语言传承和语言使用现状. 《龙岩学院学报》 2008年第2期87-91,共5页.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Lin Jinlu, etc. Longyan Prefecture Geographical Gazetteer Editorial Committee 龙岩地区地方志编纂委员会编; 总编林金禄. 1992. Longyan Prefecture Geographical Gazetteer 福建省龙岩地区志. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Press 上海人民出版社.
8. ↑ 大岛广美. 2011. 丰顺县凤坪村畲话的上声调嘎裂声. 《文化遗产》 中文社会科学引文索引 2011年第3期共6页.
9. ↑ You Wenliang 游文良; Lei Nan 雷楠; Lan Ruitang 蓝瑞汤. 2005. Fenghuangshan Sheyu 凤凰山畲语. Jilin People's Press 吉林人民出版社.
10. ↑ Hu Songbai 胡松柏; Hu Derong 胡德荣. 2013. Yanshan Taiyuan Shehua yanjiu 铅山太源畲话研究. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社.
11. ↑ Liu Lunxin 刘纶鑫. 2008. Guixi Zhangping Shehua yanjiu 贵溪樟坪畲话研究. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社.
12. ↑ Wu Chong-chieh 吳中杰. 2004. Languages of She Minority / Shezu yuyan yanjiu 畬族語言研究. Ph.D. dissertation. Hsinchu, Taiwan: National Tsing Hua University 國立清華大學語言研究所.
13. ↑ 钱虹. 2015. 语言接触下的畲话语音变迁——以安徽宁国云梯畲话为例. 《广西民族大学学报：哲学社会科学版》2015年第1期163-167,共5页.
14. ↑ Yóu, Wénliáng 游文良 (2002). Shēzú yǔyán 畬族語言 [The language of the She minority]. Fuzhou: Fujian People's Publishing House.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Zhào, Zélíng 趙則玲 (2004). Zhèjiāng Shēzú yánjiù 浙江畬族研究 [A study of the She dialects of Zhejiang]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Publishing House.
16. ↑ Hú, Sōngbó 胡松柏 (2009). Gàn dōngběi fāngyán dìaochá yánjiù 贑東北方言調查研究 [A survey study of the dialects of Northeast Jiangxi]. Nanchang: Jiangxi People's Publishing House.
17. ↑ Gan Chunyan 甘春妍. 2011. Boluo Sheyu yanjiu 博罗畲语研究. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. ISBN 978-7-310-03777-3

### Sources

* Nakanishi, Hiroki (2010). "On the genetic affiliation of Shehua 《论畬话的归属》" (in zh). Journal of Chinese Linguistics (The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press) 24: 247–267. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23825447.
* Hu Songbai 胡松柏; Hu Derong 胡德荣. 2013. Yanshan Taiyuan Shehua yanjiu 《铅山太源畲话研究》. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社.
* You Wenliang 游文良. 2002. Shezu yuyan 《畲族语言》. Fuzhou: Fujian People's Press 福建人民出版社. ISBN 7-211-03885-3

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Languages of China

Official|

* Standard Mandarin

Regional|

| ARs / SARs|

* CantoneseHK/MC
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|

Prefecture|

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Counties/Banners|

numerous

Indigenous|

Sino-Tibetan languages

| Lolo-
Burmese|

| Mondzish|

* Kathu
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|

Burmish|

* Achang
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Loloish|

| Hanoish|

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Lisoish|

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Nisoish|

* Alingpo
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Other|

* Gokhy
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Qiangic|

* Baima
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* Guiqiong
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* Khroskyabs
* Laze
* Lizu
* Na
* Muya
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* Southern Qiang
* Shixing
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Tibetic|

* Amdo
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* Khalong
* Khams
* Kyirong
* Ladakhi
* Tseku
* Zhongu
* Zitsadegu

Other|

* Bai
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* Derung
* Jingpho
* Longjia
* Nung
* Tujia
* Waxianghua

Other languages

| Austroasiatic|

* Bit
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* Bolyu
* Bugan
* Bumang
* Hu
* Kuan
* Mang
* Man Met
* Muak Sa-aak
* Palaung
* Riang
* U
* Va
* Wa

|

Hmong-Mien|

| Hmongic|

* A-Hmao
* Bu-Nao
* Gejia
* Guiyang
* Hm Nai
* Hmong
* Hmu
* Huishui
* Kiong Nai
* Luobohe
* Mashan
* Pa-Hng
* Pa Na
* Pingtang
* Qo Xiong
* Raojia
* She
* Small Flowery
* Xixiu
* Younuo

|

Mienic|

* Biao Min
* Dzao Min
* Iu Mien
* Kim Mun

Mongolic|

* Bonan
* Buryat
* Daur
* Eastern Yugur
* Kangjia
* Khamnigan
* Monguor
* Oirat
* Ordos
* Santa
* Torgut

Kra-Dai|

| Zhuang|

* Bouyei
* Dai
* Min
* Ningming
* Nong
* Tai Dam
* Tai Dón
* Tai Hongjin
* Tai Lü
* Tai Nüa
* Tai Ya
* Yang
* Yei

|

Other|

* Ai-Cham
* Biao
* Buyang
* Cao Miao
* Chadong
* Cun
* Gelao
* Hlai
* Jiamao
* Kam
* Lakkja
* Mak
* Maonan
* Mulam
* Naxi Yao
* Ong Be
* Paha
* Qabiao
* Sui
* Then

Tungusic|

* Evenki
* Manchu
* Nanai
* Oroqen
* Xibe

Turkic|

* Äynu
* Fuyu Kyrgyz
* Ili Turki
* Lop
* Salar
* Western Yugur

Other|

* Sarikoli (Indo-European)
* Tsat (Austronesian)
* Formosan languages (Austronesian)

Minority|

* Kazakh
* Korean
* Kyrgyz
* Russian
* Tatar
* Tuvan
* Uzbek
* Vietnamese (Kinh)
* Wakhi

Varieties of
Chinese|

* Mandarin
* Southwestern
* Dongbei
* Jiang Huai
* Gan
* Hakka
* Hui
* Jin
* Min
* varieties
* Ping
* Wu
* Wenzhounese
* Xiang
* Yue
* Cantonese

Creole/Mixed|

* E
* Hezhou
* Lingling
* Macanese
* Maojia
* Qoqmončaq
* Sanqiao
* Tangwang
* Wutun

Extinct|

* Ba-Shu
* Jie
* Khitan
* Ruan-ruan
* Saka
* Tangut
* Tocharian
* Tuoba
* Tuyuhun
* Xianbei
* Zhang-Zhung

Sign|

* Chinese Sign
* Hong Kong SignHK/MC
* Tibetan SignXZ

* GX = Guangxi
* HK = Hong Kong
* MC = Macau
* NM = Inner Mongolia
* XJ = Xinjiang
* XZ = Tibet

* v
* t
* e

Hmong–Mien languages

(Proto-language)|

* Proto-Hmong-Mien

Hmongic|

| Bahengic|

* Pa-Hng
* Hm Nai

|

Sheic|

* She
* Kiong Nai
* Pa Na
* Younuo?

West Hmongic|

* Hmong
* Small Flowery
* Xixiu
* A-Hmao
* Mashan
* Guiyang
* Mo Piu
* Huishui
* Pingtang
* Luobohe
* Gejia
* Bu-Nao

Xong|

* Xong

Hmuic|

* Hmu
* Raojia
* Ná-Meo

Mienic|

* Iu Mien
* Biao Mon
* Kim Mun
* Biao Min
* Dzao Min

Mixed languages|

* Lingling
* Maojia
* Badong Yao
* Yeheni
* Sanqiao
* Shehua
* Younian

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