Culture

Culture (/ˈkʌltʃər/ KUL-chər) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, attitudes, and habits of the individuals in these groups.[1] Culture often originates from or is attributed to a specific region or location.

Humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies. A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group. Accepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change.[2] Thus in military culture, valor is counted as a typical behavior for an individual, and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the continuum of conflict. In religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group.

Cultural change, or repositioning, is the reconstruction of a cultural concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies. Organizations like UNESCO attempt to preserve culture and cultural heritage.

## Contents

* 1 Description
* 2 Etymology
* 3 Change
* 4 Early modern discourses
* 4.1 German Romanticism
* 4.2 English Romanticism
* 5 Anthropology
* 6 Sociology
* 6.1 Early researchers and development of cultural sociology
* 7 Cultural studies
* 7.1 Super culture
* 8 Psychology
* 9 Protection of culture
* 10 See also
* 11 References
* 11.1 Sources
* 12 External links

## Description

Pygmy music has been polyphonic well before their discovery by non-African explorers of the Baka, Aka, Efe, and other foragers of the Central African forests, in the 1200s, which is at least 200 years before polyphony developed in Europe. Note the multiple lines of singers and dancers. The motifs are independent, with theme and variation interweaving.[3] This type of music is thought to be the first expression of polyphony in world music.

Culture is considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Cultural universals are found in all human societies. These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing. The concept of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social organization (including practices of political organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature (both written and oral), and science comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society.[4]

In the humanities, one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in the arts, sciences, education, or manners.[5] The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies.[6] Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class-based distinctions between a high culture of the social elite and a low culture, popular culture, or folk culture of the lower classes, distinguished by stratified access to cultural capital.[7] In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other, such as body modification, clothing or jewelry.[8] Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass-mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century.[9] Some schools of philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the proletariat and create a false consciousness.[10] Such perspectives are common in the discipline of cultural studies.[11] In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.[12]

When used as a count noun, a "culture" is the set of customs, traditions, and values of a society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation, and the knowledge acquired over time.[13] In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet.[14] Sometimes "culture" is also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society, a subculture (e.g., "bro culture"), or a counterculture.[15] Within cultural anthropology, the ideology and analytical stance of cultural relativism hold that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of a given culture.[16]

## Etymology

The modern term culture is based on a term used by the ancient Roman orator Cicero in his Tusculanae Disputationes, where he wrote of a cultivation of the soul or cultura animi,[17] using an agricultural metaphor for the development of a philosophical soul, understood teleologically as the highest possible ideal for human development. Samuel von Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming philosophy was humanity's natural perfection. This use, and that of many writers, "refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human".[18]

Edward S. Casey wrote, "The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.' To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensely to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, to attend to it caringly."[19]

Culture described by Richard Velkley:[18]

> ... originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meaning in the writings of the 18th-century German thinkers, who were on various levels developing Rousseau's criticism of "modern liberalism and Enlightenment". Thus a contrast between "culture" and "civilization" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.

In the words of anthropologist E. B. Tylor, it is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society".[20] Alternatively, in a contemporary variant, "Culture is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses and material expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held in common.[21]

The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is "the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time."[22] Terror management theory posits that culture is a series of activities and worldviews that provide humans with the basis for perceiving themselves as "person[s] of worth within the world of meaning"—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance and death that Homo sapiens became aware of when they acquired a larger brain.[23][24]

The word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols and to act imaginatively and creatively.[25] This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans.[26] However, some other species have demonstrated similar, though less complicated, abilities for social learning.[27] It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that are transmitted through social interaction and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form.[28]

## Change

Main article: Social:Culture change

The Beatles exemplified changing cultural dynamics, not only in music, but fashion and lifestyle. Six decades after their emergence, they continue to have a worldwide cultural impact.

Raimon Panikkar identified 29 ways in which cultural change can be brought about, including growth, development, evolution, involution, renovation, reconception, reform, innovation, revivalism, revolution, mutation, progress, diffusion, osmosis, borrowing, eclecticism, syncretism, modernization, indigenization, and transformation.[29] In this context, modernization could be viewed as adopting Enlightenment-era beliefs and practices, such as science, rationalism, industry, commerce, democracy, and the notion of progress. Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.[30]

19th-century engraving shows Indigenous Australians opposing the arrival of James Cook in 1770

Cultural invention has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior, but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global "accelerating culture change period," driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the human population explosion, among other factors. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.[31]

Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to both social structures and natural events and are involved in perpetuating cultural ideas and practices within current structures, which themselves are subject to change.[32]

Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change. For example, the feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors. For example, after tropical forests returned at the end of the last ice age, plants suitable for domestication were available, leading to the invention of agriculture, which in turn brought about many cultural innovations and shifts in social dynamics.[33]

Turkmen woman, on a carpet at the entrance to a yurt, in traditional clothing. Sense of time is dependent on culture. This is a 1913 photo, but it can be difficult to date for a viewer, due to the absence of cultural cues.

Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices. War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics. Additionally, cultural ideas may transfer from one society to another, through diffusion or acculturation. In diffusion, the form of something (though not necessarily its meaning) moves from one culture to another. For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century.[34] "Stimulus diffusion" (the sharing of ideas) refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention or propagation in another. "Direct borrowing", on the other hand, tends to refer to technological or tangible diffusion from one culture to another. Diffusion of innovations theory presents a research-based model of why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products.[35]

Acculturation has different meanings. Still, in this context, it refers to the replacement of traits of one culture with another, such as what happened to certain Native American tribes and many indigenous peoples across the globe during colonization. Related processes on an individual level include assimilation and transculturation. The transnational flow of culture has played a major role in merging different cultures and sharing thoughts, ideas, and beliefs.

## Early modern discourses

### German Romanticism

Johann Herder called attention to national cultures.

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) formulated an individualist definition of "enlightenment" similar to the concept of bildung: "Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity."[36] He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently. Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: "Sapere Aude" ("Dare to be wise!"). In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of Bildung: "For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people."[37]

Adolf Bastian developed a universal model of culture.

In 1795, the Prussian linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. During the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalist movements—such as the nationalist struggle to create a "Germany" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire—developed a more inclusive notion of culture as "worldview" (Weltanschauung).[38] According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between "civilized" and "primitive" or "tribal" cultures.

In 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for "the psychic unity of mankind".[39] He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements. According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of "elementary ideas" (Elementargedanken); different cultures, or different "folk ideas" (Völkergedanken), are local modifications of the elementary ideas.[40] This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Franz Boas (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States.[41]

### English Romanticism

British poet and critic Matthew Arnold viewed "culture" as the cultivation of the humanist ideal.

In the 19th century, humanists such as English poet and essayist Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) used the word "culture" to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of "the best that has been thought and said in the world".[42] This concept of culture is also comparable to the German concept of bildung: "...culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world".[42]

In practice, culture referred to an elite ideal and was associated with such activities as art, classical music, and haute cuisine.[43] As these forms were associated with urban life, "culture" was identified with "civilization" (from Latin: civitas, lit. 'city'). Another facet of the Romantic movement was an interest in folklore, which led to identifying a "culture" among non-elites. This distinction is often characterized as that between high culture, namely that of the ruling class, and low culture. In other words, the idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.[44]

British anthropologist Edward Tylor was one of the first English-speaking scholars to use the term culture in an inclusive and universal sense.

Matthew Arnold contrasted "culture" with anarchy; other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, contrasted "culture" with "the state of nature". According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between "civilized" and "uncivilized".[45] According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to Herbert Spencer's theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures expresses the conflict between European elites and non-elites, other critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects.

Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. These critics considered folk music (as produced by "the folk," i.e., rural, illiterate, peasants) to honestly express a natural way of life, while classical music seemed superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrayed indigenous peoples as "noble savages" living authentic and unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly stratified capitalist systems of Western culture.

In 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion. According to this theory, religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms.[46] In the process, he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all human societies. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of religion.

## Anthropology

Main article: Social:American anthropology

Petroglyphs in modern-day Gobustan, Azerbaijan, dating to 10,000 BCE and indicating a thriving culture

Although anthropologists worldwide refer to Tylor's definition of culture,[47] in the 20th century "culture" emerged as the central and unifying concept of American anthropology, where it most commonly refers to the universal human capacity to classify and encode human experiences symbolically, and to communicate symbolically encoded experiences socially.[48] American anthropology is organized into four fields, each of which plays an important role in research on culture: biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, and in the United States and Canada, archaeology.[49][50][51][52] The term Kulturbrille, or 'culture glasses', coined by German American anthropologist Franz Boas, refers to the "lenses" through which a person sees their own culture. Martin Lindstrom asserts that Kulturbrille, which allow a person to make sense of the culture they inhabit, "can blind us to things outsiders pick up immediately".[53]

## Sociology

An example of folkloric dancing in Colombia

The sociology of culture concerns culture as manifested in society. For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history".[54] As such, culture in the sociological field can be defined as the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people's way of life. Culture can be either of two types, non-material culture or material culture.[4] Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present.

Cultural sociology first emerged in Weimar Germany (1918–1933), where sociologists such as Alfred Weber used the term Kultursoziologie ('cultural sociology'). Cultural sociology was then reinvented in the English-speaking world as a product of the cultural turn of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may be loosely regarded as an approach incorporating cultural analysis and critical theory. Cultural sociologists tend to reject scientific methods, instead hermeneutically focusing on words, artifacts and symbols. Culture has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis. As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus, there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead, look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of social psychology and cognitive science.[55]

Nowruz is a good sample of popular and folklore culture that is celebrated by people in more than 22 countries with different nations and religions, at the 1st day of spring. It has been celebrated by diverse communities for over 7,000 years.

### Early researchers and development of cultural sociology

The sociology of culture grew from the intersection between sociology (as shaped by early theorists like Marx,[56] Durkheim, and Weber) with the growing discipline of anthropology, wherein researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies for describing and analyzing a variety of cultures around the world. Part of the legacy of the early development of the field lingers in the methods (much of cultural, sociological research is qualitative), in the theories (a variety of critical approaches to sociology are central to current research communities), and in the substantive focus of the field. For instance, relationships between popular culture, political control, and social class were early and lasting concerns in the field.

## Cultural studies

Main article: Social:Cultural studies

In the United Kingdom, sociologists and other scholars influenced by Marxism such as Stuart Hall (1932–2014) and Raymond Williams (1921–88) developed cultural studies. Following nineteenth-century Romantics, they identified culture with consumption goods and leisure activities (such as art, music, film, food, sports, and clothing). They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.[57][58]

In the UK, cultural studies focuses largely on the study of popular culture; that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. Richard Hoggart coined the term in 1964 when he founded the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or CCCS.[59] Cultural studies in this sense, then, can be viewed as a limited concentration scoped on the intricacies of consumerism, which belongs to a wider culture sometimes referred to as Western civilization or globalism.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art in Manhattan. Visual art can be one expression of high culture.

From the 1970s onward, Stuart Hall's pioneering work, along with that of his colleagues Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, Tony Jefferson, and Angela McRobbie, created an international intellectual movement. As the field developed, it began to combine political economy, communication, sociology, social theory, literary theory, media theory, film/video studies, cultural anthropology, philosophy, museum studies, and art history to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. In this field researchers often concentrate on how particular phenomena relate to matters of ideology, nationality, ethnicity, social class, or gender.[60]

Cultural studies is concerned with the meaning and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture. It also studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture involves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to "fit in" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice.

In the context of cultural studies, a text includes not only written language, but also films, photographs, fashion, or hairstyles: the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture.[61] Similarly, the discipline widens the concept of culture. Culture, for a cultural-studies researcher, not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of the ruling social groups)[62] and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is comparative cultural studies, based on the disciplines of comparative literature and cultural studies.[63]

Scholars in the UK and the US developed different versions of cultural studies after the 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 60s, mainly under the influence of Richard Hoggart, E. P. Thompson, and Raymond Williams, and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. This included overtly political, left-wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as "capitalist" mass culture; it absorbed some of the ideas of the Frankfurt School critique of the "culture industry" i.e. mass culture. This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and Paul Gilroy.

In the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, "cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition."[64] The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, mass culture; for example, American cultural-studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of fandom.[65][66]

Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a Marxist model to the field. This strain of thinking has some influence from the Frankfurt School, but especially from the structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning. This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies power as residing with those producing cultural artifacts.

In a Marxist view, the mode and relations of production form the economic base of society, which constantly interacts and influences superstructures, such as culture.[67] Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product.

This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman (by Paul du Gay et al.),[68] which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist, and art historian Griselda Pollock contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of art history and psychoanalysis. The writer Julia Kristeva is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical French feminism.[69]

Petrakis and Kostis (2013) divide cultural background variables into two main groups:[70]

1. The first group covers the variables that represent the "efficiency orientation" of the societies: performance orientation, future orientation, assertiveness, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance.
2. The second covers the variables that represent the "social orientation" of societies, i.e., the attitudes and lifestyles of their members. These variables include gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, and human orientation.

In 2016, a new approach to culture was suggested by Rein Raud,[30] who defines culture as the sum of resources available to human beings for making sense of their world and proposes a two-tiered approach, combining the study of texts (all reified meanings in circulation) and cultural practices (all repeatable actions that involve the production, dissemination or transmission of purposes), thus making it possible to re-link anthropological and sociological study of culture with the tradition of textual theory.

### Super culture

A super culture is a collection of cultures and subcultures, that interact with one another, share similar characteristics and collectively have a degree of sense of unity. In other words, Super-culture is a culture encompassing several subcultures with common elements.[71] Examples include: List of Super-cultures:

* Rave - In modern society, rave is described as a culture closely defined as a super culture.[72][73]
* Steampunk - it is fast becoming a super-culture rather than a mere subculture.[74]
* Foodtruck collectives & Pop-up Restaurants + Shops.

Some ancient cultures that are also considered (termed) "Super-culture":

* Megalithic Super-culture in Prehistoric Europe
* Asian Super-culture (See Korean nationalist historiography)

## Psychology

See also: Social:Social psychology, Cultural psychology, and Cross-cultural psychology

The NYC Pride March is the world's largest LGBT event. Regional variation exists with respect to tolerance in different parts of the world.

Cognitive tools suggest a way for people from certain culture to deal with real-life problems, like Suanpan for mathematical calculation.

Starting in the 1990s,[75]: 31 psychological research on culture influence began to grow and challenge the universality assumed in general psychology.[76]: 158–168 [77] Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture. For example, people from collectivistic cultures, such as the Japanese, suppress their positive emotions more than their American counterparts.[78] Culture may affect the way that people experience and express emotions. On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's personalities across cultures.[79][80] As different cultures dictate distinctive norms, culture shock is also studied to understand how people react when they are confronted with other cultures. LGBT culture is displayed with significantly different levels of tolerance within different cultures and nations. Cognitive tools may not be accessible or they may function differently cross culture.[75]: 19 For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style.[81] Cultural lenses may also make people view the same outcome of events differently. Westerners are more motivated by their successes than their failures, while East Asians are better motivated by the avoidance of failure.[82]

Culture is important for psychologists to consider when understanding the human mental operation. The notion of the anxious, unstable, and rebellious adolescent has been criticized by experts, such as Robert Epstein, who state that an undeveloped brain is not the main cause of teenagers' turmoils.[83][84] Some have criticized this understanding of adolescence, classifying it as a relatively recent phenomenon in human history created by modern society,[85][86][87][88] and have been highly critical of what they view as the infantilization of young adults in American society.[89] According to Robert Epstein and Jennifer, "American-style teen turmoil is absent in more than 100 cultures around the world, suggesting that such mayhem is not biologically inevitable. Second, the brain itself changes in response to experiences, raising the question of whether adolescent brain characteristics are the cause of teen tumult or rather the result of lifestyle and experiences."[90] David Moshman has also stated in regards to adolescence that brain research "is crucial for a full picture, but it does not provide an ultimate explanation".[91]

## Protection of culture

Restoration of an ancient Egyptian monument

There are a number of international agreements and national laws relating to the protection of cultural heritage and cultural diversity. UNESCO and its partner organizations such as Blue Shield International coordinate international protection and local implementation.[92][93] The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions deal with the protection of culture. Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights deals with cultural heritage in two ways: it gives people the right to participate in cultural life on the one hand and the right to the protection of their contributions to cultural life on the other.[94]

Anarchist poster reading "No Culture, No Future!", 5 December 2024

In the 21st century, the protection of culture has been the focus of increasing activity by national and international organizations. The United Nations and UNESCO promote cultural preservation and cultural diversity through declarations and legally-binding conventions or treaties. The aim is not to protect a person's property, but rather to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity, especially in the event of war and armed conflict. According to Karl von Habsburg, President of Blue Shield International, the destruction of cultural assets is also part of psychological warfare. The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target. It is also intended to affect the particularly sensitive cultural memory, the growing cultural diversity and the economic basis (such as tourism) of a state, region or municipality.[95][96][97]

Tourism is having an increasing impact on the various forms of culture. On the one hand, this can be physical impact on individual objects or the destruction caused by increasing environmental pollution and, on the other hand, socio-cultural effects on society.[98][99][100]

## See also

* Animal culture
* Cultural area
* Cultural identity
* Cultural tourism
* Culture 21 – United Nations plan of action
* Outline of culture
* Recombinant culture
* Semiotics of culture
* Subculture

## References

1. ↑ Tylor, Edward. (1871). Primitive Culture. Vol 1. New York: J. P. Putnam's Son
2. ↑ Jackson, Y. Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology, p. 203
3. ↑ Michael Obert (2013) Song from the Forest
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Macionis, John J.; Gerber, Linda Marie (2011). Sociology. Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-13-700161-3. OCLC 652430995.
5. ↑ Williams, Raymond (1988). Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Fontana. p. 87.
6. ↑ Childe, V. Gordon (1951). Man Makes Himself. Mentor. p. 150.
7. ↑ Bourdieu, Pierre (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Routledge. p. 1.
8. ↑ Hall, Stuart (1997). Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. Sage. p. 17.
9. ↑ Storey, John (1996). Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice. Routledge. p. 50.
10. ↑ Eagleton, Terry (1983). Literary Theory: An Introduction. Blackwell. p. 95.
11. ↑ Williams, Raymond (1958). Culture and Society. Chatto & Windus. p. 125.
12. ↑ Harris, Marvin (1979). Cultural Materialism: The Struggle for a Science of Culture. Random House. p. 2.
13. ↑ Geertz, Clifford (1973). The Interpretation of Cultures. Basic Books. p. 89.
14. ↑ Kymlicka, Will (1995). Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights. Oxford University Press. p. 4.
15. ↑ Hebdige, Dick (1979). Subculture: The Meaning of Style. Routledge. p. 5.
16. ↑ Boas, Franz (1940). Race, Language, and Culture. University of Chicago Press. p. 212.
17. ↑ Marcus Tullius Cicero (1812) (in fr). Tusculanes. Nismes: J. Gaude. p. 273. OCLC 457735057. https://books.google.com/books?id=0ZcOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA273. Retrieved March 3, 2018.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Velkley, Richard L. (2002). "The Tension in the Beautiful: On Culture and Civilization in Rousseau and German Philosophy". Being after Rousseau: philosophy and culture in question. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 11–30. ISBN 978-0-226-85256-0. OCLC 47930775.
19. ↑ Sorrells, Kathryn (2015). Intercultural Communication: Globalization and Social Justice. Los Angeles: Sage. ISBN 978-1-4129-2744-4. https://archive.org/details/interculturalcom0000sorr.
20. ↑ Tylor 1974, 1.
21. ↑ James, Paul; Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred (2015). Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability. London: Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-138-02572-1. OCLC 942553107. https://www.academia.edu/9294719. Retrieved May 29, 2017.
22. ↑ "culture". culture. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/culture. Retrieved July 26, 2015.
23. ↑ Pyszczynski, Tom; Solomon, Sheldon; Greenberg, Jeff (2015). Thirty Years of Terror Management Theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. 52. pp. 1–70. doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2015.03.001. ISBN 978-0-12-802247-4.
24. ↑ Greenberg, Jeff; Koole, Sander L.; Pyszczynski, Tom (2013). Handbook of Experimental Existential Psychology. Guilford Publications. ISBN 978-1-4625-1479-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=g_9dAgAAQBAJ. Retrieved June 1, 2016.
25. ↑ Mellars, Paul (2005). "Archaeology and the origins of modern human behavior". Current Anthropology 46 (1): 15–60. doi:10.1086/426050.
26. ↑ Mellars, Paul (2005). "Archaeology and the origins of modern human behavior". Current Anthropology 46 (1): 15–60. doi:10.1086/426050.
27. ↑ Laland, Kevin N.; Williams, Kimberly (2007). "The evolution of social learning and social cognition". Animal Behaviour 74 (4): 571–581. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.12.004.
28. ↑ Tylor, Edward Burnett (1871). Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom. John Murray.
29. ↑ Panikkar, Raimon (1991). Pathil, Kuncheria. ed. Religious Pluralism: An Indian Christian Perspective. ISPCK. pp. 252–299. ISBN 978-81-7214-005-2. OCLC 25410539.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Rein, Raud (2016). Meaning in Action: Outline of an Integral Theory of Culture. Cambridge: Polity. ISBN 978-1-5095-1124-2. OCLC 944339574.
31. ↑ Chigbu, Uchendu Eugene (July 3, 2015). "Repositioning culture for development: women and development in a Nigerian rural community". Community, Work & Family 18 (3): 334–350. doi:10.1080/13668803.2014.981506. ISSN 1366-8803.
32. ↑ O'Neil, Dennis (2006). "Culture Change: Processes of Change". Palomar College. http://anthro.palomar.edu/change/change_2.htm.
33. ↑ Pringle, Heather (November 20, 1998). "The Slow Birth of Agriculture". Science 282 (5393): 1446. doi:10.1126/science.282.5393.1446. ISSN 0036-8075.
34. ↑ Wei, Clarissa (March 20, 2018). "Why China Loves American Chain Restaurants So Much". https://www.eater.com/2018/3/20/16973532/mcdonalds-starbucks-kfc-china-pizza-hut-growth-sales.
35. ↑ Stephen Wolfram (May 16, 2017) A New Kind of Science: A 15-Year View As applied to the computational universe
36. ↑ Kant, Immanuel. 1784. "Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?" (German: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?) Berlinische Monatsschrift, December (Berlin Monthly)
37. ↑ Eldridge, Michael. "The German Bildung Tradition". UNC Charlotte. http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/USC/pbt1.html.
38. ↑ Underhill, James W. (2009). Humboldt, Worldview, and Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
39. ↑ Köpping, Klaus-Peter (2005). Adolf Bastian and the psychic unity of mankind. Lit Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8258-3989-5. OCLC 977343058.
40. ↑ Ellis, Ian. "Biography of Adolf Bastian, ethnologist". https://todayinsci.com/B/Bastian_Adolf/BastianAdolf.htm.
41. ↑ Liron, Tal (2003). Franz Boas and the discovery of culture (PDF) (Thesis). OCLC 52888196. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 2, 2017. Retrieved October 30, 2016.
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Arnold, Matthew (1869). "Culture and Anarchy". http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_all.html.
43. ↑ Williams (1983), p. 90. Cited in Roy, Shuker (1997). Understanding popular music. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-415-10723-5. OCLC 245910934. https://archive.org/details/understandingpop0000shuk_i1i5/page/5. argues that contemporary definitions of culture fall into three possibilities or mixture of the following three:
* "a general process of intellectual, spiritual, and aesthetic development."
* "a particular way of life, whether of a people, period or a group."
* "the works and practices of intellectual and especially artistic activity."
44. ↑ Bakhtin 1981, p. 4
45. ↑ Dunne, Timothy; Reus-Smit, Christian (2017). The globalization of international society. Oxford. pp. 102–121. ISBN 978-0-19-251193-5.
46. ↑ McClenon, pp. 528–529
47. ↑ Angioni, Giulio (1973) (in it). Tre saggi sull'antropologia dell'età coloniale. OCLC 641869481.
48. ↑ Teslow, Tracy (2016). Constructing race: the science of bodies and cultures in American anthropology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-60338-3. OCLC 980557304.
49. ↑ "anthropology". anthropology. Oxford University Press. http://www.lexico.com/definition/anthropology.
50. ↑ Fernandez, James W.; Hanchett, Suzanne L.; Jeganathan, Pradeep; Nicholas, Ralph W.; Robotham, Donald Keith; Smith, Eric A. (August 31, 2015). "anthropology". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/anthropology. Retrieved October 30, 2016.
51. ↑ "What is Anthropology? – Advance Your Career". American Anthropological Association. http://www.americananthro.org/AdvanceYourCareer/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2150.
52. ↑ Haviland, William A.; McBride, Bunny; Prins, Harald E. L.; Walrath, Dana (2011). Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge. Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-81082-7. OCLC 731048150.
53. ↑ Lindström, Martin (2016). Small data: the tiny clues that uncover huge trends. London: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1-250-08068-4. OCLC 921994909.
54. ↑ Simmel, Georg (1971). Levine, Donald N.. ed. Georg Simmel on individuality and social forms: selected writings. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. xix. ISBN 978-0-226-75776-6. OCLC 951272809.
55. ↑ Griswold, Wendy (1987). "A Methodological Framework for the Sociology of Culture". Sociological Methodology 17: 1–35. doi:10.2307/271027. ISSN 0081-1750.
56. ↑ Berlin, Isaiah; Ryan, Alan (2002). Karl Marx: His Life and Environment. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-19-510326-7. OCLC 611127754. https://archive.org/details/karlmarxhislifee00berl/page/130.
57. ↑ Williams, Raymond (1983), Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 87–93, 236–238, OCLC 906396817
58. ↑ Berger, John (1972). Ways of seeing. Peter Smithn. ISBN 978-0-563-12244-9. OCLC 780459348.
59. ↑ "Studying Culture – Reflections and Assessment: An Interview with Richard Hoggart". Media, Culture & Society 13.
60. ↑ Sardar, Ziauddin; Van Loon, Borin; Appignanesi, Richard (1994). Introducing Cultural Studies. New York: Totem Books. ISBN 978-1-84046-587-7. OCLC 937991291.
61. ↑ Fiske, John; Turner, Graeme; Hodge, Robert Ian Vere (1987). Myths of Oz: reading Australian popular culture. London: Allen and Unwin. ISBN 978-0-04-330391-7. OCLC 883364628.
62. ↑ Bakhtin, Mikhail Mikhaĭlovich; Holquist, Michael (1981). The dialogic imagination four essays. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 4. OCLC 872436352.
63. ↑ "Comparative Cultural Studies". 2015. http://www.thepress.purdue.edu/series/comparative-cultural-studies.
64. ↑ Lindlof, Thomas R.; Taylor, Bryan C. (2002). Qualitative Communication Research Methods (2nd ed.). Sage. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-7619-2493-7. OCLC 780825710. https://archive.org/details/qualitativecommu00lind/page/60.
65. ↑ Jenkins, Henry (1992). Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Participatory Culture. Routledge. p. 2.
66. ↑ Fiske, John (1989). Understanding Popular Culture. Routledge. p. 67.
67. ↑ Gonick, Cy (February 7, 2006). "Marxism". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/marxism. Retrieved October 7, 2019.
68. ↑ du Gay, Paul, ed (1997). Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman. Sage. ISBN 978-0-7619-5402-6. OCLC 949857570. https://books.google.com/books?id=gX-kksNNdFIC. Retrieved July 2, 2015.
69. ↑ MacKenzie, Gina (August 21, 2018). "Julia Kristeva". Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press. https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780190221911/obo-9780190221911-0063.xml. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
70. ↑ Petrakis, Panagiotis; Kostis, Pantelis (December 1, 2013). "Economic growth and cultural change". The Journal of Socio-Economics 47: 147–157. doi:10.1016/j.socec.2013.02.011.
71. ↑ Culture and History, by Philip Bagby
72. ↑ „Die Elektronische Invasion. Rave – aus der Subkultur in die Superkultur“ Benjamin Franz Jochum, University of Copenhagen, 2012.
73. ↑ The Subculture Reader, Ken Gelder, 2005
74. ↑ "Stan Lee's Comikaze Expo 2012 Panel Schedule, Saturday, September 15". Comikaze Expo. Sep 2012. http://comikazeexpo.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Comikaze-Panel-Schedule-Saturday-9-1.15.121.pdf.
75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Heine, Steven J. (2015). "Cultural psychology". WIREs Cognitive Science (New York: Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science) 1 (2): 254–266. doi:10.1002/wcs.7. ISBN 978-0-3932-6398-5. OCLC 911004797. PMID 26271239.
76. ↑ Myers, David G. (2010). Social psychology (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-0733-7066-8. OCLC 667213323.
77. ↑ Norenzayan, Ara; Heine, Steven J. (September 2005). "Psychological universals: what are they and how can we know?". Psychological Bulletin 131 (5): 763–784. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.5.763. ISSN 0033-2909. PMID 16187859.
78. ↑ Miyahara, Akira. "Toward Theorizing Japanese Communication Competence from a Non-Western Perspective". American Communication Journal 3 (3).
79. ↑ McCrae, Robert R.; Costa, Paul T.; de Lima, Margarida Pedroso; Simões, António; Ostendorf, Fritz; Angleitner, Alois; Marušić, Iris; Bratko, Denis et al. (1999). "Age differences in personality across the adult life span: Parallels in five cultures.". Developmental Psychology (American Psychological Association (APA)) 35 (2): 466–477. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.2.466. ISSN 1939-0599. PMID 10082017.
80. ↑ Cheung, F. M.; Leung, K.; Fan, R. M.; Song, W. S.; Zhang, J. X.; Zhang, H. P. (March 1996). "Development of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory.". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 27 (2): 181–199. doi:10.1177/0022022196272003.
81. ↑ Baillargeon, Rene (2002), "The Acquisition of Physical Knowledge in Infancy: A Summary in Eight Lessons", Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development, Blackwell Publishers Ltd, pp. 47–83, doi:10.1002/9780470996652.ch3, ISBN 978-0-470-99665-2
82. ↑ Heine, Steven J.; Kitayama, Shinobu; Lehman, Darrin R. (2001). "Cultural Differences in Self-Evaluation". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 32 (4): 434–443. doi:10.1177/0022022101032004004. ISSN 0022-0221.
83. ↑ Epstein, Robert (June 2007). "The Myth of the Teen Brain". Scientific American 17 (2): 68–75. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0607-68sp. Bibcode: 2007SciAm..17...68E. https://drrobertepstein.com/pdf/Epstein-THE_MYTH_OF_THE_TEEN_BRAIN-Scientific_American_Mind-4-07.pdf.
84. ↑ Romer, Dan (29 October 2017). "Why it's time to lay the stereotype of the 'teen brain' to rest". The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/why-its-time-to-lay-the-stereotype-of-the-teen-brain-to-rest-85888.
85. ↑ "The Invention of Adolescence". June 9, 2016. https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/199501/the-invention-adolescence.
86. ↑ Fasick, Frank A. (February 1994). "On the "Invention" of Adolescence.". Journal of Early Adolescence 14 (1): 6–23. doi:10.1177/0272431694014001002. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ482132. "[...] the application of technology to increase productivity, the affluence generated by it, and the related structural changes in society have contributed to the creation of adolescence in the North American urban-industrial society".
87. ↑ Epstein, Robert (2010). Teen 2.0: Saving Our Children and Families from the Torment of Adolescence. Linden Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61035-101-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=OENf1J45SS0C.
88. ↑ Demos, John; Demos, Virginia (1969). "Adolescence in Historical Perspective". Journal of Marriage and Family 31 (4): 632–638. doi:10.2307/349302. "The idea of adolescence is today one of our most widely held and deeply imbedded assumptions about the process of human development. Indeed, most of us treat it not as an idea but as a fact. [...] The concept of adolescence, as generally understood and applied, did not exist before the last two decades of the nineteenth century."
89. ↑ "The Danger of Treating Teens Like Children". http://help.fortroubledteens.com/the-danger-of-treating-teens-like-children.html.
90. ↑ "Are the Brains of Reckless Teens More Mature Than Those of Their Prudent Peers?". Scientific American. August 25, 2009. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-teens-who-behave-reck/. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
91. ↑ Moshman, David (May 17, 2011). "The Teenage Brain: Debunking the 5 Biggest Myths". https://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-moshman/adolescents-and-their-tee_b_858360.html.
92. ↑ Roger O’Keefe, Camille Péron, Tofig Musayev, Gianluca Ferrari "Protection of Cultural Property. Military Manual." UNESCO, 2016, p. 73.
93. ↑ UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly. UNESCO, September 13, 2017.
94. ↑ "UNESCO Legal Instruments: Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1999". http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=15207&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html.
95. ↑ Gerold Keusch "Kulturschutz in der Ära der Identitätskriege" In: Truppendienst - Magazin des Österreichischen Bundesheeres, October 24, 2018.
96. ↑ "Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon" (in de). April 28, 2019. https://www.krone.at/1911689.
97. ↑ Wegener, Corine; Otter, Marjan (Spring 2008), "Cultural Property at War: Protecting Heritage during Armed Conflict", The Getty Conservation Institute Newsletter (The Getty Conservation Institute) 23 (1) ; Stiffman, Eden (May 11, 2015), "Cultural Preservation in Disasters, War Zones. Presents Big Challenges", The Chronicle Of Philanthropy ; Haider, Hans (June 29, 2012), "Missbrauch von Kulturgütern ist strafbar" (in de), Wiener Zeitung
98. ↑ Shepard, Robert (August 2002). "Commodification, culture and tourism". Tourist Studies 2 (2): 183–201. doi:10.1177/146879702761936653.
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100. ↑ Jaafar, Mastura; Rasoolimanesh, S. Mostafa; Ismail, Safura (2017). "Perceived sociocultural impacts of tourism and community participation: A case study of Langkawi Island". Tourism and Hospitality Research 17 (2): 123–134. doi:10.1177/1467358415610373.

### Sources

* Tylor, E. B. (1974). Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom. New York: Gordon Press. ISBN 978-0-87968-091-6.

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