Cave

Caves and caverns are natural voids under the surface of the Earth[1] and have also been observed in other rocky worlds (e.g., on Mars). Caves often form by the weathering of rock and can extend deep underground. Exogene caves are smaller openings that extend a relatively short distance underground (such as rock shelters). Caves which extend farther underground than the opening is wide are called endogene caves.[2][3]

Speleology is the science of exploration and study of all aspects of caves and the cave environment. Visiting or exploring caves for recreation may be called caving, potholing, or spelunking.

## Contents

* 1 Formation types
* 1.1 Solutional
* 1.2 Primary
* 1.3 Sea or littoral
* 1.4 Erosional
* 1.5 Glacier
* 1.6 Fracture
* 1.7 Talus
* 1.8 Anchialine
* 2 Physical patterns
* 3 Geographic distribution
* 4 Records and superlatives
* 4.1 Five longest surveyed
* 5 Ecology
* 6 Archaeological and cultural importance
* 7 Caves and acoustics
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 References

## Formation types

The formation and development of caves is known as speleogenesis; it can occur over the course of millions of years.[4] Caves can range widely in size, and are formed by various geological processes. These may involve a combination of chemical processes, erosion by water, tectonic forces, microorganisms, pressure, and atmospheric influences. Isotopic dating techniques can be applied to cave sediments, to determine the timescale of the geological events which formed and shaped present-day caves.[4]

It is estimated that a cave cannot be more than 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) vertically beneath the surface due to the pressure of overlying rocks. This does not, however, impose a maximum depth for a cave which is measured from its highest entrance to its lowest point, as the amount of rock above the lowest point is dependent on the topography of the landscape above it. For karst caves the maximum depth is determined on the basis of the lower limit of karst forming processes, coinciding with the base of the soluble carbonate rocks.[5] Most caves are formed in limestone by dissolution.[6]

Caves can be classified in other ways as well, including a contrast between active and relict: active caves have water flowing through them; relict caves do not, though water may be retained in them. Types of active caves include inflow caves ("into which a stream sinks"), outflow caves ("from which a stream emerges"), and through caves ("traversed by a stream").[7]

Speleothems in Hall of the Mountain King of Ogof Craig a Ffynnon, a solutional cave in South Wales.

### Solutional

Main article: Earth:Solutional cave

Solutional caves or karst caves are the most frequently occurring caves. Such caves form in rock that is soluble; most occur in limestone, but they can also form in other rocks including chalk, dolomite, marble, salt, and gypsum. Except for salt caves, solutional caves result when rock is dissolved by natural acid in groundwater that seeps through bedding planes, faults, joints, and comparable features. Over time cracks enlarge to become caves and cave systems.

The largest and most abundant solutional caves are located in limestone. Limestone dissolves under the action of rainwater and groundwater charged with H2CO3 (carbonic acid) and naturally occurring organic acids. The dissolution process produces a distinctive landform known as karst, characterized by sinkholes and underground drainage. Limestone caves are often adorned with calcium carbonate formations produced through slow precipitation. These include flowstones, stalactites, stalagmites, helictites, soda straws and columns. These secondary mineral deposits in caves are called speleothems.

The portions of a solutional cave that are below the water table or the local level of the groundwater will be flooded.[8]

Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico and nearby Carlsbad Cavern are now believed to be examples of another type of solutional cave. They were formed by H2S (hydrogen sulfide) gas rising from below, where reservoirs of oil give off sulfurous fumes. This gas mixes with groundwater and forms H2SO4 (sulfuric acid). The acid then dissolves the limestone from below, rather than from above, by acidic water percolating from the surface.

### Primary

Exploring a lava tube in Hawaii.

Caves formed at the same time as the surrounding rock are called primary caves.

Lava tubes are formed through volcanic activity and are the most common primary caves. As lava flows downhill, its surface cools and solidifies. Hot liquid lava continues to flow under that crust, and if most of it flows out, a hollow tube remains. Such caves can be found in the Canary Islands, Jeju-do, the basaltic plains of Eastern Idaho, and in other places. Kazumura Cave near Hilo, Hawaii is a remarkably long and deep lava tube; it is 65.6 km long (40.8 mi).

Lava caves include but are not limited to lava tubes. Other caves formed through volcanic activity include rifts, lava molds, open vertical conduits, inflationary, blisters, among others.[9]

### Sea or littoral

Main article: Earth:Sea cave

Painted Cave, a large sea cave, Santa Cruz Island, California

Sea caves are found along coasts around the world. A special case is littoral caves, which are formed by wave action in zones of weakness in sea cliffs. Often these weaknesses are faults, but they may also be dykes or bedding-plane contacts. Some wave-cut caves are now above sea level because of later uplift. Elsewhere, in places such as Thailand's Phang Nga Bay, solutional caves have been flooded by the sea and are now subject to littoral erosion. Sea caves are generally around 5 to 50 metres (16 to 164 ft) in length, but may exceed 300 metres (980 ft).

### Erosional

Salt cave in Mount Sodom

Erosional caves are those that form entirely by erosion by flowing streams carrying rocks and other sediments. These can form in any type of rock, including hard rocks such as granite. Generally there must be some zone of weakness to guide the water, such as a fault or joint. A subtype of the erosional cave is the wind or aeolian cave, carved by wind-born sediments.[9] Many caves formed initially by solutional processes often undergo a subsequent phase of erosional or vadose enlargement where active streams or rivers pass through them.[10]

### Glacier

Main article: Earth:Glacier cave

Glacier cave in Big Four Glacier, Big Four Mountain, Washington, c. 1920

Glacier caves are formed by melting ice and flowing water within and under glaciers. The cavities are influenced by the very slow flow of the ice, which tends to collapse the caves again. Glacier caves are sometimes misidentified as "ice caves", though this latter term is properly reserved for bedrock caves that contain year-round ice formations.

### Fracture

Fracture caves are formed when layers of more soluble minerals, such as gypsum, dissolve out from between layers of less soluble rock. These rocks fracture and collapse in blocks of stone.[11]

### Talus

Main article: Earth:Talus cave

Talus caves are formed by the openings among large boulders that have fallen down into a random heap, often at the bases of cliffs.[12] These unstable deposits are called talus or scree, and may be subject to frequent rockfalls and landslides.

### Anchialine

Anchialine caves are caves, usually coastal, containing a mixture of freshwater and saline water (usually sea water). They occur in many parts of the world, and often contain highly specialized and endemic fauna.[13]

## Physical patterns

Castellana Caves, Italy

* Branchwork caves resemble surface dendritic stream patterns; they are made up of passages that join downstream as tributaries. Branchwork caves are the most common of cave patterns and are formed near sinkholes where groundwater recharge occurs. Each passage or branch is fed by a separate recharge source and converges into other higher order branches downstream.[14]
* Angular network caves form from intersecting fissures of carbonate rock that have had fractures widened by chemical erosion. These fractures form high, narrow, straight passages that persist in widespread closed loops.[14]
* Anastomotic caves largely resemble surface braided streams with their passages separating and then meeting further down drainage. They usually form along one bed or structure, and only rarely cross into upper or lower beds.[14]
* Spongework caves are formed when solution cavities are joined by mixing of chemically diverse water. The cavities form a pattern that is three-dimensional and random, resembling a sponge.[14]
* Ramiform caves form as irregular large rooms, galleries, and passages. These randomized three-dimensional rooms form from a rising water table that erodes the carbonate rock with hydrogen-sulfide enriched water.[14]
* Pit caves (vertical caves, potholes, or simply "pits") consist of a vertical shaft rather than a horizontal cave passage. They may or may not be associated with one of the above structural patterns.

## Geographic distribution

Domica Cave in Slovak Karst (Slovakia) An entrance of the Torhola Cave in Lohja (Finland) Frasassi Caves, Italy

Caves are found throughout the world, although the distribution of documented cave system is heavily skewed towards those countries where caving has been popular for many years (such as France, Italy, Australia, the UK, the United States, etc.). As a result, explored caves are found widely in Europe, Asia, North America and Oceania, but are sparse in South America, Africa, and Antarctica.

This is a rough generalization, as large expanses of North America and Asia contain no documented caves, whereas areas such as the Madagascar dry deciduous forests and parts of Brazil contain many documented caves. As the world's expanses of soluble bedrock are researched by cavers, the distribution of documented caves is likely to shift. For example, China, despite containing around half the world's exposed limestone—more than 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi)—has relatively few documented caves.

## Records and superlatives

* The cave system with the greatest total length of surveyed passage is Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, US, at 675.9 km (420.0 mi).[15][16]
* The longest surveyed underwater cave, and second longest overall, is Sistema Ox Bel Ha in Yucatán, Mexico at 524.1 km (325.7 mi).[17][18]
* The deepest known cave—measured from its highest entrance to its lowest point—is Veryovkina Cave in the Republic of Abkhazia, with a depth of 2,204 m (7,231 ft).[19] This was the first cave to be explored to a depth of more than 2,000 m (6,600 ft). (The first cave to be descended below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) was Gouffre Berger in France.) The Sarma and Illyuzia-Mezhonnogo-Snezhnaya caves in Georgia, (1,830 m or 6,000 ft, and 1,753 m or 5,751 ft respectively) are the current second- and third-deepest caves.[19] The deepest outside Georgia is Lamprechtsofen Vogelschacht Weg Schacht in Austria, which is 1,623 m (5,325 ft) deep.[19]
* The deepest vertical shaft in a cave is 603 m (1,978 ft) in Vrtoglavica Cave in Slovenia. The second deepest is Ghar-e-Ghala at 562 m (1,844 ft) in the Parau massif near Kermanshah in Iran.[20]
* The deepest reached by a remotely operated underwater vehicle in an underwater cave is 450 metres (1,480 ft), in the Hranice Abyss in the Czech Republic.[21]
* The Miao Room is the world's largest known room by volume, with a measured volume of 10,780,000 m3 (381,000,000 cu ft).[22] The largest known room by surface is Sarawak Chamber, in the Gunung Mulu National Park (Miri, Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia), a sloping, boulder strewn chamber with an area of 154,500 m2 (1,663,000 sq ft).[22] The largest room in a show cave is the Salle de la Verna in the French Pyrenees.
* The largest passage ever discovered is in the Son Doong Cave in Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park in Quảng Bình Province, Vietnam. It is 4.6 km (2.9 mi) in length, 80 m (260 ft) high and wide over most of its length, but over 140 m (460 ft) high and wide for part of its length.[23]
* The highest surveyed cave in the world is Qaqa Mach'ay in the Peruvian Andes at an elevation of 4930m above sea level.[24] Subsequent GPS measurements suggest this is understated.

### Five longest surveyed

For more, see Earth:List of longest caves.

# Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, US[15]

1. Sistema Ox Bel Ha, Mexico[15]
2. Sistema Sac Actun/Sistema Dos Ojos, Mexico[15]
3. Jewel Cave, South Dakota, US[15]
4. Shuanghedong Cave Network, China[15]

## Ecology

Main article: Earth:Biospeleology

Townsend's big-eared bats in a cave in California Olms in a Slovenian cave

Cave-inhabiting animals are often categorized as troglobites (cave-limited species), troglophiles (species that can live their entire lives in caves, but also occur in other environments), trogloxenes (species that use caves, but cannot complete their life cycle fully in caves) and accidentals (animals not in one of the previous categories). Some authors use separate terminology for aquatic forms (for example, stygobites, stygophiles, and stygoxenes).

Of these animals, the troglobites are perhaps the most unusual organisms. Troglobitic species often show a number of characteristics, termed troglomorphic, associated with their adaptation to subterranean life. These characteristics may include a loss of pigment (often resulting in a pale or white coloration), a loss of eyes (or at least of optical functionality), an elongation of appendages, and an enhancement of other senses (such as the ability to sense vibrations in water). Aquatic troglobites (or stygobites), such as the endangered Alabama cave shrimp, live in bodies of water found in caves and get nutrients from detritus washed into their caves and from the feces of bats and other cave inhabitants. Other aquatic troglobites include cave fish, and cave salamanders such as the olm and the Texas blind salamander.

Cave insects such as Oligaphorura (formerly Archaphorura) schoetti are troglophiles, reaching 1.7 millimetres (0.067 in) in length. They have extensive distribution and have been studied fairly widely. Most specimens are female, but a male specimen was collected from St Cuthberts Swallet in 1969.

Bats, such as the gray bat and Mexican free-tailed bat, are trogloxenes and are often found in caves; they forage outside of the caves. Some species of cave crickets are classified as trogloxenes, because they roost in caves by day and forage above ground at night.

Because of the fragility of cave ecosystems, and the fact that cave regions tend to be isolated from one another, caves harbor a number of endangered species, such as the Tooth cave spider, liphistius trapdoor spider, and the gray bat.

Caves are visited by many surface-living animals, including humans. These are usually relatively short-lived incursions, due to the lack of light and sustenance.

Cave entrances often have typical florae. For instance, in the eastern temperate United States, cave entrances are most frequently (and often densely) populated by the bulblet fern, Cystopteris bulbifera.

## Archaeological and cultural importance

See also: Earth:Underground living

Cueva de las Manos, Perito Moreno, Argentina. The art in the cave is dated between 7,300 BC and 700 AD;[lower-alpha 1] stenciled, mostly left hands are shown.[27][28] Taíno petroglyphs in a cave in Puerto Rico

People have made use of caves throughout history. The earliest human fossils found in caves come from a series of caves near Krugersdorp and Mokopane in South Africa. The cave sites of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai B, Drimolen, Malapa, Cooper's D, Gladysvale, Gondolin and Makapansgat have yielded a range of early human species dating back to between three and one million years ago, including Australopithecus africanus, Australopithecus sediba and Paranthropus robustus. However, it is not generally thought that these early humans were living in the caves, but that they were brought into the caves by carnivores that had killed them.

The first early hominid ever found in Africa, the Taung Child in 1924, was also thought for many years to come from a cave, where it had been deposited after being predated on by an eagle. However, this is now debated (Hopley et al., 2013; Am. J. Phys. Anthrop.). Caves do form in the dolomite of the Ghaap Plateau, including the Early, Middle and Later Stone Age site of Wonderwerk Cave; however, the caves that form along the escarpment's edge, like that hypothesised for the Taung Child, are formed within a secondary limestone deposit called tufa. There is numerous evidence for other early human species inhabiting caves from at least one million years ago in different parts of the world, including Homo erectus in China at Zhoukoudian, Homo rhodesiensis in South Africa at the Cave of Hearths (Makapansgat), Homo neanderthalensis and Homo heidelbergensis in Europe at Archaeological Site of Atapuerca, Homo floresiensis in Indonesia, and the Denisovans in southern Siberia.

In southern Africa, early modern humans regularly used sea caves as shelter starting about 180,000 years ago when they learned to exploit the sea for the first time.[29] The oldest known site is PP13B at Pinnacle Point. This may have allowed rapid expansion of humans out of Africa and colonization of areas of the world such as Australia by 60–50,000 years ago. Throughout southern Africa, Australia, and Europe, early modern humans used caves and rock shelters as sites for rock art, such as those at Giant's Castle. Among the known sacred caves are China's Cave of a Thousand Buddhas[30] and the sacred caves of Crete.

Archaeological excavations in the Middle Paleolithic cave site of the Ghamari Cave, 2025

Paleolithic cave paintings have been found throughout the world dating from 64,800 years old for non-figurative art[31] and 43,900 years old for figurative art.[32]

## Caves and acoustics

Blue Grotto, Capri, Italy

The importance of sound in caves predates a modern understanding of acoustics. Archaeologists have uncovered relationships between paintings of dots and lines, in specific areas of resonance, within the caves of Spain and France, as well as instruments depicting paleolithic motifs,[33] indicators of musical events and rituals. Clusters of paintings were often found in areas with notable acoustics, sometimes even replicating the sounds of the animals depicted on the walls. The human voice was also theorized to be used as an echolocation device to navigate darker areas of the caves where torches were less useful.[34] Dots of red ochre are often found in spaces with the highest resonance, where the production of paintings was too difficult.[35]

Caves continue to provide usage for modern-day explorers of acoustics. Today Cumberland Caverns provides one of the best examples for modern musical usages of caves. The caves are utilized not only for reverberation, but for the dampening qualities of their abnormal faces as well. The irregularities in the walls of the Cumberland Caverns diffuse sounds bouncing off the walls and give the space an almost recording studio-like quality.[36] During the 20th century musicians began to explore the possibility of using caves as locations as clubs and concert halls, including the likes of Dinah Shore, Roy Acuff, and Benny Goodman. Unlike today, these early performances were typically held in the mouths of the caves, as the lack of technology made depths of the interior inaccessible with musical equipment.[37] In Luray Caverns, Virginia, an enormous lithophone, the "Great Stalacpipe Organ" has been developed that generates sound by mallets striking stalactites, each with a different pitch.[38]

## See also

* Earth:Cave gate - Cave entrance barricade
* Earth:Subterranean waterfall - Waterfall located underground
* Earth:Caving
* Earth:Grotto
* Earth:List of caves - None
* Earth:Outline of caves - Overview of and topical guide to caves
* Earth:Pit cave - Cave with significant vertical passages
* Earth:Speleology
* Earth:Speleothem
* Earth:Subterranean river - River that runs wholly or partly beneath the ground surface
* Earth:Underground lake - Lake under the Earth's surface

## Notes

1. ↑ The UNESCO dates the art to 13,000–9,000 BP.[25][26]

## References

1. ↑ cave (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, September 2005, http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=cave (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
2. ↑ Moratto, Michael J. (2014). California Archaeology. Academic Press. p. 304. ISBN 9781483277356. https://books.google.com/books?id=jUm0BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA304.
3. ↑ Lowe, J. John; Walker, Michael J. C. (2014). Reconstructing Quaternary Environments. Routledge. pp. 141–42. ISBN 9781317753711. https://books.google.com/books?id=OEODBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA142.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Laureano, Fernando V.; Karmann, Ivo; Granger, Darryl E.; Auler, Augusto S.; Almeida, Renato P.; Cruz, Francisco W.; Strícks, Nicolás M.; Novello, Valdir F. (2016-11-15). "Two million years of river and cave aggradation in NE Brazil: Implications for speleogenesis and landscape evolution". Geomorphology 273: 63–77. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.08.009. Bibcode: 2016Geomo.273...63L.
5. ↑ Комиссия спелеологии и карстоведения. Д. А. Тимофеев, В. Н. Дублянский, Т. З. Кикнадзе. Терминология карста. Базис карстования D.A. Timofeev, V.N. Dublyansky, T.Z. Kiknadze, 1991, Karst Terminology, The Commission for Speleology and Karst, Moscow Center of the Russian Geographical Society
6. ↑ "How Caves Form". Nova (American TV series). https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/earth/how-caves-form.html.
7. ↑ Silvestru, Emil (2008). The Cave Book. New Leaf. p. 38. ISBN 9780890514962. https://books.google.com/books?id=NsscjizazXAC&pg=PA38.
8. ↑ John Burcham. "Learning about caves; how caves are formed". Journey into amazing caves. Project Underground. http://www.amazingcaves.com/learn_formed.html.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Culver, David C. (2004). Encyclopedia of Caves. Elsevier Academic Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0121986513.
10. ↑ "Erosional Caves" (in en-US). https://caves.org/erosional-caves/.
11. ↑ Mörner, Nils-Axel; Sjöberg, Rabbe (September 2018). "Merging the concepts of pseudokarst and paleoseismicity in Sweden: A unified theory on the formation of fractures, fracture caves, and angular block heape". International Journal of Speleology 47 (3): 393–405. doi:10.5038/1827-806X.47.3.2225. ISSN 0392-6672. Bibcode: 2018IJSpe..47..393M.
12. ↑ Kolawole, F.; Anifowose, A. Y. B. (2011-01-01). "Talus Caves: Geotourist Attractions Formed by Spheroidal and Exfoliation Weathering on Akure-Ado Inselbergs, Southwestern Nigeria.". Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management 4 (3): 1–6. doi:10.4314/ejesm.v4i3.1. ISSN 1998-0507.
13. ↑ "Peldanga Labyrinth (Liepniekvalka Caves), Latvia - redzet.eu". https://www.redzet.eu/en/photo/peldanga-labyrinth-liepniekvalka-caves-latvia-A-261-15.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Easterbrook, Don, 1999, Surface Processes and Landforms [2nd edition], New Jersey, Prentice Hall, p. 207
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 "World's Longest Caves List from The National Speleological Society". 2022-08-21. https://www.caverbob.com/wlong.htm.
16. ↑ National Park Service (September 8, 2022). "Mammoth Cave Just Got A Little More "Mammoth" - Mammoth Cave National Park (U.S. National Park Service)" (in en). https://www.nps.gov/maca/learn/news/mammoth-cave-just-got-a-little-more-mammoth.htm.
17. ↑ "CINDAQ 2022 Annual report". CINDAQ. El Centro Investigador del Sistema Acuífero de Quintana Roo A.C.(CINDAQ). January 26, 2023. https://www.cindaq.org/2022EN.
18. ↑ "Reports Archives" (in en-US). https://www.cindaq.org/en/tag/reports/.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 "World's Deepest Caves List from The National Speleological Society". http://www.caverbob.com/wdeep.htm.
20. ↑ Brocklebank, Tony. "Iranian cavers discover one of the world's deepest shafts". http://darknessbelow.co.uk/iranian-cavers-discover-one-of-the-worlds-deepest-shafts/.
21. ↑ "Hranice Abyss is believed to be 1200 m. deep (in Czech)". August 2022. https://www.novinky.cz/veda-skoly/clanek/speleologove-namerili-novy-svetovy-rekord-hranicke-propasti-40404594#dop_ab_variant=0&dop_source_zone_name=novinky.sznhp.box&dop_req_id=2dXxsk6iCrC-202208011702&dop_id=40404594&source=hp&seq_no=2.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Vergano, Dan (September 28, 2014). "China's "Supercave" Takes Title as World's Most Enormous Cavern". National Geographic News (National Geographic Society). Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170131062902/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/09/140927-largest-cave-china-exploration-science. Retrieved December 20, 2014.
23. ↑ Owen, James (2009-07-04). "World's Biggest Cave Found in Vietnam". National Geographic News. National Geographic Society. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/07/090724-biggest-cave-vietnam.html.
24. ↑ Pumacocha 2004 Expedition Report
25. ↑ World Heritage Sites: a Complete Guide to 1007 UNESCO World Heritage Sites (6th ed.). UNESCO Publishing. 2014. p. 607. ISBN 978-1-77085-640-0. OCLC 910986576.
26. ↑ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Cueva de las Manos, Río Pinturas" (in en). https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/936/.
27. ↑ Art & Place: Site-Specific Art of the Americas.. Phaidon Press. 2013. pp. 354–355. ISBN 978-0-7148-6551-5. OCLC 865298990.
28. ↑ Podestá, María Mercedes; Raffino, Rodolfo A.; Paunero, Rafael Sebastián; Rolandi, Diana S. (2005) (in es). El arte rupestre de Argentina indígena: Patagonia. Grupo Abierto Communicaciones. ISBN 978-987-1121-16-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=NuG-pvgnd6IC&dq="Cueva+de+las+Manos"+left+hand&pg=PA11. Retrieved 2021-03-01.
29. ↑ Marean, Curtis W.; Bar-Matthews, Miryam; Bernatchez, Jocelyn; Fisher, Erich; Goldberg, Paul; Herries, Andy I. R.; Jacobs, Zenobia; Jerardino, Antonieta et al. (2007). "Early human use of marine resources and pigment in South Africa during the Middle Pleistocene". Nature 449 (7164): 905–908. doi:10.1038/nature06204. PMID 17943129. Bibcode: 2007Natur.449..905M. http://doc.rero.ch/record/15550/files/PAL_E2962.pdf.
30. ↑ Olsen, Brad (2004). Sacred Places Around the World: 108 Destinations. CCC Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 9781888729160. https://books.google.com/books?id=7FS40w2nrqQC&q=sacred caves&pg=PA16.
31. ↑ D. L. Hoffmann; C. D. Standish; M. García-Diez; P. B. Pettitt; J. A. Milton; J. Zilhão; J. J. Alcolea-González; P. Cantalejo-Duarte et al. (2018). "U-Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neandertal origin of Iberian cave art". Science 359 (6378): 912–915. doi:10.1126/science.aap7778. PMID 29472483. Bibcode: 2018Sci...359..912H. "we present dating results for three sites in Spain that show that cave art emerged in Iberia substantially earlier than previously thought. Uranium-thorium (U-Th) dates on carbonate crusts overlying paintings provide minimum ages for a red linear motif in La Pasiega (Cantabria), a hand stencil in Maltravieso (Extremadura), and red-painted speleothems in Ardales (Andalucía). Collectively, these results show that cave art in Iberia is older than 64.8 thousand years (ka). This cave art is the earliest dated so far and predates, by at least 20 ka, the arrival of modern humans in Europe, which implies Neandertal authorship."
32. ↑ Aubert, M. (11 December 2019). "Earliest hunting scene in prehistoric art.". Nature 576 (7787): 442–445. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1806-y. PMID 31827284. Bibcode: 2019Natur.576..442A.
33. ↑ Fazenda, Bruno (September 11, 2017). "Cave acoustics in prehistory: Exploring the association of Palaeolithic visual motifs and acoustic response". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 142 (1332): 1332–1349. doi:10.1121/1.4998721. PMID 28964077. Bibcode: 2017ASAJ..142.1332F.
34. ↑ Whipps, Heather (July 3, 2008). "Turns out, cavemen loved to sing". http://www.nbcnews.com/id/25516181/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/turns-out-cavemen-loved-sing/#.XpOWOi-ZN-U.
35. ↑ "Music Went With Cave Art In Prehistoric Caves". July 5, 2008. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080704130439.htm.
36. ↑ Farmer, Blake (August 11, 2015). "Cumberland Caverns: A Subterranean Concert Venue In Tennessee". https://www.npr.org/2015/08/11/431512181/cumberland-caverns-a-subterranean-concert-venue-in-tennessee.
37. ↑ Parton, Chris (4 June 2018). "Why Brandi Carlile, Steve Earle and More Are Performing in a Tennessee Cave". https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-country/why-brandi-carlile-steve-earle-and-more-are-performing-in-a-tennessee-cave-629847/.
38. ↑ "Real Live Cave Music: Marvel at the World's Largest Instrument". 3 February 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vm1_aCjrC5o.

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Glossary of caving and speleology

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* Karst spring
* Lava cave
* Ley tunnel
* Mine
* Exploration
* Pit cave
* Ponor
* Sea cave
* Show cave
* Sinkhole
* Spring
* Suffosion
* Sump
* Underground
* Lake
* River
* Waterfall

Speleothems
and Speleogens
(Cave formations)|

* Anthodite
* Boxwork
* Calcite rafts
* Cave pearl
* Cave popcorn
* Dogtooth spar
* Flowstone
* Frostwork
* Helictite
* Moonmilk
* Rimstone
* Shelfstone
* Snottite
* Soda straw
* Speleoseismite
* Stalactite
* Stalagmite
* Stalagnate
* Vug

Lists of caves|

| General|

* By country
* By depth
* By length
* Prehistoric

|

Africa|

* Somaliland
* South Africa

Americas|

* Belize
* Brazil
* Canada
* Guatemala
* Haiti
* Mexico
* United States
* Arkansas
* Maryland
* Missouri

Asia|

* China
* India
* Iran
* Israel
* Lebanon
* Malaysia
* Sri Lanka
* Turkey
* Vietnam

Europe|

* Austria
* Belgium
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* France
* Germany
* Gibraltar
* Greece
* Ireland
* Italy
* Poland
* Serbia
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Cantabria
* World Heritage Sites:
* Cave Art of Northern Spain
* Cave Art of Iberian Mediterranean Basin
* Cave Art of the Iberian Southern Tip
* Switzerland
* Turkey
* United Kingdom
* England
* Northern Ireland
* Scotland
* Wales

Oceania|

* Australia
* New South Wales
* Western Australia
* New Zealand
* Papua New Guinea

Dwellings|

* Cave dweller
* Kome Caves
* Nok and Mamproug Cave Dwellings
* Yaodong

Popular culture|

* Diving into the Unknown
* Cave of Forgotten Dreams
* The Underground Eiger

Incidents|

* List of UK caving fatalities
* Alpazat cave rescue
* Riesending cave rescue
* Tham Luang cave rescue

Caving by country|

* Caving in New Zealand
* Caving in Tunisia
* Caving in the United Kingdom

* v
* t
* e

Subterranea

Natural features|

| Types|

* Alcove
* Ant colony
* Aquifer
* Burrow
* Burrow fossil
* Paleoburrow
* Cave
* Glacier cave
* Grotto
* Ice cave
* Lava cave
* Lava tube
* Pit Cave
* Show cave
* Solutional cave
* Cenote
* Karst
* Lava tree mold
* Magma chamber
* Maternity den
* Pit crater
* Rock shelter
* Sinkhole
* Subterranean river
* Subterranean waterfall
* Underground lake
* Volcanic pipe
* Warren

|

Exemplars|

* Balve Cave
* Castellana Caves
* Hang Sơn Đoòng
* Jewel Cave National Monument
* Kazumura Cave
* Lechuguilla Cave
* Mammoth Cave National Park
* Reed Flute Cave
* Veryovkina Cave
* Wind Cave National Park

Man-made features|

| Types|

* Air raid shelter
* Basement
* Burial vault
* Borehole
* Bunker
* Blast shelter
* Catacombs
* Casemate
* Crypt Mausoleum
* Dungeon
* Dugout (shelter)
* Dry well
* Earth shelter
* Erdstall
* Fallout shelter
* Fogou
* Hypogeum
* Manhole
* Mine
* Missile launch facility
* Passage grave
* Quarry
* Rock-cut tomb
* Root cellar
* Tunnel
* Utility vault
* Underground city
* Underground base
* Underground hangar
* Well
* Wine cave
* Subway system
* Secret passage
* Semi-basement
* Sewerage
* Septic tank
* Stepwell
* Storm cellar
* Smuggling tunnel
* Spider hole
* Ventilation shaft

|

Exemplars|

* 816 Nuclear Military Plant
* Caves of Maastricht
* The Caves of Ægissíða
* Coober Pedy
* Cheyenne Mountain Complex
* Chicago Tunnel Company
* Houston tunnel system
* Kosvinsky Kamen
* Kőbánya cellar system
* Kome Caves
* Underground City (Beijing)
* Underground City, Montreal
* Underground Great Wall of China
* Maginot Line
* Mines of Paris
* Mustang Caves
* Mount Yamantau
* Mogao Caves
* Naples underground geothermal zone
* North American Aerospace Defense Command
* Raven Rock Mountain Complex
* Shanghai tunnels
* Subterranean London
* Subterranean Toledo
* Yaodong

Fictional features|

| Types|

* Hollow earth
* Subterranean fiction

|

Exemplars|

* Allegory of the cave
* Batcave
* Journey to the Center of the Earth
* Moria (Middle-earth)
* Nome Kingdom
* Pellucidar
* Skull Cave
* Tunnels in popular culture
* Underland (Narnia)
* Wonderland (fictional country)

Organisations|

* American Society of Reclamation Sciences
* Bergamt
* Cave Research Foundation
* History of hard rock miners' organizations
* National Mine Map Repository
* National Mining Association
* National Speleological Society
* Grotto
* Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining
* Institution of Mining Engineers
* International Union of Speleology
* Pakistan Cave Research & Caving Federation
* Research Centre for Deep Drilling
* Rocky Mountain Mineral Law Foundation
* Society of Economic Geologists
* Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy

Related topics|

* Cave conservation
* Cave dweller
* Cave diving
* Cave gate
* Cave rescue
* Cave painting
* Caving
* Civil defense
* Tunnel warfare
* Tunnel network
* Trench warfare
* Underground construction
* Tunnel construction
* Underground living
* Mine rescue
* Mine exploration
* Mole people
* Speleology
* Subterranean warfare

* v
* t
* e

Prehistoric cave sites, rock shelters and cave paintings

* Paleoanthropological sites
* Cave paintings
* Caves containing pictograms

Europe

| Armenia|

* Areni-1

|

Austria|

* Drachenhöhle
* Gudenus
* Lurgrotte
* Salzofen
* Tischofer

Belgium|

* Belle-Roche
* Claminforge
* Engis
* Goyet
* Naulette
* Neolithic flint mines of Spiennes
* Ramioul
* Scladina
* Spy
* Trou de l’Abîme

Bosnia|

* Badanj
* Ledenjača

Bulgaria|

* Bacho Kiro
* Devetashka
* Magura
* Kozarnika

Croatia|

* Grapčeva
* Krapina
* Vela Spila
* Vindija

Cyprus|

* Aetokremnos

Czech Republic|

* Amatérská
* Býčí skála
* Koněprusy
* Kůlna
* Mladeč
* Šipka

Finland|

* Wolf

France|

Vézère Valley World Heritage Site
Bara Bahau
Bernifal
Cap Blanc
Castel Merle

Abri Castanet
Reverdit
Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil
Abri Audi
Abri Chadourne
Les Combarelles
Cro-Magnon
Font-de-Gaume
Laugerie-Basse
Laugerie-Haute
La Micoque
La Mouthe
Pataud
Abri du Poisson
Lascaux
La Madeleine
Rouffignac

Other World Heritage Sites
Chauvet

Other caves with decoration
Arcy-sur-Cure
Gargas
Cosquer
Cussac
Fontéchevade
La Chaire a Calvin
La Marche
Lombrives
Marsoulas
Le Mas-d'Azil
Mayrières supérieure
Niaux
Pair-non-Pair
Pech Merle
Roc-aux-Sorciers
Renne
Trois Frères
Villars

Other caves
Arago
Aurignac
Azé
Balauzière
Bonne-Femme
Bouillon
Bruniquel
Calès
Cauna
La Chapelle-aux-Saints
Combe Grenal
La Ferrassie
Fées
Fontbrégoua
Lazaret
Le Moustier
Noisetier
La Quina
Raymonden
Le Regourdou
Rochereil
Vallonnet

Germany|

Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura World Heritage Site
Bockstein
Geissenklösterle
Hohle Fels
Hohlenstein-Stadel
Sirgenstein
Vogelherd

Other caves
Baumann's
Brillenhöhle
Kleine Feldhofer
Lichtenstein
Ofnet

Gibraltar|

* Devil's Tower
* Gorham's
* Vanguard

Greece|

* Alepotrypa
* Apidima
* Eileithyia
* Franchthi
* Kleidi
* Megalakkos
* Petralona
* Stravomyti
* Theopetra

Hungary|

* Baradla
* Szelim

Italy|

* Addaura
* Arene Candide
* Balzi Rossi
* Cavallo
* Corbeddu
* Deer
* Felci
* Paglicci
* Romito
* Villabruna

Jersey|

* St Brelade

Luxembourg|

* Loschbur

Malta|

* Għar Dalam

North Macedonia|

* Cocev Kamen

Norway|

* Svarthola

Poland|

* Obłazowa
* Paradise

Portugal|

* Aroeira
* Escoural
* Furninha
* Lagar Velho
* Pala Pinta
* Pedra Furada
* Pego do Diabo
* Salemas

Romania|

* Coliboaia
* Cuciulat
* Muierilor
* Oase

Russia|

* Akhshtyrskaya
* Chertovy Vorota
* Denisova
* Ignatievka
* Kapova
* Mezmaiskaya
* Okladnikov

Serbia|

* Hadži-Prodan's
* Pešturina
* Risovača
* Mala Balanica

Slovakia|

* Čertova pec
* Domica
* Jasovská

Slovenia|

* Betal
* Divje Babe
* Pekel
* Potok

Spain|

Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain World Heritage Site
Altamira
Caves in Cantabria

Chufín
Covalanas
La Garma
Hornos de la Peña
Monte Castillo

El Castillo
Las Chimeneas
Las Monedas
La Pasiega
El Pendo
Tito Bustillo
Altxerri
Santimamiñe
Los Aviones

Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin World Heritage Site)
Araña
Roca dels Moros

Other World Heritage Sites
Atapuerca
Siega Verde

Other caves with decoration
Bacinete
Barranc del Migdia
Las Caldas
Los Casares
Maltravieso
los Murciélagos
Nerja
Niño
Ojo Guareña
Peñas de Cabrera
la Pileta
Praileaitz
Sidrón

Other caves
Ángel
Antón
Armintxe
Axlor
Bedmar
dels Bous
Don Gaspar
Guanches
El Mirón
Santa Catalina
del Valle

Switzerland|

* Bichon
* Wildkirchli

United Kingdom|

* Aveline's Hole
* Bontnewydd
* Cathole
* Coygan
* Creswell Crags
* Gough's
* Heathery Burn
* High Pasture
* Kendrick's
* Kents
* Long Hole
* Marble Arch
* Oldbury
* Portbraddon
* Red Lady of Paviland
* Sand
* Thor's
* Windmill Hill

Asia

| Afghanistan|

* Darra-e Kur

|

Armenia|

* Areni-1

Azerbaijan|

* Allar
* Azokh
* Buzeyir
* Damjili
* Tağlar
* Zar

Cambodia|

* Laang Spean

China|

* Baishiya
* Fuyan
* Guanyindong
* Luobi
* Tianyuan
* Xianren
* Yuchanyan
* Zhoukoudian
* Zengpiyan
* Zhiren

East Timor|

* Jerimalai
* Laili
* Lene Hara

Georgia|

* Satsurblia

India|

* Ambadevi
* Belum
* Bhimbetka
* Edakkal
* Gudiyam
* Pahargarh
* Tikla

Indonesia|

* Harimaru
* Jeriji Saléh
* Liang Bua
* Pettakere

Iran|

* Bisitun
* Darband
* Do-Ashkaft
* Eshkaft-e Siahoo
* Huto and Kamarband
* Qaleh Bozi
* Warwasi
* Wezmeh
* Yafteh

Iraq|

* Hazar Merd
* Shanidar

Israel|

* Amud
* HaYonim
* Kebara
* Manot
* Misliya
* Nahal Me'arot
* Nahal Hemar
* Nahal Oren
* Qafzeh
* Qesem
* Raqefet
* Skhul
* Tabun
* Zuttiyeh

Japan|

* Kosegasawa
* Minatogawa
* Muroya
* Ōzakai
* Pinza-Abu
* Shiraho Saonetabaru
* Tobayama
* Yamashita

Jordan|

* Iraq ed-Dubb

Laos|

* Tham An Mah
* Tam Pa Ling

Lebanon|

* Antelias
* Jeita
* Kaukaba
* Ksar Akil
* Ras Baalbek I
* Ras El Kelb
* Nachcharini

Malaysia|

* Niah

Mongolia|

* Khoit Tsenkher

Myanmar|

* Padah-Lin

Pakistan|

* Sanghao

Palestine|

* Shuqba

Philippines|

* Callao
* Kalanay
* Minori
* Lapuz Lapuz
* Tabon

Sri Lanka|

* Batadombalena
* Belilena
* Fa Hien
* Hunugalagala

Thailand|

* Spirit
* Tham Lod

Turkmenistan|

Dzhebel

Turkey|

* Belbaşı
* Karain

Uzbekistan|

* Obi-Rakhmat
* Teshik-Tash

Vietnam|

* Con Moong
* Ngườm

Africa

| Algeria|

* Gueldaman

|

Botswana|

* Tsodilo
* Manyana Rock Paintings

Cameroon|

* Shum Laka

DR Congo|

* Matupi

Egypt|

* Beasts
* Swimmers

Kenya|

* Enkapune Ya Muto
* Njoro River

Lesotho|

* Liphofung

Libya|

* Haua Fteah
* Uan Muhuggiag

Morocco|

* Hercules
* Ifri n'Amr or Moussa
* Ifri Oudadane
* Jebel Irhoud
* Kelif el Boroud
* Taforalt

Mozambique|

* Ngalue

Namibia|

* Apollo 11
* The White Lady

Nigeria|

* Rop

Somalia|

* Dhambalin
* Laas Geel

South Africa|

Cradle of Humankind, World Heritage Site
Cooper's
Drimolen
Gladysvale
Gondolin
Haasgat
Kromdraai
Makapansgat
Malapa
Motsetsi
Plovers Lake
Rising Star
Sterkfontein
Swartkrans

Other caves
Blombos
Border
Boomplaas
Byneskranskop
Cango
Diepkloof
Elands Bay
Howieson's Poort
Klasies River
Melkhoutboom
Nelson Bay
Pinnacle Point
Sibudu
Wonderwerk

Tanzania|

* Kondoa
* Bahi
* Mumba

Uganda|

* Nyero

Zambia|

* Kalemba
* Mumbwa

Zimbabwe|

* Bambata

North and South America

| Argentina|

* Las Manos

|

Aruba|

* Quadiriki

Belize|

* Actun Tunichil Muknal
* Barton Creek
* Midnight Terror

Brazil|

* Gentio
* Maquiné
* Pedra Pintada
* Peruaçu
* Rei do Mato
* Santo
* Toca da Tira Peia

Canada|

* Bluefish
* Charlie Lake

Chile|

* Fell
* Milodón

Colombia|

* El Abra
* Chiribiquete
* Piedras del Tunjo
* Sáchica
* Tequendama
* Tibitó

Cuba|

* Ambrosio
* Calero
* Centella
* Cura
* Patana
* Pluma
* Punta del Este

Curaçao|

* Hato

Dominican Republic|

* Pomier

Jamaica|

* Long Mile

Mexico|

* Chan Hol
* Coxcatlan
* Dzibilchaltún
* Las Flechas
* Frightful
* Guilá Naquitz
* Ox Bel Ha
* Oxtotitlán
* Sac Actun

Peru|

* Chivateros
* Guitarrero
* Pikimachay
* Qillqatani
* Toquepala
* T'uqu T'uquyuq

Suriname|

* Werehpai

United States|

* Arnold Research
* Baker
* Bonfire
* Bull Thistle
* Burnet
* Cherry Creek
* Colorado Millennial
* Danger
* Daugherty's
* Dry Creek
* Durango
* Dust
* Dutchess Quarry
* Fort Rock
* Franktown
* Gatecliff
* Graham
* Hidden
* Hidden Valley
* Hogup
* Humboldt
* La Grange
* Last Supper
* Levi
* LoDaisKa
* Lovelock
* Mammoth
* Mantle's
* Marmes
* Martz
* Meadowcroft
* Modoc
* Mummy
* On Your Knees
* Paisley
* Pendejo
* Pictograph
* Rockhouse Cliffs
* Russell
* Sandia
* Shoup
* Sisyphus
* Stanfield-Worley
* Tainter
* Tomaquag
* Trail Creek
* Trinchera
* Ventana
* Wilson Butte

Oceania

| Australia|

* Abrakurrie
* Acheron
* Ballawinne
* Beeton Shelter
* Beginner's Luck
* Blanche
* Bradshaws
* Bone
* Burrup
* Cave Bay
* Cliefden
* Cloggs
* Devil's Lair
* Eagles Reach
* Fossil
* Gabarnmung
* Jenolan
* Koongine
* Koonalda
* Kutikina
* Mackintosh 90/1
* Madjedbebe
* Mammoth
* Mannalargenna
* Mudgegonga
* Murrawijinie
* Murujuga
* Naracoorte
* New Guinea II
* Nunamira
* ORS 7
* Tarragal
* Ubirr
* Wargata Mina
* Warratyi
* Warreen
* Wellington

|

Guam|

* Gadao's
* Mahlac
* Talagi

Hawaii|

* Makauwahi

New Caledonia|

* Pindai

New Zealand|

* Moncks
* Ruakuri

Northern Mariana Islands|

* Chugai'

Papua New Guinea|

* Kilu

Samoa|

* Falemauga

Tuvalu|

* Nanumanga

* Cave
* List of caves
* Cave painting
* Speleology

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