Protestantism

Protestantism is a form of Christianity[lower-alpha 1] that emphasizes justification of sinners through faith alone, the teaching that salvation comes by unmerited divine grace, the priesthood of all believers, and the Bible as the sole infallible source of authority for Christian faith and practice.[1][2] The five solae summarize the basic theological beliefs of mainstream Protestantism.

Protestants follow the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began in the 16th century with the goal of reforming the Catholic Church from perceived errors, abuses, and discrepancies.[3][lower-alpha 2] The Reformation began in the Holy Roman Empire[lower-alpha 3] in 1517, when Martin Luther published his Ninety-five Theses as a reaction against abuses in the sale of indulgences by the Catholic Church, which purported to offer the remission of the temporal punishment of sins to their purchasers.[4] Luther's statements questioned the Catholic Church's role as negotiator between people and God, especially when it came to the indulgence arrangement, which in part granted people the power to purchase a certificate of pardon for the penalization of their sins. Luther argued against the practice of buying or earning forgiveness, claiming instead that salvation is a gift God gives to those who have faith.[5]

Lutheranism spread from Germany[lower-alpha 4] into Denmark–Norway, Sweden, Finland, Livonia, and Iceland.[6] Calvinist churches spread in Germany,[lower-alpha 5] Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland, France, Poland and Lithuania, led by Protestant Reformers such as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli and John Knox.[7] The political separation of the Church of England from the Catholic Church under King Henry VIII began Anglicanism, bringing England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement, under the leadership of reformer Thomas Cranmer, whose work forged Anglican doctrine and identity.[lower-alpha 6]

Protestantism is divided into various denominations on the basis of theology and ecclesiology.[8] Protestants adhere to the concept of an invisible church, in contrast to the Catholic, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Assyrian Church of the East, and the Ancient Church of the East, which all understand themselves as the only original church—the "one true church"—founded by Jesus Christ (though certain Protestant denominations, including historic Lutheranism, hold to this position).[9][10][11] A majority of Protestants[lower-alpha 7] are members of a handful of Protestant denominational families; Adventists, Anabaptists, Anglicans/Episcopalians, Baptists, Calvinist/Reformed,[lower-alpha 8] Lutherans, Methodists, Moravians, Pentecostals, Plymouth Brethren, Presbyterians, Quakers and Waldensians.[14] Nondenominational, charismatic and independent churches are also on the rise, having recently expanded rapidly throughout much of the world, and can be considered to be a large part of Protestantism broadly speaking.[15][16][17][18][19] These various movements, collectively labeled "popular Protestantism"[lower-alpha 9] by scholars such as Peter L. Berger, have been called one of the contemporary world's most dynamic religious movements.[20]

A stricter definition of Protestantism includes only the denominations that emerged directly during the Protestant Reformation, and does not include later branches such as non-denominational Christianity and others.[21][22] In 2004, Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total Protestant population of 833,457,000,[23] while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary estimated 628,862,000 Protestants in early 2025.[24]

## Contents

* 1 Terminology
* 2 Theology
* 2.1 Sola Scriptura
* 2.2 Justification by faith alone
* 2.3 Universal priesthood of believers
* 2.4 Trinity
* 2.5 Five solae
* 2.6 Christ's presence in the Eucharist
* 2.7 Other beliefs
* 3 History
* 3.1 Pre-Reformation
* 3.2 Reformation
* 3.3 Post-Reformation
* 4 Radical Reformation
* 5 Denominations
* 5.1 United and uniting churches
* 6 Major branches
* 6.1 Lutheranism
* 6.2 Anglicanism
* 6.3 Calvinism (Reformed Christianity)
* 6.4 Methodism
* 6.5 Hussitism
* 6.6 Adventism
* 6.7 Pentecostalism
* 6.8 Quakerism
* 6.9 Plymouth Brethren
* 6.10 Baptists
* 6.11 Anabaptism
* 6.12 Other Protestants
* 7 Interdenominational movements
* 7.1 Evangelicalism
* 7.2 Charismatic movement
* 7.3 Neo-charismatic churches
* 8 Protestant offshoots
* 8.1 Arminianism
* 8.2 Pietism
* 8.3 Puritanism, English dissenters and nonconformists
* 8.4 Neo-orthodoxy and paleo-orthodoxy
* 8.5 Christian fundamentalism
* 8.6 Modernism and liberalism
* 9 Protestant culture
* 9.1 Visitation Articles
* 9.2 Thought and work ethic
* 9.3 Science
* 9.4 Government
* 9.5 Rights and liberty
* 9.6 Social teaching
* 9.7 Liturgy
* 9.8 Arts
* 10 Catholic responses
* 11 Ecumenism
* 12 Demographics
* 13 See also
* 14 Explanatory notes
* 15 References
* 15.1 Works cited
* 16 Further reading
* 17 External links

## Terminology

Memorial Church, finished and consecrated in 1904 in Speyer, Germany, commemorates the Protestation.

The Protesting Speyer, part of the Luther Monument in Worms, Germany

Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, who issued a protest (or dissent) against the edict of the Diet of Speyer (1529), were the first individuals to be called Protestants.[25] The term protestant, though initially purely political in nature, later acquired a broader sense, referring to a member of any Western church which subscribed to the main Protestant principles.[25] A Protestant is an adherent of any of those Christian bodies that separated from the Church of Rome during the Reformation, or of any group descended from them.[26]

During the Reformation, the term protestant was hardly used outside of German politics. People who were involved in the religious movement used the word evangelical (German: evangelisch). Gradually, protestant became a general term, meaning any adherent of the Reformation in the German-speaking area. It was ultimately somewhat taken up by Lutherans, even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed faith in Christ. French and Swiss Protestants instead preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral, and alternative name for Calvinists.

The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was widely used for those involved in the religious movement in the German-speaking area beginning in 1517.[27] Evangelical is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran, Calvinist, and United (Lutheran and Reformed) Protestant traditions in Europe, and those with strong ties to them. Above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the Protestant Church in Germany. Thus, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, while the German evangelikal, refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to evangelical Protestant churches, and therefore to a certain part of Protestantism rather than to Protestantism as a whole. The English word traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States.

Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, a Greek word meaning "good news", i.e. "gospel".[28] The followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two evangelical groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists.

The German word reformatorisch, which roughly translates to English as "reformational" or "reforming", is used as an alternative for evangelisch in German, and is different from English reformed (German: reformiert), which refers to churches shaped by ideas of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other Reformed theologians. Derived from the word "Reformation", the term emerged around the same time as Evangelical (1517) and Protestant (1529).

## Theology

Two central figures of the Reformation, Martin Luther and John Calvin, depicted on a church pulpit; both Luther and Calvin emphasized making preaching a centerpiece of worship.

The Bible translated into vernacular by Martin Luther. In Protestantism, the Bible is the supreme authority.

Many experts have proposed criteria to determine whether a Christian denomination should be considered part of Protestantism. A common consensus approved by most of them is that if a Christian denomination is to be considered Protestant, it must acknowledge the following three fundamental principles of Protestantism.[29]

### Sola Scriptura

Main article: Religion:Sola scriptura

The belief, emphasized by Luther, in the Bible as the highest source of authority for the church. The early churches of the Reformation believed in a critical, yet serious, reading of scripture and holding the Bible as a source of authority higher than that of tradition, though Lutherans cherish tradition for its role in maintaining order and transmitting the Gospel.[30][31] The many abuses that had occurred in the Western Church before the Protestant Reformation led the Reformers to reject certain Roman Catholic traditions.[30] In the early 20th century, a less critical reading of the Bible developed in the United States—leading to a "fundamentalist" reading of Scripture. Christian fundamentalists read the Bible as the "inerrant, infallible" Word of God, as do the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran and Anglican churches, but interpret it in a literalist fashion without using the historical-critical method. Methodists and Anglicans differ from Lutherans and the Reformed on this doctrine as they teach prima scriptura, which holds that Scripture is the primary source for Christian doctrine, but that "tradition, experience, and reason" can nurture the Christian religion as long as they are in harmony with the Bible (Protestant canon).[1][32]

Quakers and Methodists (inclusive of the holiness movement), as well as Radical Pietists, Pentecostals and Spiritual Christians emphasize the Holy Spirit and personal closeness to God.[33]

There was also a time when scripture became the new religious imagery. Reformed (Calvinist) theology drew out iconoclastic events when John Calvin arrived in Geneva in 1536. Calvin inherited a city where the old medieval Christian world, with its rituals, images, and pilgrims were taken apart. After the events of the iconoclast in 1566, scripture began to take place of the religious images that were previously removed. These new text images turned scripture into a visual tool. The absence of traditional images created room for the joint idea of scripture with visual objects, generating a new imagery culture that focused on reading, understanding, and reflecting over observations.[34]

### Justification by faith alone

Main article: Religion:Sola fide

Justification by faith alone is the belief that believers are justified, or pardoned for sin, solely through faith in Christ rather than a combination of faith and good works. For Protestants, good works are a necessary consequence rather than cause of justification.[35] However, while justification is by faith alone, there is the position that faith is not nuda fides.[36] John Calvin explained that "it is therefore faith alone which justifies, and yet the faith which justifies is not alone: just as it is the heat alone of the sun which warms the earth, and yet in the sun it is not alone."[36] At the time of the justification of an individual, the Lutheran Churches teach that the process of sanctification commences, which is defined as "the Holy Spirit’s work which follows justification through faith and consists of renewing the believer and bringing forth in him works of renewal."[37] These good works done by Christians are rewarded by God.[38] Lutheran and Reformed Christians differ from Methodists in their view of the possibility of entire sanctification, with Methodists affirming it as a second work of grace.[39][40]

### Universal priesthood of believers

The universal priesthood of believers implies the right and duty of the Christian laity not only to read the Bible in the vernacular, but also to take part in the government and all the public affairs of the Church. It is opposed to the hierarchical system which puts the essence and authority of the Church in an exclusive priesthood, and which makes ordained priests the necessary mediators between God and the people.[35] It is distinguished from the concept of the priesthood of all believers, which did not grant individuals the right to interpret the Bible apart from the Christian community at large because universal priesthood opened the door to such a possibility.[41] There are scholars who cite that this doctrine tends to subsume all distinctions in the church under a single spiritual entity.[42] Calvin referred to the universal priesthood as an expression of the relation between the believer and his God, including the freedom of a Christian to come to God through Christ without human mediation.[43] He also maintained that this principle recognizes Christ as prophet, priest, and king and that his priesthood is shared with his people.[43] In this view, apostolic succession is not grounded in an unbroken chain of ordination, but in the faithfulness of believers to the Word of God, expressed in both faith and practice.

### Trinity

See also: Religion:Trinity and Nontrinitarianism

The Trinity is the belief that God is one God in three persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit.

Protestants who adhere to the Nicene Creed believe in three persons (God the Father, God the Son, and the God the Holy Spirit) as one God.

Movements that emerged around the time of the Protestant Reformation, but are not a part of Protestantism (e.g. Unitarianism), reject the Trinity. This often serves as a reason for exclusion of the Unitarian Universalism, Oneness Pentecostalism, and other movements from Protestantism by various observers. Unitarianism continues to have a presence mainly in Transylvania, England, and the United States.[41]

### Five solae

Main article: Religion:Five solae

The Five solae are five Latin phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the Protestant Reformation and summarize the reformers' basic differences in theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the Catholic Church of the day.[1] The Latin word sola means "alone", "only", or "single".

The use of the phrases as summaries of teaching emerged over time during the Reformation, based on the overarching Lutheran and Reformed principle of sola scriptura (by scripture alone).[1] This idea contains the four main doctrines on the Bible: that its teaching is needed for salvation (necessity); that all the doctrine necessary for salvation comes from the Bible alone (sufficiency); that everything taught in the Bible is correct (inerrancy); and that, by the Holy Spirit overcoming sin, believers may read and understand truth from the Bible itself, though understanding is difficult, so the means used to guide individual believers to the true teaching is often mutual discussion within the church (clarity). The necessity and inerrancy were well-established ideas, garnering little criticism, though they later came under debate from outside during the Enlightenment. The most contentious idea at the time though was the notion that anyone could simply pick up the Bible and learn enough to gain salvation.

The second main principle, sola fide (by faith alone), states that faith in Christ is sufficient alone for eternal salvation and justification. Though argued from scripture, and hence logically consequent to sola scriptura, this is the guiding principle of the work of Luther and the later reformers. Because sola scriptura placed the Bible as the only source of teaching, sola fide epitomizes the main thrust of the teaching the reformers wanted to get back to, namely the direct, close, personal connection between Christ and the believer, hence the reformers' contention that their work was Christocentric.

The other solas, as statements, emerged later, but the thinking they represent was also part of the early Reformation.

* Solus Christus: Christ alone

The Protestants characterize the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of works made meritorious by Christ, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of Christ and his saints, as a denial that Christ is the only mediator between God and man.

* Sola Gratia: Grace alone

Protestants perceived Catholic salvation to be dependent upon the grace of God and the merits of one's own works. The reformers posited that salvation is a gift of God (i.e., God's act of free grace), dispensed by the Holy Spirit owing to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone.

* Soli Deo Gloria: Glory to God alone

All glory is due to God alone since salvation is accomplished solely through his will and action. The reformers believed that human beings—even saints canonized by the Catholic Church, the popes, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy—are not worthy of the glory.

### Christ's presence in the Eucharist

Main article: Religion:Eucharistic theology

A 1547 Lutheran depiction of the Last Supper by Lucas Cranach the Elder

The Protestant movement began to diverge into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late 16th century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the Eucharist. Early Protestants rejected transubstantiation, the Catholic dogma of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist explaining the "transformation from bread and wine to the body and blood of Christ".[44][45] They disagreed with one another concerning the presence of Christ and his body and blood in Holy Communion, with Lutherans affirming, along with Catholics, a corporeal presence,[46][45] and the Reformed affirming a real spiritual presence.[44]

* Lutherans hold that in the Lord's Supper, the Body and Blood of Christ are corporeally present "in, with, and under the form" of bread and wine,[47] a doctrine that the Formula of Concord calls the Sacramental union.[48] In the Eucharist, Lutherans teach that the faithful receive "the very body and blood of Christ."[46]
* The Reformed Churches (Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, Reformed Anglican and Congregationalist traditions) emphasize the real spiritual presence, or sacramental presence, of Christ in the Lord's Supper, holding that "Christ is 'spiritually present' in the sacrament by the ministry of the Holy Spirit and is received by faith". At the time of the Reformation, Anglicans (and consequently Methodists) inherited the Reformed view of the Eucharist as a real spiritual presence,[49][50][51][52] and hold that the way that this real spiritual presence is manifested is a mystery.[53]
* Anabaptists hold a popular simplification of the Zwinglian view, without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the body of Christ (a view referred to as memorialism).[54]

### Other beliefs

Protestants reject the Catholic doctrine of papal supremacy, and have variant views on the number of sacraments, the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and matters of ecclesiastical polity and apostolic succession.[55][56]

## History

### Pre-Reformation

Spread of Lollardy in Medieval England and Medieval Scotland The execution of Jan Hus in 1415 Girolamo Savonarola Wessel Gansfort

Many of the individual ideas that were taken up by various reformers had historical pre-cursors; however, calling them proto-reformers is controversial, as often their theology also had components that are not associated with later Protestants, or that were asserted by some Protestants but denied by others, or that were only superficially similar.

One of the earliest persons to be praised as a Protestant forerunner is Jovinian, who lived in the fourth century AD. He attacked monasticism, ascetism and believed that a saved believer can never be overcome by Satan.[57]

In the 9th century, the theologian Gottschalk of Orbais was condemned for heresy by the Catholic Church. Gottschalk believed that the salvation of Jesus was limited and that his redemption was only for the elect.[58] The theology of Gottschalk anticipated the Protestant reformation.[59][60][self-published source?] Ratramnus also defended the theology of Gottschalk and denied the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist; his writings also influenced the later Protestant reformation.[61] Claudius of Turin in the 9th century also held Protestant ideas, such as faith alone and rejection of the supremacy of Peter.[62]

In the late 1130s, Arnold of Brescia, an Italian canon regular became one of the first theologians to attempt to reform the Catholic Church. After his death, his teachings on apostolic poverty gained currency among Arnoldists, and later more widely among Waldensians and the Spiritual Franciscans, though no written word of his has survived the official condemnation. In the early 1170s, Peter Waldo founded the Waldensians. He advocated an interpretation of the Gospel that led to conflicts with the Catholic Church. By 1215, the Waldensians were declared heretical and subject to persecution. Despite that, the movement continues to exist to this day in Italy, as a part of the wider Reformed tradition.

In the 1370s, Oxford theologian and priest John Wycliffe—later dubbed the "Morning Star of Reformation"—started his activity as an English reformer. He rejected papal authority over secular power (in that any person in mortal sin lost their authority and should be resisted: a priest with possessions, such as a pope, was in such grave sin), may have translated the Bible into vernacular English, and preached anticlerical and biblically centred reforms. His rejection of a real divine presence in the elements of the Eucharist foreshadowed Huldrych Zwingli's similar ideas in the 16th century. Wycliffe's admirers came to be known as "Lollards".[63]

Beginning in the first decade of the 15th century, Jan Hus—a Catholic priest, Czech reformist and professor—influenced by John Wycliffe's writings, founded the Hussite movement. He strongly advocated his reformist Bohemian religious denomination. He was excommunicated and burned at the stake in Constance, Bishopric of Constance, in 1415 by secular authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy. After his execution, a revolt erupted. Hussites defeated five continuous crusades proclaimed against them by the Pope.

Later theological disputes caused a split within the Hussite movement. Utraquists maintained that both the bread and the wine should be administered to the people during the Eucharist. Another major faction were the Taborites, who opposed the Utraquists in the Battle of Lipany during the Hussite Wars. There were two separate parties among the Hussites: moderate and radical movements. Other smaller regional Hussite branches in Bohemia included Adamites, Orebites, Orphans, and Praguers.

The Hussite Wars concluded with the victory of Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, his Catholic allies and moderate Hussites and the defeat of the radical Hussites. Tensions arose as the Thirty Years' War reached Bohemia in 1620. Both moderate and radical Hussitism was increasingly persecuted by Catholics and Holy Roman Emperor's armies.

In the 14th century, a German mysticist group called the Gottesfreunde criticized the Catholic church and its corruption. Many of their leaders were executed for attacking the Catholic church and they believed that God's judgement would soon come upon the church. The Gottesfreunde were a democratic lay movement and forerunner of the Reformation and put heavy stress of holiness and piety,[64]

Starting in 1475, an Italian Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola was calling for a Christian renewal. Later on, Martin Luther himself read some of the friar's writings and praised him as a martyr and forerunner whose ideas on faith and grace anticipated Luther's own doctrine of justification by faith alone.[65]

Some of Hus' followers founded the Unitas Fratrum—"Unity of the Brethren"—which was renewed under the leadership of Count Nicolaus von Zinzendorf in Herrnhut, Saxony, in 1722 after its almost total destruction in the Thirty Years' War and the Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation"). Today, it is usually referred to in English as the Moravian Church and in German as the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine.

In the 15th century, three German theologians anticipated the reformation: Wessel Gansfort, Johann Ruchat von Wesel, and Johannes von Goch. They held ideas such as predestination, sola scriptura, and the church invisible, and denied the Catholic view on justification and the authority of the Pope, also questioning monasticism.[66] Many protestant reformers also identified the pope as AntiChrist  Some reasons as to why, include that in the canon law Decretum Gratiani Distinctio 96 Chapter "satis evideter", protestants considered the pope claiming illegitimate divine authority including the name "god" which rightly belonged to God. Some also took issue with the interpretation of canon law by some Catholics such as the canonist Zelensinus De Cassanus who wrote the phrase "Dominum Deum Nostrum Papam" or others such as "Deus in Terra" (God on earth) to refer to the pope.[67][68][69][70]

Wessel Gansfort also denied transubstantiation and anticipated the Lutheran view of justification by faith alone.[71]

### Reformation

Distribution of Protestantism and Catholicism in Central Europe on the eve of the Thirty Years' War in 1618

Henry VIII of England, who separated the Church of England from the Catholic Church.

John Knox, who led the Reformation in Scotland, founding Presbyterianism

Template:Reformation The Protestant Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Catholic Church.

On 31 October 1517, Martin Luther allegedly nailed his Ninety-five Theses, also known as the Disputation on the Power of Indulgences, on the door of the All Saints' Church in Wittenberg, Germany, detailing doctrinal and practical abuses of the Catholic Church, especially the selling of indulgences. The theses debated and criticized many aspects of the Church and the papacy, including the practice of purgatory, particular judgment, and the authority of the pope. Luther would later write works against the Catholic devotion to Virgin Mary, the intercession of and devotion to the saints, mandatory clerical celibacy, monasticism, the authority of the pope, the ecclesiastical law, censure and excommunication, the role of secular rulers in religious matters, the relationship between Christianity and the law, good works, and the sacraments.[72]

William the Silent (1533–1584, also known as William of Orange) was the leader of the Dutch Revolt in the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands; first politically from 1559–1568, then militarily from 1568–1584. He is considered one of the most significant figures in Dutch history, known as the Father of the Fatherland, including in European history of the 16th century.

William was a stadtholder (administrator/steward) for King Philip II of Spain (1556–1598) who ruled the Low Countries (Netherlands) after his father, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1519–1556) resigned. Charles V instituted the Inquisition into the Low Countries to subdue the heresies of the Protestant Reformation (according to him), as Philip II carried on his policies but with much greater motivation and gravity. He first granted Cardinal Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle (1517–1586) as head to the Inquisition and then gave the duty to Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba (1507–1582) in 1567, whose oppressions resulted in the thousands of deaths and William's flight to his hometown of Dillenburg.

William developed an uprising, and returned in 1568, leading the Dutch Protestant forces against those of Catholic Spain until his assassination in 1584. The role of leader then went to his son, Maurice of Orange (1567–1625), followed by another son, Frederick Henry (1584–1647), who continued his father's vision until his death one year before the end of the Eighty Years' War and complete Dutch independence.[73]

Martin Bucer (1491–1551) was a German reformer and theologian who was a Dominican friar and priest until his conversion to the Lutheranism in 1518. He is most famous for his focus on unity among all Christians, and therefore, he never settled his own sect but influenced many instead. Similar to other reformers, Bucer was attracted to the works of the humanist theologian and scholar Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536) before discovering Martin Luther speak in 1518. Erasmus' humanism persuaded Bucer that Luther's beliefs were legit, even though Luther and Erasmus disagreed on many key issues. After departing from the Dominican order in 1521, Bucer preached the Lutheran faith and welcomed the new movement, marrying the former nun Elisabeth Silbereisen in 1522.[73]

The Reformation was a triumph of literacy and the new printing press invented by Johannes Gutenberg.[74][lower-alpha 10] Luther's translation of the Bible into German was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded much of Europe.Cite error: Closing `</ref>` missing for `<ref>` tag Reformers such as Martin Luther translated the Bible into German, making it accessible to ordinary German speakers.[76] William Tyndale produced an English translation, although his efforts were met with resistance and he was captured in Antwerp before it was completed. Condemned for heresy, he was executed by strangulation and then burned at the stake at Vilvoorde in 1536.[77][78] Similar translations into other native tongues took place across Europe.[79]

Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. After the expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the unsuccessful attempts of the Bern reformer William Farel, Calvin was asked to discipline the city of Geneva. His Ordinances of 1541 involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the city council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563.

Protestantism also spread from the German lands into France, where the Protestants were nicknamed Huguenots. Despite heavy persecution, the Reformed tradition made steady progress across large sections of the nation, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. French Protestantism came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. This established the preconditions for a series of conflicts, known as the French Wars of Religion. The civil wars gained impetus with the sudden death of Henry II of France in 1559. Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of August 1572, when the Catholic party annihilated between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars only concluded when Henry IV of France issued the Edict of Nantes, promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Catholicism remained the official state religion, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV's Edict of Fontainebleau which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism the sole legal religion. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg declared the Edict of Potsdam, giving free passage to Huguenot refugees. In the late 17th century, many Huguenots fled. A significant community in France remained in the Cévennes region.

Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, some unresolved differences kept them separate. A long-standing resentment between the German states and the Swiss Confederation led to heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his ideas to Lutheranism. The German Prince Philip of Hesse saw potential in creating an alliance between Zwingli and Luther. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the Colloquy of Marburg, which has become infamous for its failure. The two men could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine.

In 1534, King Henry VIII put an end to all papal jurisdiction in England, after the Pope failed to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon (due to political considerations involving the Holy Roman Emperor);[80] this opened the door to reformational ideas. Later on, King Henry rejected the Pope's authority, instead of creating and accepting authority over the Church of England, a type of hybrid church that clashed together some Catholic doctrine and some Protestant ethics.[5] Within the next 20 years, there was religious disturbance in England as Queen Mary (1553–1558) restored Catholicism in England while persecuting and exiling Protestants, only to have Queen Elizabeth I and her Parliament try to lead the country back toward Protestantism during her reign (1558–1603).[5] Reformers in the Church of England alternated between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing into a tradition considered a middle way (via media) between the Catholic and Protestant traditions. The English Reformation followed a particular course. The different character of the English Reformation came primarily from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognized Henry as "the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England". Between 1535 and 1540, under Thomas Cromwell, the policy known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries was put into effect. Following a brief Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary I, a loose consensus developed during the reign of Elizabeth I. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement largely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on the one hand and Catholicism on the other. It was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or English Civil War in the 17th century.

The success of the Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation") on the Continent and the growth of a Puritan party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarized the Elizabethan Age. The early Puritan movement was a movement for reform in the Church of England whose proponents desired for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially that of Geneva. The later Puritan movement, often referred to as dissenters and nonconformists, eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations.

The Scottish Reformation of 1560 decisively shaped the Church of Scotland.[81] The Reformation in Scotland culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along Reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish Reformation. The Scottish Reformation Parliament of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560, forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regent Mary of Guise, who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter.

Some of the most important activists of the Protestant Reformation included Jacobus Arminius, Theodore Beza, Martin Bucer, Andreas von Carlstadt, Heinrich Bullinger, Balthasar Hubmaier, Thomas Cranmer, William Farel, Thomas Müntzer, Laurentius Petri, Olaus Petri, Philipp Melanchthon, Menno Simons, Louis de Berquin, Primož Trubar and John Smyth.

In the course of this religious upheaval, the German Peasants' War of 1524–25 swept through the Bavarian, Thuringian and Swabian principalities. After the Eighty Years' War in the Low Countries and the French Wars of Religion, the confessional division of the states of the Holy Roman Empire eventually erupted in the Thirty Years' War between 1618 and 1648. It devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and 40% of its population.[82] The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were:

* All parties would recognize the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism. (the principle of cuius regio, eius religio)
* Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.
* The treaty also effectively ended the papacy's pan-European political power. Pope Innocent X declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bull Zelo Domus Dei. European sovereigns, Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.[83]

Peak of the Reformation and beginning of the Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation") (1545–1620)

End of the Reformation and Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation") (1648)

Religious situation in Europe, late 16th and early to mid-17th century

### Post-Reformation

An 1839 Methodist camp meeting during the Second Great Awakening in the U.S.

The Great Awakenings were periods of rapid and dramatic religious revival in Anglo-American religious history.

The First Great Awakening was an evangelical and revitalization movement that swept through Protestant Europe and British America, especially the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on American Protestantism. It resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from ritual, ceremony, sacramentalism and hierarchy, it made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality.[84]

The Second Great Awakening began around 1790. It gained momentum by 1800. After 1820, membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the late 1840s. It has been described as a reaction against skepticism, deism, and rationalism, although why those forces became pressing enough at the time to spark revivals is not fully understood.[85] It enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations.

The Third Great Awakening refers to a hypothetical historical period that was marked by religious activism in American history and spans the late 1850s to the early 20th century.[86] It affected pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong element of social activism.[87] It gathered strength from the postmillennial belief that the Second Coming of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire earth. It was affiliated with the Social Gospel Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as the Holiness, Nazarene, and Christian Science movements.[88]

The Fourth Great Awakening was a Christian religious awakening that some scholars—most notably, Robert Fogel—say took place in the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s, while others look at the era following World War II. The terminology is controversial. Thus, the idea of a Fourth Great Awakening itself has not been generally accepted.[89]

In 1814, Le Réveil swept through Calvinist regions in Switzerland and France.

In 1904, a Protestant revival in Wales had a tremendous impact on the local population. A part of British modernization, it drew many people to churches, especially Methodist and Baptist ones.[90]

A noteworthy development in 20th-century Protestant Christianity was the rise of the modern Pentecostal movement. Sprung from Methodist and Wesleyan roots, it arose out of meetings at an urban mission on Azusa Street in Los Angeles. From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there. These Pentecost-like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout history, such as seen in the two Great Awakenings. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed the Charismatic movement within already established denominations, continues to be an important force in Western Christianity.

In the United States and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in the evangelical wing of Protestant denominations, especially those that are more exclusively evangelical, and a corresponding decline in the mainstream liberal churches. In the post–World War I era, Liberal Christianity was on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well. In the post–World War II era, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America's seminaries and church structures.

In Europe, there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards secularism. The Enlightenment is largely responsible for the spread of secularism. Some scholars debate the link between Protestantism and the rise of secularism, and take as argument the wide-ranging freedom in Protestant-majority countries.[91] However, the sole example of France demonstrates that even in Catholic-majority countries, the overwhelming impact of the Enlightenment has brought even stronger secularism and freedom of thought five centuries later. It is more reliable to consider that the Reformation influenced the critical thinkers of the subsequent centuries. Initial philosophers of the Enlightenment were defending a Christian conception of the world, but it was developed together with a fierce and decisive criticism of the Church, its politics, its ethics, its worldview, its scientific and cultural assumptions, leading to the devaluation of all forms of institutionalized Christianity, which extended over the centuries.[92]

## Radical Reformation

Main article: Religion:Radical Reformation

Dissatisfaction with the outcome of a disputation in 1525 prompted Swiss Brethren to part ways with Huldrych Zwingli.

Unlike mainstream Lutheran, Calvinist and Zwinglian movements, the Radical Reformation, which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the "Church visible" as distinct from the "Church invisible". It was a rational extension of the state-approved Protestant dissent, which took the value of independence from constituted authority a step further, arguing the same for the civic realm. The Radical Reformation was non-mainstream, though in parts of Germany, Switzerland and Austria, a majority would sympathize with the Radical Reformation despite the intense persecution it faced from both Catholics and Magisterial Protestants.[93]

The early Anabaptists believed that their reformation must purify not only theology but also the actual lives of Christians, especially their political and social relationships.[94] Therefore, the church should not be supported by the state, neither by tithes and taxes, nor by the use of the sword; Christianity was a matter of individual conviction, which could not be forced on anyone, but rather required a personal decision for it.[94] Protestant ecclesial leaders such as Hubmaier and Hofmann preached the invalidity of infant baptism, advocating baptism as following conversion ("believer's baptism") instead. This was not a doctrine new to the reformers, but was taught by earlier groups, such as the Albigenses in 1147. Though most of the Radical Reformers were Anabaptist, some did not identify themselves with the mainstream Anabaptist tradition. Thomas Müntzer was involved in the German Peasants' War. Andreas Karlstadt disagreed theologically with Huldrych Zwingli and Martin Luther, teaching nonviolence and refusing to baptize infants while not rebaptizing adult believers.[95] Kaspar Schwenkfeld and Sebastian Franck were influenced by German mysticism and spiritualism.

In the view of many associated with the Radical Reformation, the Magisterial Reformation had not gone far enough. Radical Reformer, Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt, for example, referred to the Lutheran theologians at Wittenberg as the "new papists".[96] Since the term "magister" also means "teacher", the Magisterial Reformation is also characterized by an emphasis on the authority of a teacher. This is made evident in the prominence of Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli as leaders of the reform movements in their respective areas of ministry. Because of their authority, they were often criticized by Radical Reformers as being too much like the Roman Popes. A more political side of the Radical Reformation can be seen in the thought and practice of Hans Hut, although typically Anabaptism has been associated with pacifism.

Anabaptism in shape of its various diversification such as the Amish, Mennonites and Hutterites came out of the Radical Reformation. Later in history, Schwarzenau Brethren, and the Apostolic Christian Church would emerge in Anabaptist circles.

## Denominations

Protestants refer to specific groupings of congregations or churches that share in common foundational doctrines and the name of their groups as denominations.[97] The term denomination (national body) is to be distinguished from branch (denominational family; tradition), communion (international body) and congregation (church). An example (this is no universal way to classify Protestant churches, as these may sometimes vary broadly in their structures) to show the difference:

Branch/denominational family/tradition: Methodism

Communion/international body: World Methodist Council

Denomination/national body: United Methodist Church

Congregation/church: First United Methodist Church (Paintsville, Kentucky)

A stricter definition of Protestantism excludes any branch or denomination of Christianity that did not emerge during the Protestant Reformation. This strict definition considers denominations, particularly non-Denominationalism to be part of a "Post-Protestant/Post-Denominational" culture, or simply an unrelated offshoot of Protestantism.[98][99][100] This is due to a multitude of reasons such as the Protestant Reformation ending centuries before many of the offshoot denominations or unaffiliated churches found today (including Pentecostalism, Seventh-day Adventism, non-denominational Christianity, and more). These branches of Christianity do not share historical heritage to the beginnings of Protestantism.[101] Furthermore, they differ on multiple key points of theology of historical/confessional Protestant denominations (such as the importance and efficacy of the sacraments), and denominations which came after the Protestant Reformation (most of which are closer to Restorationism) lack the official creeds and confessions that defined the doctrines of the historic Protestant denominations.[102][103][104][105] This stricter definition of Protestantism includes only branches such as Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and Calvinist/Reformed, the latter of which includes denominations such as Presbyterianism and Continental Reformed, Methodism, Congregationalism, and Baptist.[106]

Protestants reject the Catholic Church's doctrine that it is the one true church, with some teaching belief in the invisible church, which consists of all who profess faith in Jesus Christ.[107] The Lutheran Church traditionally sees itself as the "main trunk of the historical Christian Tree" founded by Christ and the Apostles, holding that during the Reformation, the Church of Rome fell away.[10][11] Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. Because the five solas are the main tenets of the Protestant faith, non-denominational groups and organizations are also considered Protestant.

Various ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of the various divided Protestant denominations, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions, as there is no overarching authority to which any of the churches owe allegiance, which can authoritatively define the faith. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith while differing in many secondary doctrines, although what is major and what is secondary is a matter of idiosyncratic belief.

Several countries have established their national churches, linking the ecclesiastical structure with the state. Jurisdictions where a Protestant denomination has been established as a state religion include several Nordic countries; Denmark (including Greenland),[108] the Faroe Islands (its church being independent since 2007),[109] Iceland[110] and Norway[111][112][113] have established Evangelical Lutheran churches. Tuvalu has the only established church in Reformed tradition in the world, while Tonga—in the Methodist tradition.[114]

The Church of England is the officially established religious institution in England,[115][116][117] and also the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Communion.

In 1869, Finland was the first Nordic country to disestablish its Evangelical Lutheran church by introducing the Church Act.[lower-alpha 11] In 2000, Sweden was the second Nordic country to do so.[118]

### United and uniting churches

Glass window in the town church of Wiesloch featuring Martin Luther and John Calvin commemorating the 1821 union of Lutheran and Reformed churches in the Grand Duchy of Baden

United and uniting churches are churches formed from the merger or other form of union of two or more different Protestant denominations.

Historically, unions of Protestant churches were enforced by the state, usually in order to have a stricter control over the religious sphere of its people, but also for other organizational reasons. As modern Christian ecumenism progresses, unions between various Protestant traditions are becoming more and more common, resulting in a growing number of united and uniting churches. Some of the recent major examples are the Church of North India (1970), United Protestant Church of France (2013), and the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (2004). As mainline Protestantism shrinks in Europe and North America due to the rise of secularism or in areas where Christianity is a minority religion as with the Indian subcontinent, Reformed, Anglican, and Lutheran denominations merge, often creating large nationwide denominations.

What is perhaps the oldest official united church is found in Germany, where the Protestant Church in Germany is a federation of Lutheran, United (Prussian Union), and Reformed churches, dating back to 1817.[119]

Around the world, each united or uniting church comprises a different mix of predecessor Protestant denominations. Trends are visible, however, as most united and uniting churches have one or more predecessors with heritage in the Reformed tradition and many are members of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches.

## Major branches

Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the Reformation, today regarded as branches. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning individual denominations. Due to the earlier stated multitude of denominations, this section discusses only the largest denominational families, or branches, widely considered to be a part of Protestantism. These are: Lutheranism, Anglicanism, Calvinism (Reformed Christianity), Methodism, Hussitism, Adventism, Pentecostalism, Quakerism, Plymouth Brethren and Baptists. The small but historically significant branch of Anabaptism is also discussed.

The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main Protestant denominational families, or their parts. Due to factors such as Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation") and the legal principle of Cuius regio, eius religio, many people lived as Nicodemites, where their professed religious affiliations were more or less at odds with the movement they sympathized with. As a result, the boundaries between the denominations do not separate as cleanly as this chart indicates. When a population was suppressed or persecuted into feigning an adherence to the dominant faith, over the generations they continued to influence the church they outwardly adhered to.

Because Calvinism was not specifically recognized in the Holy Roman Empire until the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, many Calvinists lived as Crypto-Calvinists. Due to Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation") related suppressions in Catholic lands during the 16th through 19th centuries, many Protestants lived as Crypto-Protestants. Meanwhile, in Protestant areas, Catholics sometimes lived as crypto-papists, although in continental Europe emigration was more feasible so this was less common.

Historical chart of the main branches of Protestantism

### Lutheranism

Main article: Religion:Lutheranism

Luther's rose seal, a symbol of Lutheranism

Lutheranism identifies with the theology of Martin Luther. It advocates a doctrine of justification "by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone", the doctrine that scripture is the final authority on all matters of faith, rejecting the assertion made by Catholic leaders at the Council of Trent that authority comes from both Scriptures and Tradition.[120] In addition, Lutherans accept the teachings of the first four ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church.[121][122]

Unlike the Reformed tradition, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church with an emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lord's Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of God's Law, divine grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints, and predestination.

Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism. With approximately 80 million adherents,[123] it constitutes the third most common Protestant confession after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism.[14] The Lutheran World Federation, the largest global communion of Lutheran churches represents over 72 million people.[124] Both of these figures miscount Lutherans worldwide as many members of more generically Protestant LWF member church bodies do not self-identify as Lutheran or attend congregations that self-identify as Lutheran.[125] Additionally, there are other international organizations such as the Global Confessional and Missional Lutheran Forum, International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as Lutheran denominations that are not necessarily a member of an international organization.

### Anglicanism

Thomas Cranmer, one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity

Anglicanism consists of the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures.[126] The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. There is no single "Anglican Church" with universal juridical authority, since each national or regional church has full autonomy. As the name suggests, the communion is an association of churches in full communion with the archbishop of Canterbury. The great majority of Anglicans are members of churches which are part of the international Anglican Communion,[127] which has 85 million adherents.[128]

The Church of England declared its independence from the Catholic Church at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement.[129] Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Reformed tradition. These reforms were understood by one of those most responsible for them, the then archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, as navigating a middle way between two of the emerging Protestant traditions, namely Lutheranism and Calvinism.[130]

Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries. While it has since undergone many revisions and Anglican churches in different countries have developed other service books, the Book of Common Prayer is still acknowledged as one of the ties that bind the Anglican Communion together. The Thirty-Nine Articles and the Books of Homilies explicate historic Anglican doctrine and along with the Book of Common Prayer, were developed under the reformer Thomas Cranmer.[131]

### Calvinism (Reformed Christianity)

Main article: Religion:Reformed Christianity

John Calvin's theological thought influenced a variety of Congregational, Continental Reformed, United, Presbyterian, and other Reformed churches.

Calvinism, also called the Reformed tradition, was advanced by several theologians such as Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and Huldrych Zwingli, but this branch of Christianity bears the name of the French reformer John Calvin because of his prominent influence on it and because of his role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 16th century.

This term also refers to the doctrines and practices of the Reformed churches of which Calvin was an early leader. Less commonly, it can refer to the individual teaching of Calvin himself. The particulars of Calvinist theology may be stated in a number of ways. Perhaps the best known summary is contained in the five points of Calvinism, though these points identify the Calvinist view on soteriology rather than summarizing the system as a whole. Broadly speaking, Calvinism stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things—in salvation but also in all of life. This concept is seen clearly in the doctrines of predestination and total depravity.

The biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world.[132][133] There are more conservative Reformed federations like the World Reformed Fellowship and the International Conference of Reformed Churches, as well as independent churches.

### Methodism

Main article: Religion:Methodism

[[John Wesley, founder of Methodism, preaching in the open air|thumb]]

Methodism identifies principally with the theology of John Wesley. This evangelical movement originated as a revival within the 18th-century Church of England and became a separate Church following Wesley's death. Because of vigorous missionary activity, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, the United States, and beyond, today claiming approximately 80 million adherents worldwide.[134] Originally it appealed especially to laborers and slaves.

Soteriologically, most Methodists are Arminian, emphasizing that Christ accomplished salvation for every human being, and that humans must exercise an act of the will to receive it (as opposed to the traditional Calvinist doctrine of monergism). Methodism is traditionally low church in liturgy, although this varies greatly between individual congregations; the Wesleys themselves greatly valued the Anglican liturgy and tradition. Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition; John Wesley's brother, Charles, was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church,[135] and many other eminent hymn writers come from the Methodist tradition. The Holiness movement refers to a set of practices surrounding the doctrine of Christian perfection that emerged within 19th-century Methodism, along with a number of evangelical denominations and parachurch organizations (such as camp meetings).[136] There are an estimated 12 million adherents in denominations aligned with the Wesleyan-holiness movement.[137] The Free Methodist Church, the Salvation Army and the Wesleyan Methodist Church are notable examples, while other adherents of the Holiness Movement remained within mainline Methodism, e.g. the United Methodist Church.[136]

### Hussitism

Hussitism follows the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus, who became the best-known representative of the Bohemian Reformation and one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. An early hymnal was the hand-written Jistebnice hymn book. This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. Among present-day Christians, Hussite traditions are represented in the Moravian Church, Unity of the Brethren and the Czechoslovak Hussite Church.[138]

### Adventism

Main article: Religion:Adventism

Adventism began in the 19th century in the context of the Second Great Awakening revival in the United States. The name refers to belief in the imminent Second Coming of Christ. William Miller started the Adventist movement in the 1830s. His followers became known as Millerites.[139]

Although the Adventist churches hold much in common, their theologies differ on whether the intermediate state is unconscious sleep or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is annihilation or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether or not the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of Daniel 8 refers to the one in heaven or one on earth.[140] The movement has encouraged the examination of the whole Bible, leading Seventh-day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups to observe the Sabbath. The General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists has compiled that church's core beliefs in the 28 Fundamental Beliefs (1980 and 2005), which use Biblical references as justification.

In 2010, Adventism claimed some 22 million believers scattered in various independent churches.[14] The largest church within the movement—the Seventh-day Adventist Church—has more than 18 million members.

### Pentecostalism

Main article: Religion:Pentecostalism

[[Charles Fox Parham, who associated glossolalia with the baptism in the Holy Spirit|thumb]]

Pentecostalism is a movement that places special emphasis on a direct personal experience of God through the baptism with the Holy Spirit. The term Pentecostal is derived from Pentecost, the Greek name for the Jewish Feast of Weeks. For Christians, this event commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the followers of Jesus Christ, as described in the second chapter of the Book of Acts.

This branch of Protestantism is distinguished by belief in the baptism with the Holy Spirit as an experience separate from conversion that enables a Christian to live a life empowered by and filled with the Holy Spirit. This empowerment includes the use of spiritual gifts such as speaking in tongues and divine healing—two other defining characteristics of Pentecostalism. Because of their commitment to biblical authority, spiritual gifts, and the miraculous, Pentecostals tend to see their movement as reflecting the same kind of spiritual power and teachings that were found in the Apostolic Age of the early church. For this reason, some Pentecostals also use the term Apostolic or Full Gospel to describe their movement.

Pentecostalism eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations, including large groups such as the Assemblies of God and the Church of God in Christ, both in the United States and elsewhere. There are over 279 million Pentecostals worldwide, and the movement is growing in many parts of the world, especially the global South. Since the 1960s, Pentecostalism has increasingly gained acceptance from other Christian traditions, and Pentecostal beliefs concerning Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts have been embraced by non-Pentecostal Christians in Protestant and Catholic churches through the Charismatic Movement. Together, Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity numbers over 500 million adherents.[141]

### Quakerism

thumb

Quakers, or Friends, are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. The central unifying doctrine of these movements is the priesthood of all believers.[142][143] Many Friends view themselves as members of a Christian denomination. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional conservative Quaker understandings of Christianity. Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has actively tried to avoid creeds and hierarchical structures.[144]

### Plymouth Brethren

The Plymouth Brethren are a conservative, low church, evangelical denomination, whose history can be traced to Dublin, Ireland, in the late 1820s, originating from Anglicanism.[145][146] Among other beliefs, the group emphasizes sola scriptura. Brethren generally see themselves not as a denomination, but as a network, or even as a collection of overlapping networks, of like-minded independent churches. Although the group refused for many years to take any denominational name to itself—a stance that some of them still maintain—the title The Brethren, is one that many of their number are comfortable with in that the Bible designates all believers as brethren.

### Baptists

Main article: Religion:Baptists

Baptists subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers.

Baptists subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers (believer's baptism, as opposed to infant baptism), and that it must be done by complete immersion (as opposed to affusion or sprinkling). Baptists also claim that infant baptisms are false due to the infant's lack of understanding of virtues and sins, making them not able (according to Baptists) to confess their faith, which also regarded their lack of being able to speak at such a young age, compared to adults.[147] Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency (liberty), salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, pastors and deacons. Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity.[148]

Diverse from their beginning, those identifying as Baptists today differ widely from one another in what they believe, how they worship, their attitudes toward other Christians, and their understanding of what is important in Christian discipleship.[149] The separation of Church and state is also a huge belief of Anabaptists. They have strongly supported this because they believe its a Biblical concept to follow, and they were persecuted by Protestant and Catholic authorities. Arguing that Christ did not give magistrates the power to form churches or constrain citizens in matters of religion.[147] There is some disagreement regarding the precise origins of the Anabaptists, but majority of scholars claim that the Anabaptist religion began around 1525 in Zurich, Switzerland.[150]

Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with English Separatist John Smyth as its pastor.[151] Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christ's atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies. In the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening increased Baptist growth in both New England and the South.[152] The Second Great Awakening in the South in the early 19th century increased church membership, as did the preachers' lessening of support for abolition and manumission of slavery, which had been part of the 18th-century teachings. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent.[153]

The Baptist World Alliance reports more than 41 million members in more than 150,000 congregations.[154] In 2002, there were over 100 million Baptists and Baptistic group members worldwide and over 33 million in North America.[153] The largest Baptist association is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 14 million.[155]

### Anabaptism

Main article: Religion:Anabaptism

An Amish family in a horse-drawn square buggy in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, United States

Anabaptism traces its origins to the Radical Reformation. Anabaptists believe in delaying baptism until the candidate confesses his or her faith. Although some consider this movement to be an offshoot of Protestantism, others see it as a distinct one.[156][157] The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the movement. Schwarzenau Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are considered later developments among the Anabaptists.

The name Anabaptist, meaning "one who baptizes again", was given to them by their persecutors in reference to the practice of re-baptizing converts who already had been baptized as infants.[158] Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make their own confessions of faith and so rejected baptism of infants. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that since infant baptism was unscriptural and null and void, the baptizing of believers was not a re-baptism but in fact their first real baptism. As a result of their views on the nature of baptism and other issues, Anabaptists were heavily persecuted during the 16th century and into the 17th by both Magisterial Protestants and Catholics. While most Anabaptists adhered to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, which precluded taking oaths, participating in military actions, and participating in civil government, some who practiced re-baptism felt otherwise.[lower-alpha 12] They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, and Hutterites and some historians tend to consider them as outside of true Anabaptism. Anabaptist reformers of the Radical Reformation are divided into Radical and the so-called Second Front. Some important Radical Reformation theologians were John of Leiden, Thomas Müntzer, Kaspar Schwenkfeld, Sebastian Franck, and Menno Simons. Second Front Reformers included Hans Denck, Conrad Grebel, Balthasar Hubmaier and Felix Manz. Many Anabaptists today still use the Ausbund, which is the oldest hymnal still in continuous use.

### Other Protestants

There are many other Protestant denominations that do not fit neatly into the mentioned branches, and are far smaller in membership. Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as "Christians" or "born-again Christians". They typically distance themselves from the confessionalism or creedalism of other Christian communities[159] by calling themselves "non-denominational" or "evangelical". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.[160]

Although Unitarianism developed from the Protestant Reformation,[161] it is excluded from Protestantism due to its Nontrinitarian theological nature.[41][162] Unitarianism has been popular in the region of Transylvania within today's Romania, England, and the United States.[41] It originated almost simultaneously in Transylvania and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Spiritual Christianity is the group of Russian movements (Doukhobors and others), so-called folk Protestants. Their origins are varied: some were influenced by western Protestants, others from disgust of the behavior of official Orthodox priests.[163][164]

Messianic Judaism is a movement of the Jews and non-Jews, which arose in the 1960s within Evangelical Protestantism and absorbed elements of the messianic traditions in Judaism.[165]

## Interdenominational movements

An Indonesian Reformed Evangelical Church megachurch

There are also Christian movements which cross denominational lines and even branches, and cannot be classified on the same level previously mentioned forms. Evangelicalism is a prominent example. Some of those movements are active exclusively within Protestantism, some are Christian-wide. Transdenominational movements are sometimes capable of affecting parts of the Catholic Church, such as does it the Charismatic Movement, which aims to incorporate beliefs and practices similar to Pentecostals into the various branches of Christianity. Neo-charismatic churches are sometimes regarded as a subgroup of the Charismatic Movement. Both are put under a common label of Charismatic Christianity (so-called Renewalists), along with Pentecostals. Nondenominational churches and various house churches often adopt, or are akin to one of these movements.

Megachurches are usually influenced by interdenominational movements. Globally, these large congregations are a significant development in Protestant Christianity. In the United States, the phenomenon has more than quadrupled in the past two decades.[166] It has since spread worldwide.

The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main interdenominational movements and other developments within Protestantism.

Links between interdenominational movements and other developments within Protestantism

### Evangelicalism

Main article: Religion:Evangelicalism

thumb

Evangelicalism, or evangelical Protestantism,[lower-alpha 13] is a worldwide, transdenominational movement which maintains that the essence of the gospel consists in the doctrine of salvation by grace through faith in Jesus Christ's atonement.[167][168]

Evangelicals are Christians who believe in the centrality of the conversion or "born again" experience in receiving salvation, believe in the authority of the Bible as God's revelation to humanity and have a strong commitment to evangelism or sharing the Christian message.

It gained great momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries with the emergence of Methodism and the Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. The origins of Evangelicalism are usually traced back to the English Methodist movement, Nicolaus Zinzendorf, the Moravian Church, Lutheran Pietism, Presbyterianism and Puritanism.[14] Among leaders and major figures of the Evangelical Protestant movement were John Wesley, George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, Billy Graham, Harold John Ockenga, John Stott and Martyn Lloyd-Jones.

There are an estimated 285,480,000 Evangelicals, corresponding to 13% of the Christian population and 4% of the total world population. The Americas, Africa and Asia are home to the majority of Evangelicals. The United States has the largest concentration of Evangelicals.[169] Evangelicalism is gaining popularity, especially in Latin America and the developing world.

### Charismatic movement

Main article: Religion:Charismatic movement

Hillsong Church, an evangelical charismatic church, in Konstanz, Germany

The Charismatic movement is the international trend of historically mainstream congregations adopting beliefs and practices similar to Pentecostals. Fundamental to the movement is the use of spiritual gifts. Among Protestants, the movement began around 1960.

In the United States, Episcopalian Dennis Bennett is sometimes cited as one of the charismatic movement's seminal influence.[170] In the United Kingdom, Colin Urquhart, Michael Harper, David Watson and others were in the vanguard of similar developments. The Massey conference in New Zealand, 1964 was attended by several Anglicans, including the Rev. Ray Muller, who went on to invite Bennett to New Zealand in 1966, and played a leading role in developing and promoting the Life in the Spirit seminars. Other Charismatic movement leaders in New Zealand include Bill Subritzky.

Larry Christenson, a Lutheran theologian based in San Pedro, California, did much in the 1960s and 1970s to interpret the charismatic movement for Lutherans. A very large annual conference regarding that matter was held in Minneapolis. Charismatic Lutheran congregations in Minnesota became especially large and influential; especially "Hosanna!" in Lakeville, and North Heights in St. Paul. The next generation of Lutheran charismatics cluster around the Alliance of Renewal Churches. There is considerable charismatic activity among young Lutheran leaders in California centered around an annual gathering at Robinwood Church in Huntington Beach. Richard A. Jensen's Touched by the Spirit published in 1974, played a major role of the Lutheran understanding to the charismatic movement.

In Congregational and Presbyterian churches which profess a traditionally Calvinist or Reformed theology there are differing views regarding present-day continuation or cessation of the gifts (charismata) of the Spirit.[171][172] Generally, however, Reformed charismatics distance themselves from renewal movements with tendencies which could be perceived as overemotional, such as Word of Faith, Toronto Blessing, Brownsville Revival and Lakeland Revival. Prominent Reformed charismatic denominations are the Sovereign Grace Churches and the Every Nation Churches in the US, in Great Britain there is the Newfrontiers churches and movement, which leading figure is Terry Virgo.[173]

A minority of Seventh-day Adventists today are charismatic. They are strongly associated with those holding more "progressive" Adventist beliefs. In the early decades of the church charismatic or ecstatic phenomena were commonplace.[174][175]

### Neo-charismatic churches

Neo-charismatic churches are a category of churches in the Christian Renewal movement. Neo-charismatics include the Third Wave, but are broader. Now more numerous than Pentecostals (first wave) and charismatics (second wave) combined, owing to the remarkable growth of postdenominational and independent charismatic groups.[176]

Neo-charismatics believe in and stress the post-Biblical availability of gifts of the Holy Spirit, including glossolalia, healing, and prophecy. They practice laying on of hands and seek the "infilling" of the Holy Spirit. However, a specific experience of baptism with the Holy Spirit may not be requisite for experiencing such gifts. No single form, governmental structure, or style of church service characterizes all neo-charismatic services and churches.

Some nineteen thousand denominations, with approximately 295 million individual adherents, are identified as neo-charismatic.[177]

## Protestant offshoots

### Arminianism

Main articles: Religion:Arminianism and Remonstrants

See also: Religion:History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate

Jacobus Arminius, a Dutch Reformed Church theologian, whose views influenced parts of Protestantism. A small Remonstrants community remains in the Netherlands.

Arminianism is based on theological ideas of the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609) and his historic supporters known as Remonstrants. His teachings held to the five solae of the Reformation, but they were distinct from particular teachings of Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and other Protestant Reformers. Jacobus Arminius was a student of Theodore Beza at the Theological University of Geneva. Arminianism is known to some as a soteriological diversification of Calvinism.[178] However, to others, Arminianism is a reclamation of early Church theological consensus.[179] Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the Remonstrance (1610), a theological statement signed by 45 ministers and submitted to the States General of the Netherlands. Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by grace prior to regeneration, notably the Baptists in the 16th century,[180] the Methodists in the 18th century and the Seventh-day Adventist Church in the 19th century.

The original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself are commonly defined as Arminianism, but more broadly, the term may embrace the teachings of Hugo Grotius, John Wesley, and others as well. Classical Arminianism and Wesleyan Arminianism are the two main schools of thought. Wesleyan Arminianism is often identical with Methodism. The two systems of Calvinism and Arminianism share both history and many doctrines, and the history of Christian theology. However, because of their differences over the doctrines of divine predestination and election, many people view these schools of thought as opposed to each other. In short, the difference can be seen ultimately by whether God allows His desire to save all to be resisted by an individual's will (in the Arminian doctrine) or if God's grace is irresistible and limited to only some (in Calvinism). Some Calvinists assert that the Arminian perspective presents a synergistic system of Salvation and therefore is not only by grace, while Arminians firmly reject this conclusion. Many consider the theological differences to be crucial differences in doctrine, while others find them to be relatively minor.[181]

### Pietism

Main articles: Religion:Pietism and Haugean movement

[[Philipp Jakob Spener, a German pioneer and founder of Pietism|thumb]]

Pietism was an influential movement within Lutheranism that combined the 17th-century Lutheran principles with the Reformed emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous Christian life.[182]

It began in the late 17th century, reached its zenith in the mid-18th century, and declined through the 19th century, and had almost vanished in America by the end of the 20th century. Pietistic Lutheranism influenced Lutheranism as a whole and resulted in the formation of certain Pietistic Lutheran denominations (such as the Church of the Lutheran Brethren and Laestadian Lutheran Church); additionally some of its theological tenets influenced Protestantism generally, inspiring the Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement and Alexander Mack to begin the Schwarzenau Brethren denomination in the Anabaptist tradition.[183]

Though Pietism shares an emphasis on personal behavior with the Puritan movement, and the two are often confused, there are important differences, particularly in the concept of the role of religion in government.[184]

### Puritanism, English dissenters and nonconformists

Main articles: Puritans, English Dissenters, Independent (religion), Nonconformism, English Presbyterianism, Ecclesiastical separatism, and 17th-century denominations in England

File:The Landing of the Pilgrims (1877) by Henry A. Bacon.jpgPilgrims landing at Plymouth Rock in Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620

The Puritans were a group of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries, which sought to purify the Church of England of what they considered to be Catholic practices, maintaining that the church was only partially reformed. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some of the returning clergy exiled under Mary I shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, as an activist movement within the Church of England.

Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within, and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. Their beliefs, however, were transported by the emigration of congregations to the Netherlands (and later to New England), and by evangelical clergy to Ireland (and later into Wales), and were spread into lay society and parts of the educational system, particularly certain colleges of the University of Cambridge. The first Protestant sermon delivered in England was in Cambridge, with the pulpit that this sermon was delivered from surviving to today.[185][186] They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to the episcopal system, particularly after the 1619 conclusions of the Synod of Dort they were resisted by the English bishops. They largely adopted Sabbatarianism in the 17th century, and were influenced by millennialism.

They formed, and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine, as well as personal and group piety. Puritans adopted a Reformed theology, but they also took note of radical criticisms of Zwingli in Zurich and Calvin in Geneva. In church polity, some advocated for separation from all other Christians, in favor of autonomous gathered churches. These separatist and independent strands of Puritanism became prominent in the 1640s. Although the English Civil War (which expanded into the Wars of the Three Kingdoms) began over a contest for political power between the King of England and the House of Commons, it divided the country along religious lines as episcopalians within the Church of England sided with the Crown and Presbyterians and Independents supported Parliament (after the defeat of the Royalists, the House of Lords as well as the Monarch were removed from the political structure of the state to create the Commonwealth). The supporters of a Presbyterian polity in the Westminster Assembly were unable to forge a new English national church, and the Parliamentary New Model Army, which was made up primarily of Independents, under Oliver Cromwell first purged Parliament, then abolished it and established The Protectorate.

England's trans-Atlantic colonies in the war followed varying paths depending on their internal demographics. In the older colonies, which included Virginia (1607) and its offshoot Bermuda (1612), as well as Barbados and Antigua in the West Indies (collectively the targets in 1650 of An Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego), Episcopalians remained the dominant church faction and the colonies remained Royalist 'til conquered or compelled to accept the new political order. In Bermuda, with control of the local government and the army (nine infantry companies of Militia plus coastal artillery), the Royalists forced Parliament-backing religious Independents into exile to settle the Bahamas as the Eleutheran Adventurers.[187][188][189]

Episcopalian was re-established following the Restoration. A century later, non-conforming Protestants, along with the Protestant refugees from continental Europe, were to be among the primary instigators of the war of secession that led to the founding of the United States of America.

### Neo-orthodoxy and paleo-orthodoxy

Main articles: Religion:Neo-orthodoxy and Paleo-orthodoxy

Karl Barth, often regarded as the greatest Protestant theologian of the 20th century[190][191]

A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity along the lines of the Christian existentialism of Søren Kierkegaard, who attacked the Hegelian state churches of his day for "dead orthodoxy", neo-orthodoxy is associated primarily with Karl Barth, Jürgen Moltmann, and Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called "crisis theology", in the existentialist sense of the word crisis, also sometimes called neo-evangelicalism, which uses the sense of "evangelical" pertaining to continental European Protestants rather than American evangelicalism. "Evangelical" was the originally preferred label used by Lutherans and Calvinists, but it was replaced by the names some Catholics used to label a heresy with the name of its founder.

Paleo-orthodoxy is a movement similar in some respects to neo-evangelicalism but emphasizing the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early creeds and church councils as a means of properly understanding the scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational. A prominent theologian in this group is Thomas Oden, a Methodist.

### Christian fundamentalism

Main article: Religion:Christian fundamentalism

In reaction to liberal Bible critique, fundamentalism arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalist theology tends to stress Biblical inerrancy and Biblical literalism.[192]

Toward the end of the 20th century, some have tended to confuse evangelicalism and fundamentalism; however, the labels represent very distinct differences of approach that both groups are diligent to maintain, although because of fundamentalism's dramatically smaller size it often gets classified simply as an ultra-conservative branch of evangelicalism.

### Modernism and liberalism

Main article: Philosophy:Liberal Christianity

Modernism and liberalism do not constitute rigorous and well-defined schools of theology, but are rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology. Its opposition to the fundamentalist teaching resulted in religious debates, such as the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy within the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in the 1920s.

## Protestant culture

Max Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

Although the Reformation was a religious movement, it also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life, including marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts.[9] Protestant churches reject the idea of a celibate priesthood and thus allow their clergy to marry.[29] Many of their families contributed to the development of intellectual elites in their countries.[193] Since about 1950, women have entered the ministry in most mainline Protestant churches, and some have assumed leading positions (e.g. bishops).

Protestantism has promoted economic growth and entrepreneurship, especially in the period after the Scientific and the Industrial Revolution.[194][195] Scholars have identified a positive correlation between the rise of Protestantism and human capital formation,[196] work ethic,[197] economic development,[198] the rise of early experimental science,[199][200][201] and the development of the state system.[202]

As the Reformers wanted all members of the church to be able to read the Bible, education on all levels was strongly encouraged. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the literacy rate in England was about 60 percent, in Scotland 65 percent, and in Sweden 80 percent.[203] Colleges and universities were founded. For example, the Puritans who established Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1628 founded Harvard College only eight years later. About a dozen other colleges followed in the 18th century, including Yale (1701). Pennsylvania also became a center of learning.[204][205]

Members of mainline Protestant denominations have played leadership roles in many aspects of American life, including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of the country's leading institutes of higher education.[206]

### Visitation Articles

In the Visitation Articles, also known as the first Protestant Confession of Faith, it declared that "we do not send this forth as a rigid command, lest we set up new papal decrees, but as a history, as a witness of our faith and he expresses the hope that all who hold to the Gospel will thankfully accept it until God shall bring something better." These articles helped serve as a way to document the Lutheran faith and its doctrines. In 1538 and 1545, Luther published new versions of these articles. Luther also added work to The Three Symbols (1538) stating: "I have observed in all histories of the Universal Christian Church that all those who hold to the cardinal doctrines of Jesus Christ have remained sure and steadfast in the Christian faith, and even if they have erred and come short in other respects, they are still preserved." Stating that by following Jesus Christ (specifically with the Lutheran practices in this case) one will be saved.[207]

### Thought and work ethic

See also: Social:Protestant work ethic

The Protestant concept of God and man allows believers to use all their God-given faculties, including the power of reason. That means that they are allowed to explore God's creation and, according to Genesis 2:15, make use of it in a responsible and sustainable way. Thus a cultural climate was created that greatly enhanced the development of the humanities and the sciences.[208] Another consequence of the Protestant understanding of man is that the believers, in gratitude for their election and redemption in Christ, are to follow God's commandments. Industry, frugality, calling, discipline, and a strong sense of responsibility are at the heart of their moral code.[209][210] In particular, Calvin rejected luxury. Therefore, craftsmen, industrialists, and other businessmen were able to reinvest the greater part of their profits in the most efficient machinery and the most modern production methods that were based on progress in the sciences and technology. As a result, productivity grew, which led to increased profits and enabled employers to pay higher wages. In this way, the economy, the sciences, and technology reinforced each other. The chance to participate in the economic success of technological inventions was a strong incentive to both inventors and investors.[211][212][213][214] The Protestant work ethic was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated mass action that influenced the development of capitalism and the Industrial Revolution. This idea is also known as the "Protestant ethic thesis".[215]

However, eminent historian Fernand Braudel (d. 1985), a leader of the important Annales School wrote, "all historians have opposed this tenuous theory [the Protestant Ethic], although they have not managed to be rid of it once and for all. Yet it is clearly false. The northern countries took over the place that earlier had been so long and brilliantly been occupied by the old capitalist centers of the Mediterranean. They invented nothing, either in technology or business management."[216] Social scientist Rodney Stark moreover comments that "during their critical period of economic development, these northern centers of capitalism were Catholic, not Protestant—the Reformation still lay well into the future",[217] while British historian Hugh Trevor-Roper (d. 2003) said, "The idea that large-scale industrial capitalism was ideologically impossible before the Reformation is exploded by the simple fact that it existed."[218]

In a factor analysis of the latest wave of World Values Survey data, Arno Tausch (Corvinus University of Budapest) found that Protestantism emerges to be very close to combining religion and the traditions of liberalism. The Global Value Development Index, calculated by Tausch, relies on the World Values Survey dimensions such as trust in the state of law, no support for shadow economy, postmaterial activism, support for democracy, a non-acceptance of violence, xenophobia and racism, trust in transnational capital and Universities, confidence in the market economy, supporting gender justice, and engaging in environmental activism, etc.[219]

Episcopalians and Presbyterians, as well as other WASPs, tend to be considerably wealthier[220] and better educated (having graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in United States,[221] and are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American business,[222] law and politics, especially the Republican Party.[223] Numbers of the most wealthy and affluent American families as the Vanderbilts, the Astors, Rockefellers, Du Ponts, Roosevelts, Forbes, Fords, Whitneys, Mellons, the Morgans and Harrimans are Mainline Protestant families.[220][224]

### Science

See also: Philosophy:Merton thesis

Columbia University, an Ivy League university in New York City, was initially established by the Church of England.

Protestantism has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand and early experimental science on the other.[225] The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: Firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental technique and methodology; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th-century England and the religious demography of the Royal Society (English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained by a correlation between Protestantism and the scientific values.[226] Merton focused on English Puritanism and German Pietism as having been responsible for the development of the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries. He explained that the connection between religious affiliation and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the ascetic Protestant values and those of modern science.[227] Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to identify God's influence on the world—his creation—and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research.[225]

According to Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States by Harriet Zuckerman, a review of American Nobel Prizes awarded between 1901 and 1972, 72% of American Nobel Prize laureates identified a Protestant background.[228] Overall, 84% of all the Nobel Prizes awarded to Americans in Chemistry,[228] 60% in Medicine,[228] and 59% in Physics[228] between 1901 and 1972 were won by Protestants.

According to 100 Years of Nobel Prize (2005), a review of Nobel Prizes awarded between 1901 and 2000, 65% of Nobel Prize Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference (423 prizes).[229] While 32% have identified with Protestantism in its various forms (208 prizes),[229] although Protestants are 12% to 13% of the world's population.

### Government

Church flags, as used by German Protestants

During the Middle Ages, the Church and the worldly authorities were closely related. Martin Luther separated the religious and the worldly realms in principle (doctrine of the two kingdoms).[230] The believers were obliged to use reason to govern the worldly sphere in an orderly and peaceful way. Luther's doctrine of the priesthood of all believers upgraded the role of laymen in the church considerably. The members of a congregation had the right to elect a minister and, if necessary, to vote for his dismissal (Treatise On the right and authority of a Christian assembly or congregation to judge all doctrines and to call, install and dismiss teachers, as testified in Scripture; 1523).[231] Calvin strengthened this basically democratic approach by including elected laymen (church elders, presbyters) in his representative church government.[232] The Huguenots added regional synods and a national synod, whose members were elected by the congregations, to Calvin's system of church self-government. This system was taken over by the other reformed churches[233] and was adopted by some Lutherans beginning with those in Jülich-Cleves-Berg during the 17th century.

Politically, Calvin favored a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. He appreciated the advantages of democracy: "It is an invaluable gift, if God allows a people to freely elect its own authorities and overlords."[234] Calvin also thought that earthly rulers lose their divine right and must be put down when they rise up against God. To further protect the rights of ordinary people, Calvin suggested separating political powers in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers). Thus he and his followers resisted political absolutism and paved the way for the rise of modern democracy.[235] Besides England, the Netherlands were, under Calvinist leadership, the freest country in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It granted asylum to philosophers like Baruch Spinoza and Pierre Bayle. Hugo Grotius was able to teach his natural-law theory and a relatively liberal interpretation of the Bible.[236]

Consistent with Calvin's political ideas, Protestants created both the English and the American democracies. In seventeenth-century England, the most important persons and events in this process were the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell, John Milton, John Locke, the Glorious Revolution, the English Bill of Rights, and the Act of Settlement.[237] Later, the British took their democratic ideals to their colonies, e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and India. In North America, Plymouth Colony (Pilgrim Fathers; 1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628) practised democratic self-rule and separation of powers.[238][239][240][241] These Congregationalists were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God.[242] The Mayflower Compact was a social contract.[243][244]

### Rights and liberty

Enlightenment philosopher John Locke argued for individual conscience, free from state control and helped influence the political ideology of Thomas Jefferson and other Founding Fathers of the United States.

Protestants also took the initiative in advocating for religious freedom. Freedom of conscience had a high priority on the theological, philosophical, and political agendas since Luther refused to recant his beliefs before the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire at Worms (1521). In his view, faith was a free work of the Holy Spirit and could, therefore, not be forced on a person.[245] The persecuted Anabaptists and Huguenots demanded freedom of conscience, and they practiced separation of church and state.[246] In the early seventeenth century, Baptists like John Smyth and Thomas Helwys published tracts in defense of religious freedom.[247] Their thinking influenced John Milton and John Locke's stance on tolerance.[248][249] Under the leadership of Baptist Roger Williams, Congregationalist Thomas Hooker, and Quaker William Penn, respectively, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania combined democratic constitutions with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including Jews.[250][251][252]

The United States Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution, and the American Bill of Rights with its fundamental human rights made this tradition permanent by giving it a legal and political framework.[253] The great majority of American Protestants, both clergy and laity, strongly supported the independence movement. All major Protestant churches were represented in the First and Second Continental Congresses.[254] In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the American democracy became a model for numerous other countries and regions throughout the world (e.g., Latin America, Japan, and Germany). The strongest link between the American and French Revolutions was Marquis de Lafayette, an ardent supporter of the American constitutional principles. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was mainly based on Lafayette's draft of this document.[255] The Declaration by United Nations and Universal Declaration of Human Rights also echo the American constitutional tradition.[256][257][258]

Democracy, social-contract theory, separation of powers, religious freedom, separation of church and state—these achievements of the Reformation and early Protestantism were elaborated on and popularized by Age of Enlightenment thinkers. Some of the philosophers of the English, Scottish, German, and Swiss Enlightenment—Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, John Toland, David Hume, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Christian Wolff, Immanuel Kant, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau—had Protestant backgrounds.[259] For example, John Locke, whose political thought was based on "a set of Protestant Christian assumptions",[260] derived the equality of all humans, including the equality of the genders ("Adam and Eve"), from Genesis 1, 26–28. As all persons were created equally free, all governments needed "the consent of the governed".[261]

Also, other human rights were advocated for by some Protestants. For example, torture was abolished in Prussia in 1740, slavery in Britain in 1834 and in the United States in 1865 (William Wilberforce, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Abraham Lincoln—against Southern Protestants).[262][263] Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf were among the first thinkers who made significant contributions to international law.[264][265] The Geneva Convention, an important part of humanitarian international law, was largely the work of Henry Dunant, a reformed pietist. He also founded the Red Cross.[266]

### Social teaching

Protestants have founded hospitals, homes for disabled or elderly people, educational institutions, organizations that give aid to developing countries, and other social welfare agencies.[267][268][269] In the nineteenth century, throughout the Anglo-American world, numerous dedicated members of all Protestant denominations were active in social reform movements such as the abolition of slavery, prison reforms, and woman suffrage.[270][271][272] As an answer to the "social question" of the nineteenth century, Germany under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced insurance programs that led the way to the welfare state (health insurance, accident insurance, disability insurance, old-age pensions). To Bismarck this was "practical Christianity".[273][274] These programs, too, were copied by many other nations, particularly in the Western world.

### Liturgy

### Arts

Luther Monument in Worms, which features some of the Reformation's crucial figures

The arts have been strongly inspired by Protestant beliefs.

Martin Luther, Paul Gerhardt, George Wither, Isaac Watts, Charles Wesley, William Cowper, and other authors and composers created well-known church hymns.

Musicians like Heinrich Schütz, Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel, Henry Purcell, Johannes Brahms, Philipp Nicolai and Felix Mendelssohn composed great works of music.

Prominent painters with Protestant background were, for example, Albrecht Dürer, Hans Holbein the Younger, Lucas Cranach the Elder, Lucas Cranach the Younger, Rembrandt, and Vincent van Gogh.

World literature was enriched by the works of Edmund Spenser, John Milton, John Bunyan, John Donne, John Dryden, Daniel Defoe, William Wordsworth, Jonathan Swift, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Edgar Allan Poe, Matthew Arnold, Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, Theodor Fontane, Washington Irving, Robert Browning, Emily Dickinson, Emily Brontë, Charles Dickens, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Thomas Stearns Eliot, John Galsworthy, Thomas Mann, William Faulkner, John Updike, and many others.

## Catholic responses

Matanzas Inlet, Florida, where Protestant shipwreck survivors were executed by Menéndez "because they had built it there without Your Majesty's permission, and were disseminating the Lutheran religion"

St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of French Protestants, 1572

The view of the Catholic Church is that Protestant denominations cannot be considered churches but rather that they are ecclesial communities or specific faith-believing communities because their ordinances and doctrines are not historically the same as the Catholic sacraments and dogmas, and the Protestant communities have no sacramental ministerial priesthood[lower-alpha 14] and therefore lack true apostolic succession.[275][276] According to Bishop Hilarion (Alfeyev) the Eastern Orthodox Church shares the same view on the subject.[277]

Contrary to how the Protestant Reformers were often characterized, the concept of a catholic or universal Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. On the contrary, the visible unity of the catholic or universal church was seen by the Protestant reformers as an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, believed that they were reforming the Catholic Church, which they viewed as having become corrupted.[lower-alpha 15] Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the Catholic Church that had left them. The Protestant Reformers formed a new and radically different theological opinion on ecclesiology, that the visible Church is "catholic" (lower-case "c") rather than "Catholic" (upper-case "C"). Accordingly, there is not an indefinite number of parochial, congregational or national churches, constituting, as it were, so many ecclesiastical individualities, but one great spiritual republic of which these various organizations form a part,[lower-alpha 16] although they each have very different opinions. This was markedly far-removed from the traditional and historic Catholic understanding that the Catholic Church was the one true Church of Christ.[lower-alpha 17]

Yet, in the Protestant understanding, the visible church is not a genus, so to speak, with so many species under it.[lower-alpha 18] In order to justify their departure[lower-alpha 19] from the Catholic Church, Protestants often posited a new argument,[lower-alpha 20] saying that there was no real visible Church with divine authority, only a spiritual, invisible, and hidden church—this notion began in the early days of the Protestant Reformation.

Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national Protestant church envisioned to be a part of the whole invisible church, but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine-linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters,[lower-alpha 21] namely the Papacy and central authority of the Catholic Church. The Reformed churches thus believed in some form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visible ecclesiastical organization based on the 14th- and 15th-century Conciliar movement, rejecting the papacy and papal infallibility in favor of ecumenical councils, but rejecting the latest ecumenical council, the Council of Trent.[lower-alpha 22] Religious unity therefore became not one of doctrine and identity but one of invisible character, wherein the unity was one of faith in Jesus Christ, not common identity, doctrine, belief, and collaborative action.

There are Protestants,[lower-alpha 23] especially of the Reformed tradition, that either reject or downplay the designation Protestant because of the negative idea that the word invokes in addition to its primary meaning, preferring the designation Reformed, Evangelical or even Reformed Catholic expressive of what they call a Reformed Catholicity and defending their arguments from the traditional Protestant confessions.[278]

## Ecumenism

The Marburg Colloquy (1529) was an early attempt at uniting Luther and Zwingli. It failed as both reformers and their delegations could not agree on the sacrament of the Eucharist. Similar discussions were held in 1586 during the Colloquy of Montbéliard and from 1661 to 1663 during the Syncretistic controversy. Anonymous woodcut, 1557.

The Edinburgh Missionary Conference is considered the symbolic starting point of the contemporary ecumenical movement.[279]

The ecumenical movement has had an influence on mainline churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the Edinburgh Missionary Conference. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the World Council of Churches has been influential, but ineffective in creating a united church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the Church of South India, the Church of North India, the US-based United Church of Christ, the United Church of Canada, the Uniting Church in Australia and the United Church of Christ in the Philippines which have rapidly declining memberships. There has been a strong engagement of Orthodox churches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine.[280]

A Protestant baptism is held to be valid by the Catholic Church if given with the trinitarian formula and with the intent to baptize. However, as the ordination of Protestant ministers is not recognized due to the lack of apostolic succession and the disunity from Catholic Church, all other sacraments (except marriage) performed by Protestant denominations and ministers are not recognized as valid. Therefore, Protestants desiring full communion with the Catholic Church are not re-baptized (although they are confirmed) and Protestant ministers who become Catholics may be ordained to the priesthood after a period of study.

In 1999, the representatives of Lutheran World Federation and Catholic Church signed the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of justification which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, although Confessional Lutherans reject this statement.[281] This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. On 18 July 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration.[282][283]

## Demographics

St. Peter's Church in Bermuda, built in 1612, is the oldest surviving Protestant church in the "New World", including the Americas and certain Atlantic Ocean islands. It was the first of nine Parish churches established in Bermuda by the Church of England. Bermuda also has the oldest Presbyterian church outside the British Isles, the Church of Scotland's Christ Church (1719).

Estimates for Protestants worldwide vary from 600 million to 1 billion,[284][285][lower-alpha 24] among approximately 2.4 billion Christians.[24][286][287][288][289][14][8][290][291][292][lower-alpha 25] The main reason for this wide range is the lack of a common agreement among scholars as to which denominations constitute Protestantism. For instance, most sources include Anabaptism, Anglicanism, Baptists and non-denominational Christianity as part of Protestantism. However, widely used references like the World Christian Encyclopedia, which has been documenting the changing status of World Christianity over the past 120 years, classifies Independent Christians or non-denominational Pentecostals as a separate category from Protestantism.[293][294] As such, in 2025, the World Christian Database reported 629 million historic Protestants and 409 million Independent non-denominational Pentecostals.[293]

In 2010, a total of more than 800 million included 300 million in Sub-Saharan Africa, 260 million in the Americas, 140 million in the Asia-Pacific region, 100 million in Europe and 2 million in Middle East-North Africa.[14] Protestants account for at least one third of Christians worldwide and more than one tenth of the total human population.[14] Various estimates put the percentage of Protestants in relation to the total number of world's Christians at 33%,[290] 36%,[295] 36.7%,[14] and 40%,[8] while in relation to the world's population at 11.6%[14] and 13%.[284]

Within Europe, Protestantism remains the most practiced religion in the Nordic countries and the United Kingdom.[290][296] In other historical Protestant strongholds such as Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Latvia, and Estonia, it remains one of the most popular religions.[297] Although the Czech Republic was the site of one of the most significant pre-reformation movements,[298] there is only a small Protestant population today;[299][300] mainly due to historical reasons like persecution of Protestants by the Catholic Habsburgs,[301] restrictions during the Communist rule, and also the ongoing secularization.[298] Over the last several decades, religious practice has been declining as secularization has increased.[290][302] According to a 2019 study about Religiosity in the European Union in 2019 by Eurobarometer, Protestants made up 9% of the EU population.[303] According to Pew Research Center, Protestants constituted nearly one fifth (or 18%) of the continent's Christian population in 2010.[14] Clarke and Beyer estimate that Protestants constituted 15% of all Europeans in 2009, while Noll claims that less than 12% of them lived in Europe in 2010.[290][292]

Changes in worldwide Protestantism over the last century have been significant.[8][292][304] Since 1900, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America.[29][284][304] That caused Protestantism to be called a primarily non-Western religion.[292][304] Much of the growth has occurred after World War II, when decolonization of Africa and abolition of various restrictions against Protestants in Latin American countries occurred.[284] According to one source, Protestants constituted respectively 2.5%, 2%, 0.5% of Latin Americans, Africans and Asians.[284] In 2000, percentage of Protestants on mentioned continents was 17%, more than 27% and 6%, respectively.[284] According to Mark A. Noll, 79% of Anglicans lived in the United Kingdom in 1910, while most of the remainder was found in the United States and across the British Commonwealth.[292] By 2010, 59% of Anglicans were found in Africa.[292] In 2010, more Protestants lived in India than in the UK or Germany, while Protestants in Brazil were as numerous as those in the UK and Germany combined.[292] Almost as many lived in each of Nigeria and China as in all of Europe.[292] China is home to world's largest Protestant minority.[14][lower-alpha 26]

Protestantism is growing in Africa,[29][305][306] Asia,[29][306][307] Latin America,[306][308] and Oceania,[29][304] while declining in North America[304][309] and Europe.[290][310] In France,[311] Protestantism was driven underground from the 1685 revocation of the Edict of Nantes until shortly before the French Revolution, its adherents are now claimed to be stable in number.[311] According to some, Russia is another country to see a Protestant growth.[312][313][314]

The United States is home to approximately 20% of the world's Protestants.[14] According to a 2019 study, the Protestant share of U.S. population dropped to 43%, ending its historical status as religion of the majority.[315][316][317][318] The decline is attributed mainly to the dropping membership of the Mainline Protestant churches,[319][320] while Evangelical Protestant and Black churches are stable or continue to grow.[319][321][322]

Protestants have been projected to form a slim majority of the world's total Christian population by 2050 if existing trends continue.[323][lower-alpha 27] According to other experts such as Hans J. Hillerbrand, Protestants will be as numerous as Catholics.[324] According to Peter L. Berger, popular Protestantism[lower-alpha 28] is the most dynamic religious movement in the contemporary world, alongside resurgent Islam.[20]

In 2010, the largest Protestant denominational families were historically Pentecostal denominations (11%), Anglican (11%), Lutheran (10%), Baptist (9%), United and uniting churches (unions of different denominations) (7%), Presbyterian or Reformed (7%), Methodist (3%), Adventist (3%), Congregationalist (1%), Brethren (1%), The Salvation Army (<1%) and Moravian (<1%). Other denominations accounted for 38% of Protestants.[14]

* Protestant-majority countries in 2010

* Countries by percentage of Protestants, 2010

## See also

* Anti-Catholicism
* Criticism of Protestantism
* European wars of religion
* Protestantism in Germany
* The Reformation and its influence on church architecture
* Predestination in Protestantism
* Protestantism by country
* Pelagianism
* Semi-Pelagianism

## Explanatory notes

1. ↑ Generally regarded as a division of Western Christianity, though Eastern Protestant denominations have developed outside of the West.
2. ↑ Some movements such as the Hussites or the Lollards are also considered Protestant today, although their origins date back to centuries before the launch of the Reformation. Others, such as the Waldensians, were later incorporated into another branch of Protestantism; in this case, the Reformed branch.
3. ↑ Especially in German contexts, Saxony is often described as the "motherland of the Reformation" (German: Mutterland der Reformation).
4. ↑ At the time Germany and the surrounding region was fragmented into numerous states of the Holy Roman Empire. Areas which turned Protestant were primarily located in northern, central and eastern areas of the Empire.
5. ↑ Several states of the Holy Roman Empire adopted Calvinism, including the County Palatine of the Rhine.
6. ↑ For further information, see English Reformation. In this article, Anglicanism is considered a branch of Protestantism as a part of movements derived directly from the 16th century Reformation. While today the Church of England often considers itself to be a via media between Protestantism and the Catholic Church, until the rise of the Oxford Movement in the 1830s the church generally considered itself to be Protestant. (Neill, Stephen. Anglicanism Pelican 1960, pp. 170, 259–260)
7. ↑ In 2011, the Pew Research Center estimated that there were 800,640,000 Protestants. Of these, 61.8%, or 494,795.520 people, were members of the largest Protestant denominational families. This includes: 10.8 Historical pentecostal churches (86,469,120 people),10.6% (84,867,840 people) Anglican, 9.7% (77,662,080 people) Lutheran, 9% (72,057,600 people) Baptist, 7.5% (60,048,000 people) Presbyterian/Reformed/Congregational (7% Presbyterian/Reformed, or 56,044,800 people and 0.5%, or 4,003,200 people, Congregational), 7.2% (57,646,080 people) United Church, 3.4% (27,221,760 people) Methodist, 2.7% (21,617,280 people) Adventist, 0.5% (4,003,200 people) Brethren, 0.3% (2,401,920 people) Salvation Army and 0.1% (80,0640 people) Moravians.[12]
8. ↑ This branch was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, but many find the word Reformed to be more descriptive.[13] It includes Presbyterianism, Congregationalism, many of united and uniting churches, as well as historic Continental Reformed churches in France, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, Hungary, and elsewhere.
9. ↑ A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving from the Protestant Reformation.
10. ↑ In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors.[75]
11. ↑ Finland's State Church was the Church of Sweden until 1809. As an autonomous Grand Duchy under Russia 1809–1917, Finland retained the Lutheran State Church system, and a state church separate from Sweden, later named the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, was established. It was detached from the state as a separate judicial entity when the new church law came to force in 1869. After Finland had gained independence in 1917, religious freedom was declared in the constitution of 1919 and a separate law on religious freedom in 1922. Through this arrangement, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland lost its position as a state church but gained a constitutional status as a national church alongside the Finnish Orthodox Church, whose position, however, is not codified in the constitution.
12. ↑ For example, the followers of Thomas Müntzer and Balthasar Hubmaier.
13. ↑ Primarily in the United States, where Protestants are usually placed in one of two categories—Mainline or Evangelical.
14. ↑ this varies among Protestants today. In Sweden, the bishops switched to Lutheranism during the Reformation and there was no break in ordinations. See Apostolic succession in Sweden for more on this. Today, as a result of shared ordinations, the entire Porvoo Communion can trace an unbroken chain of Archbishop-level ordinations going back to before the Reformation through the Swedish line. However, today Rome does not accept these ordinations as valid not because there was a break in the chain, but rather because the occurred apart from papal permission.
15. ↑ For more on this, see crypto-paganism and the Great Apostasy. In some areas, pagan Europeans were forced to adopt Christianity at least outwardly, such as after being defeated in battle by Christians. However, outlawing their paganism did not just make it go away. Rather, it persisted as crypto-paganism. For example, Philip Melanchthon, in his 1537 Apology of the Augsburg Confession identified the mechanical character of ex opere operato sacraments as being a form of pagan deterministic philosophy.
16. ↑ This is the position of the Protestants who believe the church is visible. For those who think the church is invisible, organizations are irrelevant, as only individual sinners can be saved.
17. ↑ See Ecclesiology of Augustine of Hippo for an example of a church father who discussed the invisible church.
18. ↑ This is a reference to the Marks of the Church in Reformed theology. It is thus you may think of the State, but the visible church is a totum integrale, it is an empire, with an ethereal emperor, rather than a visible one. The churches of the various nationalities constitute the provinces of this empire; and though they are so far independent of each other, yet they are so one, that membership in one is membership in all, and separation from one is separation from all.... This conception of the church, of which, in at least some aspects, we have practically so much lost sight, had a firm hold of the Scottish theologians of the seventeenth century. James Walker in The Theology of Theologians of Scotland. (Edinburgh: Rpt. Knox Press, 1982) Lecture iv. pp. 95–96.
19. ↑ At least at first, Protestants did not depart per se. Rather, they were excommunicated such as in the 1520 Exsurge Domine and the 1521 Edict of Worms. Some Protestants avoided excommunication by living as crypto-Protestants.
20. ↑ Some Protestants claim the church is visible today, this is a matter of dispute.
21. ↑ The assertion of papal supremacy varied through history. For example, in 381 the First Council of Constantinople recognized the sees of Rome and Constantinople as being equal in authority. Papal supremacy continued to evolve after the Reformation with the First Vatican Council.
22. ↑ Lutherans did not completely reject Trent. In fact, some attended it, although they were not given a vote. Instead, Martin Chemnitz on the basis that all councils are subject to examination, wrote the Examination of the Council of Trent in which some parts of Trent were accepted and others dissented from.
23. ↑ In history, Catholic sympathizing Protestants were termed crypto-papists and lived as such because Catholicism was illegal in some areas under the legal principle of cuius regio, eius religio. However, outlawing Catholics did not always force them to emigrate. Instead, they remained continued to influence the dominant church in their area.
24. ↑ Estimates vary considerably, from 400 up to more than a billion. Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total 2004 Protestant population of 833,457,000,[23] while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary—628,862,000 Protestants, 409,425,000 Independents and 151,494,000 unaffiliated Christians in early 2025.[24]
25. ↑ Current sources are in general agreement that Christians make up about 33% of the world's population—slightly over 2.4 billion adherents in mid-2015.
26. ↑ Estimates for China vary in dozens of millions. Nevertheless, in comparison to the other countries, there is no disagreement that China has the most numerous Protestant minority.
27. ↑ Magisterial Protestant, Independent, Anabaptist and Anglican parties are understood as Protestant as stated previously in the article, as well as in the book: Statistics for the P, I and A megablocs are often combined because they overlap so much-hence the order followed here.
28. ↑ A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving from the Protestant Reformation.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 "Methodist Beliefs: In what ways are Lutherans different from United Methodists?". Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. 2014. http://www.wels.net/what-we-believe/questions-answers/christian/methodist-beliefs. "The United Methodists see Scripture as the primary source and criterion for Christian doctrine, emphasizing the importance of tradition, experience, and reason for Christian doctrine. Lutherans teach that the Bible is the sole source for Christian doctrine. The truths of Scripture do not need to be authenticated by tradition, human experience, or reason. Scripture is self-authenticating and is true in and of itself."
2. ↑ Faithful, George (2014). Mothering the Fatherland: A Protestant Sisterhood Repents for the Holocaust. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199363476. https://books.google.com/books?id=YGqVAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
3. ↑ Löffler, K. (1910), Pope Leo X , The Catholic Encyclopedia, New York: Robert Appleton Company, "The immediate cause was bound up with the odious greed for money displayed by the Roman Curia, and shows how far short all efforts at reform had hitherto fallen...Abuses occurred during the preaching of the Indulgence. The money contributions, a mere accessory, were frequently the chief object, and the "Indulgences for the Dead" became a vehicle of inadmissible teachings...(The pope) gave himself up unrestrainedly to his pleasures and failed to grasp fully the duties of his high office."
4. ↑ Dixon, C. Scott (2010). Protestants: A History from Wittenberg to Pennsylvania 1517–1740. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1444328110. https://books.google.com/books?id=xLBa5aO7fgQC. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Methuen, Charlotte (2015-12-10), "Education in the Reformation", The Oxford Handbook of the Protestant Reformations (Oxford University Press), doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199646920.013.20, ISBN 978-0-19-964692-0, https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199646920.013.20, retrieved 2025-05-06
6. ↑ Gassmann, Günther; Larson, Duane H.; Oldenburg, Mark W. (2001). Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810866201. https://books.google.com/books?id=Htz8M1Xlqi4C&pg=PA9. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
7. ↑ Kuyper, Abraham (2015). Calvinism. Primedia E-launch LLC. ISBN 978-1622090457. https://books.google.com/books?id=1asvyE-1DUkC&pg=PT19. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Hillerbrand, Hans J., ed (2004). "Encyclopedia of Protestantism". Encyclopedia of Protestantism. 1–4. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92472-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA59.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Heussi, Karl (1956). Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11., Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–319, 325–326
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Junius Benjamin Remensnyder (1893) (in English). The Lutheran Manual. Boschen & Wefer Company. p. 12. https://books.google.com/books?id=rWA3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA12. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Frey, H. (1918) (in English). Is One Church as Good as Another?. 37. The Lutheran Witness. pp. 82–83. "There can only be one true visible Church. ...Only that one is the true visible Church which teaches and confesses the entire doctrine of the Word of God in all its purity, and in whose midst the Sacraments are duly administered according to Christ's institution. Of all Churches, this can only be said of our Lutheran Church."
12. ↑ Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion and Public Life (19 December 2011), Global Christianity, pp. 21, 70, http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Christian/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf, retrieved 20 November 2015
13. ↑ Hägglund, Bengt (2007) (in de). Teologins Historia. Translated by Gene J. Lund (Fourth Revised ed.). Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House.
14. ↑ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 14.11 14.12 "Pewforum: Global Christianity". 19 December 2011. http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf.
15. ↑ World Council of Churches: Evangelical churches : "Evangelical churches have grown exponentially in the second half of the 20th century and continue to show great vitality, especially in the global South. This resurgence may in part be explained by the phenomenal growth of Pentecostalism and the emergence of the charismatic movement, which are closely associated with evangelicalism. However, there can be no doubt that the evangelical tradition "per se" has become one of the major components of world Christianity. Evangelicals also constitute sizable minorities in the traditional Protestant and Anglican churches. In regions like Africa and Latin America, the boundaries between "evangelical" and "mainline" are rapidly changing and giving way to new ecclesial realities."
16. ↑ Christian Traditions, Pew Research Center, 2011, "The third group broadly defined as Protestants in this report is independent Christians. Independent Christians have developed ecclesial structures, beliefs and practices that are claimed to be independent of historic, organized Christianity.10 Independent Christians include denominations in sub-Saharan Africa that identify as independent from historically Protestant denominations, churches in China that are not affiliated with official religious associations and nondenominational churches in the United States."
17. ↑ Anckar, Carsten (2022), Religion and Democracy: A Worldwide Comparison, p103, "Wide definition of Protestantism...includes Protestants, Marginal Christians, Anglicans, Christian Independents, and unaffiliated Christians"
18. ↑ Johnstone, Patrick, The Future of the Global Church: History，Trends and Possibilities, p115
19. ↑ Johnson, Todd M.; Zurlo, Gina A.; Hickman, Albert W.; Crossing, Peter F. (January 2017). "Christianity 2017: Five Hundred Years of Protestant Christianity". International Bulletin of Mission Research 41 (1): 42. doi:10.1177/2396939316669492. "If Independent churches are considered as offshoots of Protestantism, then the “wider” Protestants’ share of global Christians is even higher. For example, Protestants and Independents together represent more than 40 percent of all Christians in 2017.".
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Berger, Peter L. (2005). "Religion and Global Civil Society". in Juergensmeyer, Mark. Religion in Global Civil Society. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198040699. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ic5pyiIkTxAC&pg=PA16. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
21. ↑ (in en) Pentecostal movement and charismatization. Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. 24 May 2022. p. 16. ISBN 978-3-374-07096-1. "It is equallly impossible to find a common description for all the traditional churches that emerged from the Reformation. This study document refers to them all as historical Protestant churches or traditional confessional churches - over against the Pentecostal churches that emerged in the 20th century. In the broadest sense, this subsumes the traditional Protestant denominations which see themselves directly or indirectly as Reformation churches, such as Lutherans, Reformed, United, Presbyterians, Mennonites, Baptists and Methodists. In Germany, the term "historical Protestant churches" is usually taken to mean the regional churches belonging to the EKD, together with the traditional Reformation free churches (Baptists, Mennonites and Methodists among others)."
22. ↑ Voorst, Robert E. Van (1 January 2014) (in en). Readings in Christianity. Cengage Learning. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-305-14304-3. "The Magisterial Reformation denotes the Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican churches; this is sometimes labeled the mainstream of the Reformation. Magisterial means that secular authorities ("magistrates") had a role in the life of the church; church and state were closely tied."
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Hillerbrand, Hans J., ed (2004). "Encyclopedia of Protestantism". Encyclopedia of Protestantism. 1–4. London; New York: Routledge. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-415-92472-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2.
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 "Status of Global Christianity, 2025, in the Context of 1900 –2050". Center for the Study of Global Christianity, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2025/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2025.pdf.
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "protestant – Origin and meaning of protestant". http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=protestant.
26. ↑ "Definition of Protestant". https://www.dictionary.com/browse/protestant.
27. ↑ MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2003). The Reformation: A History. New York: Penguin. p. xx.
28. ↑ Espín, Orlando O. and Nickoloff, James B. An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies. Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, p. 796.
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 Melton, J. Gordon, ed (2005). "Encyclopedia of Protestantism". Encyclopedia of Protestantism. Encyclopedia of World Religions. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 0-8160-5456-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=bW3sXBjnokkC.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Jahn, Curtis A. (1 January 2014) (in en). A Lutheran Looks At Catholics. Northwestern Publishing House. ISBN 978-0-8100-2613-1.
31. ↑ Webber, David Jay (1992). "Why is the Lutheran Church a Liturgical Church?". Bethany Lutheran College. https://blc.edu/comm/gargy/gargy1/liturgical_church.html.
32. ↑ Humphrey, Edith M. (2013) (in en). Scripture and Tradition. Baker Books. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4412-4048-4. "historically Anglicans have adopted what could be called a prima Scriptura position."
33. ↑ Woodhead, Linda. Christianity: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2014). pp. 57–70.
34. ↑ Gordon, Bruce; Trueman, Carl R. (2021). The Oxford handbook of Calvin and calvinism. Oxford handbooks (First ed.). Oxford New-York (N.Y.): Oxford university press. ISBN 978-0-19-872881-8.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Herzog, Johann Jakob; Philip Schaff, Albert (1911). The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. p. 419. https://books.google.com/books?id=AmYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA419. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Lane, Anthony (2006). Justification by Faith in Catholic-Protestant Dialogue. London: T & T Clark. p. 27. ISBN 0567040046.
37. ↑ Harstad, Adolph L. (10 May 2016). "Justification Through Faith Produces Sanctification". Evangelical Lutheran Synod. https://els.org/resources/document-archive/convention-essays/essay1997-harstad/.
38. ↑ Preus, James (2 January 2025). "Rewards for Good Works". Christ for Us. https://christforus.org/NewSite/index.php/2025/01/02/rewards-for-good-works/.
39. ↑ White, Charles E. (2 September 2008) (in en). The Beauty of Holiness: Phoebe Palmer as Theologian, Revivalist, Feminist and Humanitarian. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-7252-2173-4. "Wesley also taught that Christians experience several distinct acts of God's grace as they grow into the image of Christ. Two of these acts of grace are justification and entire sanctification. Justification occurs when a sinner is forgiven, regenerated, and made right with God. Entire sanctification happens when the carnal nature within a Christian is finally destroyed, and the believer is then enabled to love God with the whole heart, soul, mind, and strength. Entire sanctification makes Christians perfect in their love for God, but in no other way. Their hearts are so filled with the love of God that there is no room for a contrary affection. Hence they are sinless in that while in this state they do not willingly violate the known law of God. Although believers' hearts are filled with love and freed from sin, sanctified people still suffer the effects of sin on their minds and bodies. They are not free from errors in judgment or mistakes in action. Thus, they continually need the blood of Christ to cleanse them from these accidental "fallings short of the glory of God.""
40. ↑ Bucher, Richard P. (2014). "Methodism". Lexington: Lutheran Church Missouri Synod. http://www.orlutheran.com/html/methodism.html. "Also, for Methodists full salvation involves not only justification by faith, but repentance and holy living as well. Whereas in Lutheran theology the central doctrine and focus of all our worship and life is justification by grace through faith, for Methodists the central focus has always been holy living and the striving for perfection. Wesley gave the analogy of a house. He said repentance is the porch. Faith is the door. But holy living is the house itself. Holy living is true religion. “Salvation is like a house. To get into the house you first have to get on the porch (repentance) and then you have to go through the door (faith). But the house itself—one’s relationship with God—is holiness, holy living” (Joyner, paraphrasing Wesley, 3)."
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Willsky-Ciollo, Lydia (2015). American Unitarianism and the Protestant Dilemma: The Conundrum of Biblical Authority. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-0739188927.
42. ↑ Chan, Simon (1998). Spiritual Theology: A Systematic Study of the Christian Life. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic. p. 105. ISBN 978-0830815425.
43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Avis, Paul (2002). The Church in the Theology of the Reformers. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 95. ISBN 1592441009.
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "The Battle for the Table" (in en). Ligonier Ministries. 1 November 2006. https://www.ligonier.org/learn/articles/battle-table/. "It is important to note at this point that there is major agreement among Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Anglicans, the Reformed (Calvinist), that Christ is truly present in the Lord's Supper. They all go beyond the view of the Supper as a bare sign or memorial ... The debate among Catholics, Lutherans, and Reformed people is one that focuses on the mode of Christ's presence in the Lord's Supper. At the bottom, this debate is not so much sacramental as it is christological."
45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Pattison, Mark (18 September 2017). "How Catholic-Lutheran ecumenical efforts have borne fruit in past 50 years" (in en). America Magazine. https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2017/09/18/how-catholic-lutheran-ecumenical-efforts-have-borne-fruit-past-50-years. "“There is no substantial difference in Lutheran and Catholic belief in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist,” she added."
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Mattox, Mickey L.; Roeber, A. G. (27 February 2012) (in en). Changing Churches: An Orthodox, Catholic, and Lutheran Theological Conversation. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-8028-6694-3. "In this "sacramental union," Lutherans taught, the body and blood of Christ are so truly united to the bread and wine of the Holy Communion so that the two may be identified. They are at the same time body and blood, bread and wine. This divine food is given, more-over, not just for the strengthening of faith, nor only as a sign of our unity in faith, nor merely as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin. Even more, in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ for the strengthening of the union of faith. The "real presence" of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means by which the union of faith, effected by God's Word and the sacrament of baptism, is strengthened and maintained."
47. ↑ Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 95, Part XXIV. "The Lord's Supper", paragraph 131.
48. ↑ "The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article 8, The Holy Supper". Bookofconcord.com. http://www.bookofconcord.com/fc-sd/supper.html.
49. ↑ Elwell, Walter A. (May 2001) (in en). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Baker Academic. p. 990. ISBN 978-0-8010-2075-9. "For Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger (Second Helvetic Confession 21.10), John Calvin, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and most of the Reformed tradition (e.g. Westminster Confession 29.7) as well as the Anglican Thirty-Nine Articles (28), Christ is "spiritually present" in the sacrament by the ministry of the Holy Spirit and is received by faith. They affirm Christ's "true" and thus real presence, even "substantial" presence (Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion [1559] 4.17.19), distinguishing this from physical presence."
50. ↑ González, Justo L. (1987) (in en). A History of Christian Thought: From the Protestant Reformation to the twentieth century. Abingdon Press. ISBN 978-0-687-17184-2. "It is clear that, in rejecting Roman Catholic doctrine on this point, Cranmer has also rejected Luther's views and adopted Calvin's position. The sacrament is not merely a symbol of what takes place in the heart, but neither is it the physical eating of the body of Christ. This must be so, because the body of Christ is in heaven and therefore our participation in it can only be spiritual. Only the believers are the true partakers of the body and blood of Christ, for the unbelievers eat and drink no more than bread and wine—and condemnation upon themselves, for the profanation of the Lord's Table. These views are reflected in the Thirty-nine articles, of which the twenty-eighth says that "the Body of the Christ is given, taken, and eaten, in the Supper, only after an heavently and spiritual manner. The next article says of the wicked that "in no wise are they partakers of Christ," although "to their condemnation [they] do eat and rink the sign or Sacrament of so great a thing." This marked Calvinistic influence would prove very significant for the history of Christianity in England during the seventeenth century"
51. ↑ Mahoney, James (9 July 2024). "The Methodist's Duty: Wesley's "Constant Communion" and the 21st Century Methodist" (in English). Firebrand Magazine. https://firebrandmag.com/articles/the-methodists-duty-wesleys-constant-communion-and-the-21st-century-methodist. "Methodists say with Wesley that Holy Communion is a sacrament, and though we choose not to define our understanding along the lines of transubstantiation or consubstantiation (Methodist Articles of Religion, Art. XVIII), we do nonetheless believe in the Real Presence (that Jesus is present “after a spiritual manner,” Art. XVIII) and that this sacrament is both medicine and food."
52. ↑ Collins, Kenneth J. (2025). "Worship and the Sacraments (Part 2)" (in en). Biblical Training. https://www.biblicaltraining.org/learn/institute/th511-wesleyan-theology-ii/th511-17-worship-and-the-sacraments-part-2. "Wesley says that there is a spiritual presence of Jesus in the Lord’s Supper."
53. ↑ Neal, Gregory S. (2014). Sacramental Theology and the Christian Life. WestBow Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-1490860077. "For Anglicans and Methodists the reality of the presence of Jesus as received through the sacramental elements is not in question. Real presence is simply accepted as being true, its mysterious nature being affirmed and even lauded in official statements like This Holy Mystery: A United Methodist Understanding of Holy Communion."
54. ↑ Balmer, Randall Herbert; Winner, Lauren F. (2002). Protestantism in America. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0231111300. https://archive.org/details/protestantismame00balm_593.
55. ↑ Haffner, Paul (1999). The Sacramental Mystery. Gracewing Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 978-0852444764. "The Augsburg Confession drawn up by Melanchton, one of Luther's disciples admitted only three sacraments, Baptist, the Lord's Supper and Penance. Melanchton left the way open for the other five sacred signs to be considered as "secondary sacraments". However, Zwingli, Calvin and most of the later Reformed tradition accepted only Baptism and the Lord's Supper as sacraments, but in a highly symbolic sense."
56. ↑ Dixon, C. Scott (2010). Protestants: A History from Wittenberg to Pennsylvania 1517–1740. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1444328110. https://books.google.com/books?id=xLBa5aO7fgQC. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
57. ↑ "Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume III: Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 311–600 – Christian Classics Ethereal Library". https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc3.iii.vii.xix.html.
58. ↑ "Gottschalk Of Orbais | Roman Catholic theologian | Britannica" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gottschalk-of-Orbais.
59. ↑ caryslmbrown (2017-07-18). "Reformation parallels: the case of Gottschalk of Orbais" (in en). https://doinghistoryinpublic.org/2017/07/18/reformation-parallels-the-case-of-gottschalk-of-orbais/.
60. ↑ Lockridge, Kenneth R.. "Gottschalk "Fulgentius" of Orbais". https://www.academia.edu/11213309.
61. ↑ "Ratramnus | Benedictine theologian | Britannica" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ratramnus.
62. ↑ Milner, Joseph. The History of the Church of Christ Volume 3. "A comment on the epistle to the Galatians, is his only work which was committed to the press. In it he every where asserts the equality of all the apostles with St. Peter. And, indeed, he always owns Jesus Christ to be the only proper head of the church. He is severe against the doctrine of human merits, and of the exaltation of traditions to a height of credibility equal to that of the divine word. He maintains that we are to be saved by faith alone; holds the fallibility of the church, exposes the futility of praying for the dead, and the sinfulness of the idolatrous practices then supported by the Roman see. Such are the sentiments found in his commentary on the epistle to the Galatians."
63. ↑ MacCulloch, Diarmaid. A history of Christianity : the first three thousand years. OCLC 1303898228.
64. ↑ "Friends of God | religious group". Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Friends-of-God. Retrieved 2021-12-13.
65. ↑ "Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294–1517". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.x.v.html.
66. ↑ "Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294–1517". https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.x.iv.html.
67. ↑ ELLIOTT, Edward Bishop (1862) (in en). Horæ Apocalypticæ; Or a Commentary on the Apocalypse Critical and Historical; Including Also an Examination of the Chief Prophecies of Daniel. https://books.google.com/books?id=XviOjpgLUFIC&dq=dominum+deum+nostrum+papam&pg=PA597.
68. ↑ Derry.), George DOWNAME (Bishop of (1603) (in en). A Treatise Concerning Antichrist, ... Proving that the Pope is Antichrist ... Against All the Objections of R. Bellarmine, Etc. Imprinted for C. Barbie. https://books.google.com/books?id=TF_hvA2Gl9cC&dq=dominum+deum+nostrum+papam&pg=PA71.
69. ↑ Ferraris, Lucius (1772) (in la). Prompta bibliotheca, canonica, juridica, moralis, theologica, nec non ascetica, polemica, rubricistica, historica.... https://books.google.com/books?id=8AYz-KzJXTkC&dq="Deus+in+terra"+prompta+bibliotheca+canonica&pg=PA438.
70. ↑ Guinness, Henry Grattan (1887) (in en). Romanism and the Reformation: From the Standpoint of Prophecy. Hodder and Stoughton. https://books.google.com/books?id=GFv-xn0vKNoC&dq="Deus+in+terra"+god+on+earth&pg=PA26.
71. ↑ "The forms of communication employed by the Protestant Reformers and especially Luther and Calvin". Pharos Journal of Theology 98. 2016. http://www.pharosjot.com/uploads/7/1/6/3/7163688/article_25_vol_98_2017.pdf. Retrieved 14 December 2021. "John of Wessel was one member in the group who attacked indulgences (Reddy 2004:115). The doctrine of justification by faith alone was the teaching of John of Wessel (Kuiper 1982:151). He rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation where it is believed when the priest pronounces the sacraments then the wine and bread is turned into the real body and blood of Christ".
72. ↑ Schofield Martin Luther p. 122
73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Mark, Joshua J. (21 February 2024). "Men of the Protestant Reformation". World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/collection/206/men-of-the-protestant-reformation/. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
74. ↑ Cameron European Reformation
75. ↑ Pettegree Reformation World p. 543
76. ↑ McGrath, Alister E. (2007). Christianity's Dangerous Idea: The Protestant Revolution. HarperOne. p. 87.
77. ↑ "William Tynedale". Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Tyndale. Retrieved 31 July 2025.
78. ↑ Daniell, David (1994). William Tyndale: A Biography. Yale University Press. p. 123.
79. ↑ Gordon, Bruce (2002). The Swiss Reformation. Manchester University Press. p. 145.
80. ↑ Wakefield, Gordon S. (August 1990). "The Study of Anglicanism. Edited by Stephen Sykes and John Booty. London, SPCK and Fortress Press, 1988. Pp. xviii + 468. $17.50.". Scottish Journal of Theology 43 (3): 406–408. doi:10.1017/s0036930600032786. ISSN 0036-9306. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0036930600032786.
81. ↑ Article 1, of the Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland 1921 states 'The Church of Scotland adheres to the Scottish Reformation'.
82. ↑ "History of Europe – Demographics". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195896/history-of-Europe/58335/Demographics#ref=ref310375.
83. ↑ Cross, (ed.) "Westphalia, Peace of" Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church
84. ↑ Thomas S. Kidd, The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America (2009)
85. ↑ Nancy Cott, "Young Women in the Great Awakening in New England", Feminist Studies 3, no. 1/2 (Autumn 1975): 15.
86. ↑ William G. McLoughlin, Revivals Awakenings and Reform (1980)
87. ↑ Mark A. Noll, A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada (1992) pp. 286–310
88. ↑ Robert William Fogel, The Fourth Great Awakening and the Future of Egalitarianism (2000)
89. ↑ Robert William Fogel (2000), The Fourth Great Awakening & the Future of Egalitarianism; see the review by Randall Balmer, Journal of Interdisciplinary History 2002 33(2): 322–325
90. ↑ Gibbard, Noel (2005). Fire on the Altar: A History and Evaluation of the 1904–05 Welsh Revival. Bridgend: Bryntirion Press. ISBN 978-1850492115.
91. ↑ Cranach (22 March 2012). "Has Lutheranism caused secularism?". http://www.patheos.com/blogs/geneveith/2012/03/has-lutheranism-caused-secularism/.
92. ↑ Chapitre 6 – Les Lumières, ou la sécularisation de l'État. Cairn.info. 2016. ISBN 978-2200272135. https://www.cairn.info/pouvoir-et-religion-en-europe--9782200272135-page-209.htm. Retrieved 2022-09-22.
93. ↑ Horsch, John (1995). Mennonites in Europe. Herald Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-0836113952.
94. ↑ 94.0 94.1 Gonzalez, A History of Christian Thought, 88.
95. ↑ Hein, Gerhard. "Karlstadt, Andreas Rudolff-Bodenstein von (1486–1541)". https://gameo.org/index.php?title=Karlstadt,_Andreas_Rudolff-Bodenstein_von_(1486-1541).
96. ↑ "Welcome reformationhappens.com - BlueHost.com". http://www.reformationhappens.com/movements/magisterial/.
97. ↑ Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1996–1997. Diane Publishing. 1996. ISBN 978-0788129056. https://books.google.com/books?id=QkhVtAEwZckC&pg=PA135. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
98. ↑ Edgerly, James (2023). “As American Protestantism declines, it has entered a post-denominational era. Even within the larger Mainline denominations, particularly the Southern Baptist Convention, individual churches do not strongly identify with their “denominational brand.” Mainline, Pentecostal, and Evangelical believers move freely among congregations. “Many, if not most, non-denominational churches are effectively Baptist in theology and polity, governed congregationally through elders, and practicing believers’ baptism."
99. ↑ Encyclopedia.com, "The postdenominational church is an amorphous entity with roots in the 1960s counter-cultural reaction to organized religion. Members of the so-called Jesus movement held worship in parks and on beaches, feeling that the spirit of Christianity was antithetical to the bricks and mortar, clerical vestments, ritual practice, and theological dogma that were associated with "institutional" religion. In recent years the focus of the post-denominational church has not been associated with countercultural reaction but instead is part of a restorationist movement to recapture the spirit of the early Christian church"
100. ↑ Anatoliy, Denysenko, Post-Protestantism: Contemporary Exclusions, Critical Theology and Reformation 500 in the Context of the Phenomenon of the "Emerging Church", p1-2.
101. ↑ World History Encyclopedia (2021), "The Protestant Reformation (1517-1648) refers to the widespread religious, cultural, and social upheaval of 16th-century Europe that broke the hold of the medieval Church"
102. ↑ Jensen, A. Gordan, Martin Luther’s Sacramental Theology (2016), "Martin Luther’s emphasis on the sacraments as a visible, tactile means by which the justifying action of God is conveyed to the believer brings the pastoral heart of the Reformation into clear focus." https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.359
103. ↑ Allen, Michael, 19 Sacraments in the Reformed and Anglican Reformation (2016), "...this chapter offers commentary on Reformed and Anglican confessional statements as they address the two sacraments: baptism and Eucharist. These contested areas of sacramental theology are considered following an initial focus upon the question of authority. The chapter concludes by returning to the material concern of the Reformed Reformation—the doctrine of grace—and an analysis of its operative effect upon sacramental faith and practice." https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199659067.013.35
104. ↑ Sochor, Andy, The Reformation and the Restoration: A Tale of Two Movements (2021): "Just as the Reformation Movement was born as a response to the problems that existed in the Roman Catholic Church, another movement was born as a response to the problem of division that existed within the Protestant churches that were part of the Reformation Movement. This new movement which began in the 1800’s in this country was the Restoration Movement"
105. ↑ Foster, Douglas. A, "Chapter 11. Restorationists and New Movements in North America", The Oxford History of Protestant Dissenting Traditions, Volume III: The Nineteenth Century, https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199683710.003.0012
106. ↑ Lutheranism at Encyclopædia Britannica, Hillerbrand, Hans: Lutheranism (2023), "Lutheranism, branch of Christianity that traces its interpretation of the Christian religion to the teachings of Martin Luther and the 16th-century movements that issued from his reforms. Along with Anglicanism, the Reformed and Presbyterian (Calvinist) churches, Methodism, and the Baptist churches, Lutheranism is one of the five major branches of Protestantism"
107. ↑ "An Orthodox Response to the Recent Roman Catholic Declaration on the Nature of the Church". Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese. https://www.antiochian.org/node/17076.
108. ↑ "ICL > Denmark > Constitution". http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/da00000_.html.
109. ↑ "Føroyska kirkjan". http://www.folkakirkjan.fo/default.aspx?pageid=6235&sectionid=207.
110. ↑ Constitution of the Republic of Iceland : Article 62, Government of Iceland .
111. ↑ Løsere bånd, men fortsatt statskirke , ABC Nyheter
112. ↑ Staten skal ikke lenger ansette biskoper , NRK
113. ↑ Forbund, Human-Etisk (15 May 2012). "Ingen avskaffelse: Slik blir den nye statskirkeordningen". http://fritanke.no/index.php?page=vis_nyhet&NyhetID=8840.
114. ↑ Fasse, Christoph. "Address data base of Reformed churches and institutions". http://www.reformiert-online.net/adressen/detail.php?id=13338&lg=eng.
115. ↑ Eberle, Edward J. (2011). Church and State in Western Society. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4094-0792-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=oYkzkVc_sG0C&pg=PA2. Retrieved 30 December 2019. "The Church of England later became the official state church, with the monarch supervising church functions."
116. ↑ Fox, Jonathan (2008). A World Survey of Religion and the State. Cambridge University Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-521-88131-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=rE0NcgxNaKEC&pg=PA120. Retrieved 30 December 2019. "The Church of England (Anglican) and the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) are the official religions of the UK."
117. ↑ Ferrante, Joan (2010). Sociology: A Global Perspective. Cengage Learning. p. 408. ISBN 978-0-8400-3204-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=AwnIIXI6y38C&pg=PA408. Retrieved 30 December 2019. "the Church of England [Anglican], which remains the official state church"
118. ↑ "Maarit Jänterä-Jareborg: Religion and the Secular State in Sweden". http://www.iclrs.org/content/blurb/files/Sweden.1.pdf.
119. ↑ "Staatlicher Dirigismus und neue Gläubigkeit (Die Kirche im Herzogtum Nassau)" (in de). Nassau-info.de. http://www.nassau-info.de/geschichte-jb-kirche.htm.
120. ↑ Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, Fourth Session, Decree on Sacred Scripture (Denzinger 783 [1501]; Schaff 2:79–81). For a history of the discussion of various interpretations of the Tridentine decree, see Selby, Matthew L., The Relationship Between Scripture and Tradition according to the Council of Trent, unpublished Master's thesis, University of St Thomas, July 2013.
121. ↑ Olson, Roger E. (1999). The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform. InterVarsity Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0830815050. https://archive.org/details/storyofchristian00olso/page/158. "The magisterial Protestant denominations such as major Lutheran, Reformed and Anglican (Church of England, Episcopalian) denominations recognize only the first four as having any special authority, and even they are considered subordinate to Scripture."
122. ↑ Kelly, Joseph Francis (2009). The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History. Liturgical Press. p. 64. ISBN 978-0814653760. "The Church of England and most Lutheran churches accept the first four councils as ecumenical; Orthodox churches accept the first seven."
123. ↑ "About Us". http://www.lutheran.org.nz/about-us/.
124. ↑ "Member Churches – The Lutheran World Federation". 19 May 2013. http://www.lutheranworld.org/content/member-churches.
125. ↑ "Survey Shows 70.5 Million Members in LWF-Affiliated Churches". http://www.lutheranworld.org/lwf/index.php/member-statistics-2011.html.
126. ↑ "What it means to be an Anglican". Church of England. http://www.cofe.anglican.org/faith/anglican/.
127. ↑ "The Anglican Communion official website – homepage". http://www.anglicancommunion.org/.
128. ↑ Office, Anglican Communion. "Member Churches". http://www.anglicancommunion.org/tour/index.cfm.
129. ↑ Green, Jonathon (1996). "Chapter 2: The Middle Ages". Chasing the Sun: Dictionary Makers and the Dictionaries They Made (1st US ed.). New York: Henry Holt. pp. 58–59. ISBN 978-0-8050-3466-0.
130. ↑ Diarmaid MacCulloch, Thomas Cranmer: A Life, Yale University Press, p. 617 (1996).
131. ↑ Samuel, Chimela Meehoma (28 April 2020) (in en). Treasures of the Anglican Witness: A Collection of Essays. Partridge Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5437-5784-2. "In addition to his emphasis on Bible reading and the introduction to the Book of Common Prayer, other media through which Cranmer sought to catechize the English people were the introduction of the First Book of Homilies and the 39 Articles of Religion. Together with the Book of Common Prayer and the Forty-Two Articles (which were later reduced to thirty-nine), the Book of Homilies stands as one of the essential texts of the Edwardian Reformation, and they all helped to define the shape of Anglicanism then, and in the subsequent centuries. More so, the Articles of Religion, whose primary shape and content were given by Archbishop Cranmer and Bishop Ridley in 1553 (and whose final official form was ratified by Convocation, the Queen, and Parliament in 1571), provided a more precise interpretation of Christian doctrine to the English people. According to John H. Rodgers, they "constitute the formal statements of the accepted, common teaching put forth by the Church of England as a result of the Reformation.""
132. ↑ "Theology and Communion". http://wcrc.ch/theology/.
133. ↑ "Member Churches". http://wcrc.ch/wcrc-member-churches/.
134. ↑ "Member Churches". World Methodist Council. http://worldmethodistcouncil.org/about/member-churches/.
135. ↑ A Collection of Hymns, for the use of the people called Methodists. T. Blanshard. 1820. https://books.google.com/books?id=qScPAAAAIAAJ. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
136. ↑ 136.0 136.1 Winn, Christian T. Collins (2007) (in en). From the Margins: A Celebration of the Theological Work of Donald W. Dayton. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 115. ISBN 978-1630878320. "In addition to these separate denominational groupings, one needs to give attention to the large pockets of the Holiness movement that have remained within the United Methodist Church. The most influential of these would be the circles dominated by Asbury College and Asbury Theological Seminary (both in Wilmore, KY), but one could speak of other colleges, innumerable local campmeetings, the vestiges of various local Holiness associations, independent Holiness oriented missionary societies and the like that have had great impact within United Methodism. A similar pattern would exist in England with the role of Cliff College within Methodism in that context."
137. ↑ "Holiness churches". https://www.oikoumene.org/en/church-families/holiness-churches.
138. ↑ Nĕmec, Ludvík "The Czechoslovak heresy and schism: the emergence of a national Czechoslovak church", American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1975, ISBN 0-87169-651-7
139. ↑ Bergman, Jerry (1995). "The Adventist and Jehovah's Witness Branch of Protestantism". in Miller, Timothy. America's Alternative Religions. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 33–46. ISBN 978-0-7914-2397-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=og_u0Re1uwUC&pg=PA33.
140. ↑ Handbook of Denominations in the United States (12th ed.). Nashville: Abingdon Press. 2005. pp. 256–276.
141. ↑ Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population, Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, 19 December 2011, p. 67, http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Christian/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf, retrieved 25 June 2015
142. ↑ "Quaker Faith & Practice". Britain Yearly Meeting. http://qfp.quakerweb.org.uk/qfp11-01.html.
143. ↑ "Baltimore Yearly Meeting Faith & Practice 2011 draft". http://www.bym-rsf.org/publications/fandp/11worship.html#vocal.
144. ↑ The Trouble With "Ministers" by Chuck Fager gives an overview of the hierarchy Friends had until it began to be abolished in the mid-eighteenth century. Retrieved 25 April 2014.
145. ↑ Abigail, Shawn (June 2006). "What is the history of the 'Brethren'?". http://brethrenonline.org/faqs/Brethren.htm#3.
146. ↑ Mackay, Harold (1981). Assembly Distinctives. Scarborough, Toronto: Everyday Publications. ISBN 978-0-88873-049-7. OCLC 15948378. https://archive.org/details/assemblydistinct0000mack.
147. ↑ 147.0 147.1 Smith, Gary Scott, ed (2020). American Religious History: Belief and Society through Time (1 ed.). ABC-CLIO, LLC. doi:10.5040/9798216957768. ISBN 979-8-216-95776-8. https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/encyclopedia?docid=b-9798216957768.
148. ↑ Buescher, John. "Baptist Origins ." Teaching History . Retrieved 23 September 2011.
149. ↑ Shurden, Walter (2001). "Turning Points in Baptist History". Macon, GA: The Center for Baptist Studies, Mercer University. http://www.centerforbaptiststudies.org/pamphlets/style/turningpoints.htm.
150. ↑ Smith, Gary Scott, ed (2020). American Religious History: Belief and Society through Time (1 ed.). ABC-CLIO, LLC. doi:10.5040/9798216957751. ISBN 979-8-216-95775-1. https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/encyclopedia?docid=b-9798216957751.
151. ↑ Gourley, Bruce. "A Very Brief Introduction to Baptist History, Then and Now." The Baptist Observer.
152. ↑ Hudson, Winthrop S.. "Baptist". http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/52364/Baptist.
153. ↑ 153.0 153.1 Cross, FL, ed. (2005), "Baptists", The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church, New York: Oxford University Press
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155. ↑ Pipes, Carol (23 May 2019). "SBC: Giving increases while baptisms continue decline". Baptist Press. http://www.bpnews.net/52962/acp--giving-increases-baptisms-attendance-continue-decline.
156. ↑ McGrath, William, "Neither Catholic nor Protestant", CBC 4 me, http://www.cbc4me.org/articles/Baptist/04-McGrath.pdf
157. ↑ Gilbert, William, "15 The Radicals of the Reformation", The Anabaptists and the Reformation, http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/gilbert/15.html, retrieved 4 June 2015
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159. ↑ Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to refer to "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." (MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History, p. xxiv.)
160. ↑ "Classification of Protestant Denominations". Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey. http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-appendix3.pdf.
161. ↑ "Unitarianism: Unitarianism at a glance". BBC – Religions. https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/unitarianism/ataglance/glance.shtml.
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163. ↑ Berdyaev, Nikolai (1999). "Spiritual Christianity and Sectarianism in Russia". Russkaya Mysl ("Russian Thought"). http://www.berdyaev.com/berdiaev/berd_lib/1916_252a.html. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
164. ↑ Tarasoff, Koozma J. (2006). "Overview". Spirit Wrestlers: Doukhobor Pioneers' Strategies for Living. Ottawa: Legas. ISBN 1-896031-12-9. http://www.spirit-wrestlers.com/excerpts/2006_Doukhobors_Overview.html. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
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166. ↑ "Redirect". http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=tflynn_26_5.
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170. ↑ Balmer, Randall (2004), "Charismatic Movement", Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism: Revised and Expanded Edition (2nd ed.), Waco: Baylor
171. ↑ Masters, Peter; Whitcomb, John (1988). Charismatic Phenomenon. London: Wakeman. p. 113. ISBN 978-1870855013. https://archive.org/details/charismaticpheno0000mast/page/113.
172. ↑ Masters, Peter; Wright, Professor Verna (1988). Healing Epidemic. London: Wakeman Trust. p. 227. ISBN 978-1870855006.
173. ↑ "Reformed and Presbyterian Denominations: A Primer". 15 February 2014. http://www.tateville.com/churches.html.
174. ↑ Patrick, Arthur (25 October 1999). "Early Adventist worship, Ellen White and the Holy Spirit: Preliminary Historical Perspectives". SDAnet AtIssue. http://www.sdanet.org/atissue/discern/holyspirit.htm.
175. ↑ Patrick, Arthur (27 August 1999). "Later Adventist Worship, Ellen White and the Holy Spirit: Further Historical Perspectives". SDAnet AtIssue. http://www.sdanet.org/atissue/discern/flesh.htm.
176. ↑ Burgess, Stanley M; van der Maas, Eduard M, eds. (2002), "Neocharismatics", The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, Grand Rapids: Zondervan
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178. ↑ Chambers Biographical Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. 1995. p. 62.
179. ↑ Keathley, Kenneth D. (2007). "The Work of God: Salvation". A Theology for the Church. Nashville: B&H Academic. p. 703.
180. ↑ Robert G. Torbet, A History of the Baptists, third edition
181. ↑ Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity, Vol. Two: The Reformation to the Present Day (New York: Harpercollins Publishers, 1985; reprint – Peabody: Prince Press, 2008) 180
182. ↑ In places, such as parts of England and America, where Pietism was frequently juxtaposed with Catholicism, Catholics also became naturally influenced by Pietism, helping to foster a stronger tradition of congregational hymn-singing, including among Pietists who converted to Catholicism and brought their pietistic inclination with them, such as Frederick William Faber.
183. ↑ Meier, Marcus (2008). The Origin of the Schwarzenau Brethren. Philadelphia: Brethren Encyclopedia. p. 144.
184. ↑ Calvinist Puritans believed that government was ordained by God to enforce Christian behavior upon the world; pietists see the government as a part of the world, and believers were called to voluntarily live faithful lives independent of government.
185. ↑ "Latimer's Pulpit". https://www.50treasures.divinity.cam.ac.uk/treasure/latimers-pulpit/.
186. ↑ "Despite Cambridge's Protestant history, Catholic students are at home here" (in en-GB). 2020-06-25. https://catholicherald.co.uk/despite-cambridges-protestant-history-catholic-students-are-at-home-here/.
187. ↑ Langford Oliver, Vere (1912). Pym Letters. Caribbeana: Being Miscellaneous papers Relating to the History. Genealogy, Topography, and Antiquities of the British West Indies. Volume II.. London: Mitchell Hughes and Clarke, 140 Wardour Street, W. p. 14. "The Government is changed. Within twenty days after his arrival, the Governor called an assembly, pretending thereby to reform certain things amiss. All the ministers in the island, Mr. White, Mr. Goldinge, and Mr. Copeland, were Independents, and they had set up a Congregational Church, of which most gentlemen of Council were members or favourers. The burgesses of this assembly were picked out of those who were known to be enemies to that way, and they did not suffer a Roundhead (as they term them) to be chosen."
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196. ↑ Boppart, Timo; Falkinger, Josef; Grossmann, Volker (1 April 2014). "Protestantism and Education: Reading (the Bible) and Other Skills". Economic Inquiry 52 (2): 874–895. doi:10.1111/ecin.12058. ISSN 1465-7295. https://www.cesifo-group.de/DocDL/cesifo1_wp3314.pdf.
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198. ↑ Spater, Jeremy; Tranvik, Isak (1 November 2019). "The Protestant Ethic Reexamined: Calvinism and Industrialization". Comparative Political Studies 52 (13–14): 1963–1994. doi:10.1177/0010414019830721. ISSN 0010-4140.
199. ↑ Cohen, I. Bernard (1990). Puritanism and the rise of modern science: the Merton thesis. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-1530-4.
200. ↑ Cohen, H. (1994). The scientific revolution: a historiographical inquiry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 320–321. ISBN 978-0-226-11280-0. https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00cohe/page/320. Google Print, pp. 320–321
201. ↑ Ferngren, Gary B. (2002). Science and religion: a historical introduction. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-8018-7038-5. Google Print, p.125
202. ↑ Becker, Pfaff & Rubin 2016.
203. ↑ Heinrich August Winkler (2012), Geschichte des Westens. Von den Anfängen in der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert, Third, Revised Edition, Munich (Germany), p. 233
204. ↑ Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), History of Religion in the United States, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 69–80, 88–89, 114–117, 186–188
205. ↑ M. Schmidt, Kongregationalismus, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1770
206. ↑ McKinney, William. "Mainline Protestantism 2000." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 558, Americans and Religions in the Twenty-First Century (July 1998), pp. 57–66.
207. ↑ Fortenbaugh, Robert (September 1933). "The Lutheran Church in American History By Abdel Ross Wentz. Second Edition, Revised. Philadelphia: The United Lutheran Publication House, 1933. 465 pages. $2.00.". Church History 2 (3): 179–180. doi:10.2307/3159853. ISSN 0009-6407. https://doi.org/10.2307/3159853.
208. ↑ Gerhard Lenski (1963), The Religious Factor: A Sociological Study of Religion's Impact on Politics, Economics, and Family Life, Revised Edition, A Doubleday Anchor Book, Garden City, New York, pp. 348–351
209. ↑ Cf. Robert Middlekauff (2005), The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789, Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-516247-9, p. 52
210. ↑ Jan Weerda, Soziallehre des Calvinismus, in Evangelisches Soziallexikon, 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 934
211. ↑ Eduard Heimann, Kapitalismus, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1136–1141
212. ↑ Hans Fritz Schwenkhagen, Technik, in Evangelisches Soziallexikon, 3. Auflage, col. 1029–1033
213. ↑ Georg Süßmann, Naturwissenschaft und Christentum, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 1377–1382
214. ↑ C. Graf von Klinckowstroem, Technik. Geschichtlich, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 664–667
215. ↑ Kim, Sung Ho (Fall 2008). "Max Weber". Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/.
216. ↑ Braudel, Fernand. 1977. Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism. Baltimore: Johns Hopskins University Press.
217. ↑ Manager (31 January 2017). "Protestant Modernity". http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/controversy/protestant-objections/protestant-modernity.html.
218. ↑ Trevor-Roper. 2001. The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century. Liberty Fund
219. ↑ Tausch, Arno (31 March 2015). "Towards new maps of global human values, based on World Values Survey (6) data". Mpra Paper. https://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/63349.html. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
220. ↑ 220.0 220.1 B. Drummond Ayers Jr. (19 December 2011). "The Episcopalians: An American Elite with Roots Going Back To Jamestown". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/28/us/the-episcopalians-an-american-elite-with-roots-going-back-to-jamestown.html.
221. ↑ Irving Lewis Allen, "WASP – From Sociological Concept to Epithet", Ethnicity, 1975 154+
222. ↑ Hacker, Andrew (1957). "Liberal Democracy and Social Control". American Political Science Review 51 (4): 1009–1026 [p. 1011]. doi:10.2307/1952449.
223. ↑ Baltzell (1964). The Protestant Establishment. New York, Random House. p. 9. https://archive.org/details/protestantestabl00baltrich.
224. ↑ W. Williams, Peter (2016). Religion, Art, and Money: Episcopalians and American Culture from the Civil War to the Great Depression. University of North Carolina Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-1469626987. "The names of fashionable families who were already Episcopalian, like the Morgans, or those, like the Fricks, who now became so, goes on interminably: Aldrich, Astor, Biddle, Booth, Brown, Du Pont, Firestone, Ford, Gardner, Mellon, Morgan, Procter, the Vanderbilt, Whitney. Episcopalians branches of the Baptist Rockefellers and Jewish Guggenheims even appeared on these family trees."
225. ↑ 225.0 225.1 Sztompka, P. (2003). "Chapter 1. Robert K. Merton". [Extract from] the Blackwell ... Social Theorists. Wiley. pp. 12–33. doi:10.1002/9780470999912.ch2. ISBN 978-0470999912. http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9781405105958_chunk_g97814051059584. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
226. ↑ Gregory, Andrew (1998). "Lecture 14". http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/gregory/215/handouts/h14_srel.doc.
227. ↑ Becker, George (December 1992). "The Merton thesis: Oetinger and German Pietism, a significant negative case". Sociological Forum 7 (4): 642–660. doi:10.1007/bf01112319.
228. ↑ 228.0 228.1 228.2 228.3 Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States New York, The Free Press, 1977, p. 68: Protestants turn up among the American-reared laureates in slightly greater proportion to their numbers in the general population. Thus 72 percent of the seventy-one laureates but about two-thirds of the American population were reared in one or another Protestant denomination-)
229. ↑ 229.0 229.1 Baruch A. Shalev, 100 Years of Nobel Prizes (2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p. 57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religion Most 65% have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. While separating Catholics from Protestants among Christians proved difficult in some cases, available information suggests that more Protestants were involved in the scientific categories and more Catholics were involved in the Literature and Peace categories. Atheists, agnostics, and freethinkers constitute 11% of total Nobel Prize winners; but in the category of Literature, these preferences rise sharply to about 35%. A striking fact involving religion is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith—over 20% of total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. The numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14 million people (0.02% of the world's population) are Jewish. By contrast, only 5 Nobel Laureates have been of the Muslim faith—1% of total number of Nobel prizes awarded—from a population base of about 1.2 billion (20% of the world's population)
230. ↑ Heinrich Bornkamm, Toleranz. In der Geschichte des Christentums in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band VI (1962), col. 937
231. ↑ Original German title: Dass eine christliche Versammlung oder Gemeine Recht und Macht habe, alle Lehre zu beurteilen und Lehrer zu berufen, ein- und abzusetzen: Grund und Ursach aus der Schrift
232. ↑ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 4–10
233. ↑ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage, p. 325
234. ↑ Quoted in Jan Weerda, Calvin, in Evangelisches Soziallexikon, 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 210
235. ↑ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, p. 10
236. ↑ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, pp. 396–397
237. ↑ Cf. M. Schmidt, England. Kirchengeschichte, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band II (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 476–478
238. ↑ Nathaniel Philbrick (2006), Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War, Penguin Group, New York, ISBN 0-670-03760-5
239. ↑ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 65–76
240. ↑ Fennell, Christopher. "Plymouth Colony Legal Structure". http://www.histarch.illinois.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html.
241. ↑ "The Massachusetts Body of Liberties (1641)". http://history.hanover.edu/texts/masslib.html.
242. ↑ M. Schmidt, Pilgerväter, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V (1961), col. 384
243. ↑ Christopher Fennell, Plymouth Colony Legal Structure
244. ↑ Allen Weinstein and David Rubel (2002), The Story of America: Freedom and Crisis from Settlement to Superpower, DK Publishing, Inc., New York, ISBN 0-7894-8903-1, p. 61
245. ↑ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, p. 5
246. ↑ Heinrich Bornkamm, Toleranz. In der Geschichte des Christentums, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band VI (1962), col. 937–938
247. ↑ H. Stahl, Baptisten, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 863
248. ↑ G. Müller-Schwefe, Milton, John, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 955
249. ↑ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, p. 398
250. ↑ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 99–106, 111–117, 124
251. ↑ Edwin S. Gaustad (1999), Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America, Judson Press, Valley Forge, p. 28
252. ↑ Hans Fantel (1974), William Penn: Apostle of Dissent, William Morrow & Co., New York, pp. 150–153
253. ↑ Robert Middlekauff (2005), The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789, Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, ISBN 978-0-19-516247-9, pp. 4–6, 49–52, 622–685
254. ↑ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 192–209
255. ↑ Cf. R. Voeltzel, Frankreich. Kirchengeschichte, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band II (1958), col. 1039
256. ↑ Douglas K. Stevenson (1987), American Life and Institutions, Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgart (Germany), p. 34
257. ↑ G. Jasper, Vereinte Nationen, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 1328–1329
258. ↑ Cf. G. Schwarzenberger, Völkerrecht, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 1420–1422
259. ↑ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage, pp. 396–399, 401–403, 417–419
260. ↑ Jeremy Waldron (2002), God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought, Cambridge University Press, New York, ISBN 978-0521-89057-1, p. 13
261. ↑ Jeremy Waldron, God, Locke, and Equality, pp. 21–43, 120
262. ↑ Allen Weinstein and David Rubel, The Story of America, pp. 189–309
263. ↑ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage, pp. 403, 425
264. ↑ M. Elze,Grotius, Hugo, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band II, col. 1885–1886
265. ↑ H. Hohlwein, Pufendorf, Samuel, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 721
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267. ↑ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 484–494
268. ↑ H. Wagner, Diakonie, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 164–167
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271. ↑ Allen Weinstein and David Rubel, The Story of America, pp. 274–275
272. ↑ M. Schmidt, Kongregationalismus, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band III, col. 1770
273. ↑ K. Kupisch, Bismarck, Otto von, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 1312–1315
274. ↑ P. Quante, Sozialversicherung, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Band VI, col. 205–206
275. ↑ Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church, 29 June 2007, Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.
276. ↑ Stuard-will, Kelly; Emissary (2007). Karitas Publishing. ed. A Faraway Ancient Country. United States: Gardners Books. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-615-15801-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=q469xc7mbksC&pg=PP1. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
277. ↑ "Bishop Hilarion of Vienna and Austria: The Vatican Document Brings Nothing New". Orthodoxeurope.org. http://orthodoxeurope.org/page/14/124.aspx#2.
278. ↑ "The Canadian Reformed Magazine, 18 (20–27 September, 4–11 October, 18, 1, 8 November 1969)". http://spindleworks.com/library/faber/008_theca.htm.
279. ↑ "History – World Council of Churches". https://www.oikoumene.org/en/what-we-do/cwme/history.
280. ↑ "Orthodox Church: text – IntraText CT". Intratext.com. http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0804/__P1T.HTM.
281. ↑ "Justification". Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=19&cuItem_itemID=6741. "A document which is aimed at settling differences needs to address those differences unambiguously. The Joint Declaration does not do this. At best, it sends confusing mixed signals and should be repudiated by all Lutherans."
282. ↑ "News Archives". UMC.org. http://www.umc.org/site/c.gjJTJbMUIuE/b.1863123/k.FF49/World_Methodists_approve_further_ecumenical_dialogue.htm.
283. ↑ "CNS Story: Methodists adopt Catholic-Lutheran declaration on justification". Catholicnews.com. http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0604186.htm.
284. ↑ 284.0 284.1 284.2 284.3 284.4 284.5 Jay Diamond, Larry. Plattner, Marc F. and Costopoulos, Philip J. World Religions and Democracy. 2005, p. 119. link (saying "Not only do Protestants presently constitute 13 percent of the world's population—about 800 million people—but since 1900 Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.")
285. ↑ Hillerbrand, Hans J. (2004) (in en). Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-96028-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA349. "Core Protestants 342,002,000 Non-Core Protestants 491,455,000 Totals 833,457,000"
286. ↑ ~34% of ~7.2 billion world population (under the section 'People') "World". CIA world facts. 15 November 2021. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/.
287. ↑ Analysis (19 December 2011). "Global Christianity". Pewforum.org. http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx.
288. ↑ Osborn, Ian, Can Christianity Cure Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder? A Psychiatrist Explores the Role of Faith in Treatment, 2008, p46, "Almost a billion Protestants in the present day owe their religious identity to Luther's insights."
289. ↑ Pack, David C., Saturday Or Sunday: Which Is the Sabbath?, 2009, p8, "About 1 billion Protestants also observe Sunday."
290. ↑ 290.0 290.1 290.2 290.3 290.4 290.5 Clarke, Peter B.; Beyer, Peter (2009). The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781135211004. https://books.google.com/books?id=rBgn3xB75ZcC&pg=PA510. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
291. ↑ Brown, Stephen F. (2018). Protestantism. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781604131123. https://books.google.com/books?id=lplJPBYWefcC&pg=PA13. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
292. ↑ 292.0 292.1 292.2 292.3 292.4 292.5 292.6 292.7 Noll, Mark A. (2011). Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191620133. https://books.google.com/books?id=1GKBgK00JSsC&pg=PA9.
293. ↑ 293.0 293.1 "World Christian Encyclopedia" (in en). https://edinburghuniversitypress.com/book-world-christian-encyclopedia.html.
294. ↑ Shurden, Walter B. (1995) (in en). Not a Silent People: Controversies that Have Shaped Southern Baptists. Smyth & Helwys Publishing, Inc.. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-57312-021-0.
295. ↑ "Protestant Demographics and Fragmentations". http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/rel04-demograph.htm.
296. ↑ "Religious Populations in England". Office for National Statistics. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=954.
297. ↑ Thorpe, Edgar (2018). The Pearson General Knowledge Manual 2012. Pearson Education India. ISBN 9788131761908. https://books.google.com/books?id=I9OyQ9mEpxkC&pg=SL1-PA42. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
298. ↑ 298.0 298.1 "Protestantism in Bohemia and Moravia (Czech Republic) – Musée virtuel du Protestantisme". http://www.museeprotestant.org/en/notice/protestantism-in-the-republic-of-czechoslovakia/.
299. ↑ "Tab 7.1 Population by religious belief and by municipality size groups" (in cs). Czso.cz. http://www.czso.cz/sldb2011/eng/redakce.nsf/i/tab_7_1_population_by_religious_belief_and_by_municipality_size_groups/$File/PVCR071_ENG.pdf.
300. ↑ "Tab 7.2 Population by religious belief and by regions" (in cs). Czso.cz. http://www.czso.cz/sldb2011/eng/redakce.nsf/i/tab_7_2_population_by_religious_belief_and_by_regions/$File/PVCR072_ENG.pdf.
301. ↑ Mastrini, Hana (2008). Frommer's Prague & the Best of the Czech Republic. Wiley. ISBN 9780470293232. https://books.google.com/books?id=pqJNavelP3UC&pg=PA108. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
302. ↑ Lilla, Mark (31 March 2006). "Europe and the legend of secularization". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/31/arts/31iht-idlede1.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all.
303. ↑ "Discrimination in the EU in 2019", Special Eurobarometer, 493 (European Union: European Commission), 2019, https://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/Survey/getSurveyDetail/instruments/SPECIAL/surveyKy/2251, retrieved 15 May 2020
304. ↑ 304.0 304.1 304.2 304.3 304.4 Witte, John; Alexander, Frank S. (2018). The Teachings of Modern Protestantism on Law, Politics, and Human Nature. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231142632. https://books.google.com/books?id=3Ie-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
305. ↑ "Study: Christianity grows exponentially in Africa". http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/religion/story/2011-12-20/christianity-growth-africa-europe/52125920/1.
306. ↑ 306.0 306.1 306.2 Ostling, Richard N. (24 June 2001). "The Battle for Latin America's Soul". Time. http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,156277,00.html. Retrieved 23 July 2014.
307. ↑ "In China, Protestantism's Simplicity Yields More Converts Than Catholicism". 28 March 2012. http://www.ibtimes.com/china-protestantisms-simplicity-yields-more-converts-catholicism-213465.
308. ↑ Arsenault, Chris. "Evangelicals rise in Latin America". https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/03/201232593459332334.html.
309. ↑ America's Changing Religious Landscape , by Pew Research Center, 12 May 2015
310. ↑ Halman, Loek; Riis, Ole (2018). Religion in a Secularizing Society: The Europeans' Religion at the End of the 20th Century. Brill. ISBN 978-9004126220. https://books.google.com/books?id=XRLBF3KW8HkC&pg=PA59. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
311. ↑ 311.0 311.1 Sengers, Erik; Sunier, Thijl (2018). Religious Newcomers and the Nation State: Political Culture and Organized Religion in France and the Netherlands. Eburon Uitgeverij B.V.. ISBN 9789059723986. https://books.google.com/books?id=DaJtXsY4ttQC&pg=PA99. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
312. ↑ "Moscow Church Spearheads Russia Revival". http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/world/2011/april/protestant-revival-sweeps-moscow/.
313. ↑ "Protestantism in Postsoviet Russia: An Unacknowledged Triumph". http://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/28-1_093.pdf.
314. ↑ Felix Corley and Geraldine Fagan (10 June 2002). "Growing Protestants, Catholics Draw Ire". http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/june10/13.22.html?paging=off.
315. ↑ "In US, Decline of Christianity Continues at Rapid Pace," Pew Research Center, 17 October 2019
316. ↑ ""Nones" on the Rise: One-in-Five Adults Have No Religious Affiliation". http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/10/NonesOnTheRise-full.pdf.
317. ↑ "BBC News - US Protestants no longer a majority - study". BBC News. 10 October 2012. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-19892837.
318. ↑ "US Protestants no longer majority". BBC News. 10 October 2012. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-19892837.
319. ↑ 319.0 319.1 "Nones" on the Rise: One-in-Five Adults Have No Religious Affiliation , Pew Research Center (The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life), 9 October 2012
320. ↑ "Mainline Churches: The Real Reason for Decline". http://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9303/articles/johnson.html.
321. ↑ Fahmy, Gregory A. Smith, Alan Cooperman, Becka A. Alper, Besheer Mohamed, Chip Rotolo, Patricia Tevington, Justin Nortey, Asta Kallo, Jeff Diamant and Dalia (2025-02-26). "Decline of Christianity in the U.S. Has Slowed, May Have Leveled Off" (in en-US). https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/02/26/decline-of-christianity-in-the-us-has-slowed-may-have-leveled-off/.
322. ↑ Jeffrey M. Jones (April 17, 2025). "Religious Preferences Largely Stable in U.S. Since 2020". https://news.gallup.com/poll/659339/religious-preferences-largely-stable-2020.aspx.
323. ↑ Johnstone, Patrick, "The Future of the Global Church: History, Trends and Possibilities" , p. 100, fig 4.10 & 4.11
324. ↑ Hillerbrand, Hans J., ed (2004). "Encyclopedia of Protestantism". Encyclopedia of Protestantism. 1–4. London; New York: Routledge. p. 1815. ISBN 978-0-415-92472-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1815. ""Observers carefully comparing all these figures in the total context will have observed the even more startling finding that for the first time ever in the history of Protestantism, Wider Protestants will by 2050 have become almost exactly as numerous as Catholics—each with just over 1.5 billion followers, or 17 percent of the world, with Protestants growing considerably faster than Catholics each year."".

### Works cited

* Ammerman, Nancy T. (1991). "North American Protestant Fundamentalism". in Marty, Martin E.. Fundamentalisms Observed. The Fundamentalism Project, 1. Chicago, Il; London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–65. ISBN 0-226-50878-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=qd5yzP5hdiEC&pg=PA1.
* Becker, Sascha O.; Pfaff, Steven; Rubin, Jared (2016). "Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation". ESI Working Paper 16–13. ISSN 2572-1496. https://digitalcommons.chapman.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1177&context=esi_working_papers.

## Further reading

General

* Hillerbrand, Hans J., ed (2004). "Encyclopedia of Protestantism". Encyclopedia of Protestantism. 1–4. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92472-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=PMSTAgAAQBAJ. 2195 pp. Reprint 2014.
* Melton, J. Gordon, ed (2005). "Encyclopedia of Protestantism". Encyclopedia of Protestantism. Encyclopedia of World Religions. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 0-8160-5456-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=bW3sXBjnokkC. 628 pp.

Special

* Bruce, Steve (2019). A house divided: Protestantism, Schism and secularization. London; New York: Routledge.
* Cook, Martin L. (1991). The Open Circle: Confessional Method in Theology. Minneapolis, Mn: Fortress Press. xiv, 130 p. N.B.: Discusses the place of Confessions of Faith in Protestant theology, especially in Lutheranism. ISBN 0-8006-2482-3
* Dillenberger, John, and Claude Welch (1988). Protestant Christianity, Interpreted through Its Development. Second ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. ISBN 0-02-329601-1
* Giussani, Luigi (1969), trans. Damian Bacich (2013). American Protestant Theology: A Historical Sketch. Montreal: McGill-Queens UP.
* Grytten, Ola Honningdal. "Weber revisited: A literature review on the possible Link between Protestantism, Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth." (NHH Dept. of Economics Discussion Paper 08, 2020). online
* Howard, Thomas A. Remembering the Reformation: an inquiry into the meanings of Protestantism (Oxford UP, 2016).
* Howard, Thomas A. and Mark A. Noll, eds. Protestantism after 500 years (Oxford UP, 2016).
* Leithart, Peter J. The end of Protestantism: pursuing unity in a fragmented church (Brazos Press, 2016).
* McGrath, Alister E. (2007). Christianity's Dangerous Idea. New York: HarperOne. ISBN 978-0060822132. https://archive.org/details/christianitysdan00mcgr_0.
* Nash, Arnold S., ed. (1951). Protestant Thought in the Twentieth Century: Whence & Whither? New York: Macmillan Co.
* Noll, Mark A. (2011). Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Ryrie, Alec Protestants: The Radicals Who Made the Modern World (HarperCollins, 2017).
* Ryrie, Alec "The World's Local Religion" History Today (Sept 20, 2017) online

## External links

* "Personal Christian Statement of Faith (Protestant)" (in en). wikiHow. wikiHow. 29 July 2015. https://m.wikihow.com/Declare-Your-Personal-Christian-Statement-of-Faith-(Protestant).
* Protestantism (Encyclopedia.com)
* Wilhelm, Joseph (1913). "Protestantism". in Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. 21. New York: Robert Appleton Company. from the 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia
* The Historyscoper
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Note: 1 The main source: Eliade, Mircea, ed (1987). The Encyclopedia of Religion. New York: MacMillan.

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