Ocean current

Short description: Directional mass flow of oceanic water

Ocean surface currents

File:Perpetual Ocean.ogv File:Ocean flows at surface and 2000 meters below sea level.webm File:Circulation of Ocean Currents Around the Western Antarctic Ice Shelves.ogv An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater generated by a number of forces acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, breaking waves, cabbeling, and temperature and salinity differences.[1] Depth contours, shoreline configurations, and interactions with other currents influence a current's direction and strength. Ocean currents move both horizontally, on scales that can span entire oceans, as well as vertically, with vertical currents (upwelling and downwelling) playing an important role in the movement of nutrients and gases, such as carbon dioxide, between the surface and the deep ocean.

Ocean currents are classified by temperature as either warm currents or cold currents. They are also classified by their velocity, dimension, and direction as either drifts, currents, or streams. Drifts, such as the North Atlantic Drift Current, involve the forward movement of surface ocean water under the influence of the prevailing wind. Currents, such as the Labrador Current, involve the movement of oceanic water in a more definite direction at a greater velocity than drifts. Streams, such as the Gulf Stream, involve movement of larger masses of ocean water with greater velocity than drifts or currents.

Ocean currents are patterns of water movement that influence climate zones and weather patterns around the world. They are primarily driven by winds and by seawater density, although many other factors influence them, including the shape and configuration of the oceanic basin they flow through. The two basic types of currents – surface and deep-water currents[2] – help define the character and flow of ocean waters across the planet.

Ocean currents flow for great distances, and together they create the global conveyor belt, which plays a dominant role in determining the climate of many of Earth's regions. More specifically, ocean currents influence the temperature of the regions through which they travel. For example, warm currents traveling along more temperate coasts increase the temperature of the area by warming the sea breezes that blow over them. Perhaps the most striking example is the Gulf Stream, which, together with its extension the North Atlantic Drift, makes northwest Europe much more temperate for its high latitude than other areas at the same latitude. Another example is Lima, Peru, whose cooler subtropical climate contrasts with that of its surrounding tropical latitudes because of the Humboldt Current.

The largest ocean current is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), a wind-driven current which flows clockwise uninterrupted around Antarctica. The ACC connects all the oceanic basins together, and also provides a link between the atmosphere and the deep ocean due to the way water upwells and downwells on either side of it.

## Contents

* 1 Causes
* 1.1 Wind-driven circulation
* 1.2 Thermohaline circulation
* 2 Effects on climate and ecology
* 3 Ocean currents and climate change
* 4 Economic importance
* 5 Distribution
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

## Causes

The bathymetry of the Kerguelen Plateau in the Southern Ocean governs the course of the Kerguelen deep western boundary current, part of the global network of ocean currents.[3][4]

Ocean currents are driven by the wind, by the gravitational pull of the Moon in the form of tides, and by the effects of variations in water density.[5] Ocean dynamics define and describe the motion of water within the oceans.

Ocean temperature and motion fields can be separated into three distinct layers: mixed (surface) layer, upper ocean (above the thermocline), and deep ocean. Ocean currents are measured in units of sverdrup (Sv), where 1 Sv is equivalent to a volume flow rate of 1,000,000 m3 (35,000,000 cu ft) per second.

There are two main types of currents, surface currents and deep-water currents. Generally surface currents are driven by wind systems and deep-water currents are driven by differences in water density due to variations in water temperature and salinity.[6]

### Wind-driven circulation

Surface oceanic currents are driven by wind currents, the large scale prevailing winds drive major persistent ocean currents, and seasonal or occasional winds drive currents of similar persistence to the winds that drive them,[7] and the Coriolis effect plays a major role in their development.[8] The Ekman spiral velocity distribution results in the currents flowing at an angle to the driving winds, and they develop typical clockwise spirals in the Northern Hemisphere and counter-clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere.[9] In addition, the areas of surface ocean currents move somewhat with the seasons; this is most notable in equatorial currents.

Deep ocean basins generally have a non-symmetric surface current, in that the eastern equator-ward flowing branch is broad and diffuse whereas the pole-ward flowing western boundary current is relatively narrow.

### Thermohaline circulation

Main article: Earth:Thermohaline circulation

Coupling data collected by NASA/JPL by several different satellite-borne sensors, researchers have been able to "break through" the ocean's surface to detect "Meddies" – super-salty warm-water eddies that originate in the Mediterranean Sea and then sink more than a half-mile underwater in the Atlantic Ocean. The Meddies are shown in red in this scientific figure.

Large scale currents are driven by gradients in water density, which in turn depend on variations in temperature and salinity. This thermohaline circulation is also known as the ocean's conveyor belt. Where significant vertical movement of ocean currents is observed, this is known as upwelling and downwelling. The adjective thermohaline derives from thermo- referring to temperature and -haline referring to salt content, factors which together determine the density of seawater.

The thermohaline circulation is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes.[10][11] Wind-driven surface currents (such as the Gulf Stream) travel polewards from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean, cooling en route, and eventually sinking at high latitudes (forming North Atlantic Deep Water). This dense water then flows into the ocean basins. While the bulk of it upwells in the Southern Ocean, the oldest waters (with a transit time of around 1000 years)[12] upwell in the North Pacific.[13] Extensive mixing therefore takes place between the ocean basins, reducing differences between them and making the Earth's oceans a global system. On their journey, the water masses transport both energy (in the form of heat) and matter (solids, dissolved substances and gases) around the globe. As such, the state of the circulation has a large impact on the climate of the Earth. The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt, the great ocean conveyor, or the global conveyor belt. On occasion, it is imprecisely used to refer to the meridional overturning circulation, (MOC).

Since the 2000s an international program called Argo has been mapping the temperature and salinity structure of the ocean with a fleet of automated platforms that float with the ocean currents. The information gathered will help explain the role the oceans play in the Earth's climate.[14]

## Effects on climate and ecology

Ocean currents affect temperatures throughout the world. For example, the ocean current that brings warm water up the north Atlantic to northwest Europe also cumulatively and slowly blocks ice from forming along the seashores, which would also block ships from entering and exiting inland waterways and seaports, hence ocean currents play a decisive role in influencing the climates of regions through which they flow.[15] Ocean currents are important in the study of marine debris.[16][17]

Plankton are dispersed by ocean currents.

Upwellings and cold ocean water currents flowing from polar and sub-polar regions bring in nutrients that support plankton growth, which are crucial prey items for several key species in marine ecosystems.[18]

Ocean currents are also important in the dispersal and distribution of many organisms, including those with pelagic egg or larval stages.[19] An example is the life-cycle of the European Eel. Terrestrial species, for example tortoises and lizards, can be carried on floating debris by currents to colonise new terrestrial areas and islands.[19]

## Ocean currents and climate change

The continued rise of atmospheric temperatures is anticipated to have various effects on the strength of surface ocean currents, wind-driven circulation and dispersal patterns.[20][21][22] Ocean currents play a significant role in influencing climate, and shifts in climate in turn impact ocean currents.[21]

Human-induced climate change is leading to long-term alterations in ocean and atmospheric circulation. The accumulation of greenhouse gases traps extra heat within the Earth's system, causing both the atmosphere and oceans to warm. Notably, over 90% of this trapped heat is absorbed by the oceans. There are signs that crucial circulation patterns are shifting, with growing evidence suggesting that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation may be slowing down.

Over the last century, reconstructed sea surface temperature data reveal that western boundary currents are heating at double the rate of the global average.[23] These observations indicate that the western boundary currents are likely intensifying due to this change in temperature, and may continue to grow stronger in the near future.[21] There is evidence that surface warming due to anthropogenic climate change has accelerated upper ocean currents in 77% of the global ocean.[22] Specifically, increased vertical stratification due to surface warming intensifies upper ocean currents, while changes in horizontal density gradients caused by differential warming across different ocean regions results in the acceleration of surface zonal currents.[22]

There are suggestions that the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is in danger of collapsing due to climate change, which would have extreme impacts on the climate of northern Europe and more widely,[24][25][26] although this topic is controversial and remains an active area of research.[27][28][29] The "State of the cryosphere" report, dedicates significant space to AMOC, saying it may be en route to collapse because of ice melt and water warming. In the same time, the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is also slowing down and is expected to lose 20% of its power by the year 2050, "with widespread impacts on ocean circulation and climate".[30] UNESCO mentions that the report in the first time "notes a growing scientific consensus that melting Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, among other factors, may be slowing important ocean currents at both poles, with potentially dire consequences for a much colder northern Europe and greater sea-level rise along the U.S. East Coast."[31]

In addition to water surface temperatures, the wind systems are a crucial determinant of ocean currents.[32] Wind wave systems influence oceanic heat exchange, the condition of the sea surface, and can alter ocean currents.[33] In the North Atlantic, equatorial Pacific, and Southern Ocean, increased wind speeds as well as significant wave heights have been attributed to climate change and natural processes combined.[33] In the East Australian Current, global warming has also been accredited to increased wind stress curl, which intensifies these currents, and may even indirectly increase sea levels, due to the additional warming created by stronger currents.[34]

As ocean circulation changes due to climate, typical distribution patterns are also changing. The dispersal patterns of marine organisms depend on oceanographic conditions, which as a result, influence the biological composition of oceans.[20] Due to the patchiness of the natural ecological world, dispersal is a species survival mechanism for various organisms.[35] With strengthened boundary currents moving toward the poles, it is expected that some marine species will be redirected to the poles and greater depths.[20][36] The strengthening or weakening of typical dispersal pathways by increased temperatures are expected to not only impact the survival of native marine species due to inability to replenish their meta populations but also may increase the prevalence of invasive species.[20] In Japanese corals and macroalgae, the unusual dispersal pattern of organisms toward the poles may destabilize native species.[37]

## Economic importance

Knowledge of surface ocean currents is essential in reducing costs of shipping, since traveling with them reduces fuel costs. In the wind powered sailing-ship era, knowledge of wind patterns and ocean currents was even more essential. Using ocean currents to help their ships into harbor and using currents such as the gulf stream to get back home.[38] The lack of understanding of ocean currents during that time period is hypothesized to be one of the contributing factors to exploration failure. The Gulf Stream and the Canary current keep western European countries warmer and less variable, while at the same latitude North America's weather was colder.[39] A good example of this is the Agulhas Current (down along eastern Africa), which long prevented sailors from reaching India.

In recent times, around-the-world sailing competitors make good use of surface currents to build and maintain speed. Ocean currents can also be used for marine power generation, with areas of Japan, Florida and Hawaii being considered for test projects. The utilization of currents today can still impact global trade, it can reduce the cost and emissions of shipping vessels.[40]

Skipjack tuna fishery in Indonesia.

Ocean currents can also impact the fishing industry, examples of this include the Tsugaru, Oyashio and Kuroshio currents all of which influence the western North Pacific temperature, which has been shown to be a habitat predictor for the Skipjack tuna.[41] It has also been shown that it is not just local currents that can affect a country's economy, but neighboring currents can influence the viability of local fishing industries.[42]

## Distribution

A 1943 map of the world's ocean currents

Currents of the Arctic Ocean

* Earth:Baffin Island Current - Arctic Ocean current
* Earth:Beaufort Gyre - Wind-driven ocean current in the Arctic Ocean polar region
* Earth:East Greenland Current - Current from Fram Strait to Cape Farewell off the eastern coat of Greenland
* Earth:East Iceland Current - Cold water ocean current that forms as a branch of the East Greenland Current
* Earth:Labrador Current - Cold current in the Atlantic ocean along the coasts of Labrador, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia
* Earth:North Icelandic Jet - Deep-reaching current that flows along the continental slope of Iceland
* Earth:Norwegian Current - A current that flows northeasterly along the Atlantic coast of Norway into the Barents Sea
* Earth:Transpolar Drift Stream - An ocean current of the Arctic Ocean
* Earth:West Greenland Current - Weak cold water current that flows to the north along the west coast of Greenland
* Earth:West Spitsbergen Current - Warm, salty current that runs poleward just west of Spitsbergen

Currents of the Atlantic Ocean

A recording current meter. It records information about currents (speed, direction, depth, temperature).

* Earth:Angola Current - Temporary ocean surface current
* Earth:Antilles Current - Ocean current
* Earth:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation - System of surface and deep currents in the Atlantic Ocean
* Earth:Azores Current - Ocean current in the North Atlantic Ocean
* Earth:Benguela Current - Ocean current in the South Atlantic
* Earth:Brazil Current - Water current along Brazil's southern coast
* Earth:Canary Current - Wind-driven surface current that is part of the North Atlantic Gyre
* Earth:Cape Horn Current - Cold water current that flows west-to-east around Cape Horn
* Earth:Caribbean Current - Atlantic Ocean current
* Earth:East Greenland Current - Current from Fram Strait to Cape Farewell off the eastern coat of Greenland
* Earth:East Iceland Current - Cold water ocean current that forms as a branch of the East Greenland Current
* Earth:Equatorial Counter Current - Shallow eastward flowing current found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans
* Earth:Falkland Current - Northward cold water Atlantic Ocean current
* Earth:Florida Current - Thermal ocean current
* Earth:Guinea Current - Atlantic warm-water current off West Africa
* Earth:Gulf Stream - Warm Atlantic Ocean current
* Earth:Irminger Current - North Atlantic current setting westward off the southwest coast of Iceland
* Earth:Labrador Current - Cold current in the Atlantic ocean along the coasts of Labrador, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia
* Earth:Lomonosov Current - Deep current in the Atlantic Ocean. from the coast of Brazil to the Gulf of Guinea
* Earth:Loop Current - Ocean current between Cuba and Yucatán Peninsula
* Earth:North Atlantic Current - Current of the Atlantic Ocean
* Earth:North Brazil Current - North Atlantic ocean current
* Earth:North Equatorial Current - Current in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans
* Earth:Norwegian Current - A current that flows northeasterly along the Atlantic coast of Norway into the Barents Sea
* Earth:Portugal Current - Weak ocean current that flows south along the coast of Portugal
* Earth:South Atlantic Current - Eastward ocean current, fed by the Brazil Current
* Earth:South Equatorial Current - Ocean current in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean
* Earth:West Greenland Current - Weak cold water current that flows to the north along the west coast of Greenland
* Earth:West Spitsbergen Current - Warm, salty current that runs poleward just west of Spitsbergen

Currents of the Indian Ocean

* Earth:Agulhas Return Current - An ocean current in the South Indian Ocean flowing from the Agulhas retroflection along the subtropical front
* Earth:Equatorial Counter Current - Shallow eastward flowing current found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans
* Earth:Indian Monsoon Current - Seasonally-varying ocean current regime found in the tropical regions of the northern Indian Ocean
* Earth:Indonesian Throughflow - Ocean current that provides a low-latitude pathway for warm, relatively fresh water to move from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean
* Earth:Somali Current - An ocean boundary current that flows along the coast of Somalia and Oman in the Western Indian Ocean
* Earth:South Equatorial Current - Ocean current in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean

Currents of the Pacific Ocean

* Earth:Alaska Current - A warm-water current flowing nortwards along the coast of British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle
* Earth:Aleutian Current - An eastward flowing ocean current which lies north of the North Pacific Current;
* Earth:California Current - A Pacific Ocean current that flows southward along the western coast of North America from southern British Columbia to the southern Baja California Peninsula
* Earth:Cape Horn Current - Cold water current that flows west-to-east around Cape Horn
* Earth:Cromwell Current - An eastward-flowing subsurface current that extends along the equator in the Pacific Ocean
* Earth:Davidson Current - A coastal countercurrent of the Pacific Ocean flowing north along the western coast of the United States from Baja California, Mexico to northern Oregon
* Earth:East Australian Current - The southward flowing western boundary current that is formed from the South Equatorial Current reaching the eastern coast of Australia
* Earth:East Korea Warm Current - An ocean current in the Sea of Japan which branches off from the Tsushima Current at the eastern end of the Korea Strait, and flows north along the southeastern coast of the Korean peninsula
* Earth:Equatorial Counter Current - Shallow eastward flowing current found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans
* Earth:Humboldt Current - A cold, low-salinity eastern boundary current that flows north along the western coast of South America from southern Chile to northern Peru
* Earth:Indonesian Throughflow - Ocean current that provides a low-latitude pathway for warm, relatively fresh water to move from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean
* Earth:Kamchatka Current - A cold-water current flowing south-westward from the Bering Strait, along the Siberian Pacific coast and the Kamchatka Peninsula
* Earth:Kuroshio Current - North flowing ocean current on the west side of the North Pacific Ocean
* Earth:Mindanao Current - A narrow, southward flowing ocean current along the eastward side of the southern Philippines
* Earth:North Equatorial Current - Current in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans
* Earth:North Korea Cold Current - A cold water current in the Sea of Japan that flows southward from near Vladivostok along the coast of the Korean Peninsula
* Earth:North Pacific Current - A slow warm water current that flows west-to-east between 30 and 50 degrees north in the Pacific Ocean
* Earth:Oyashio Current - A cold subarctic ocean current that flows south and circulates counterclockwise in the western North Pacific Ocean
* Earth:South Equatorial Current - Ocean current in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean
* Earth:Subtropical Countercurrent - A narrow eastward ocean current in the central North Pacific Ocean
* Earth:Tasman Front - Pacific Ocean current
* Earth:Tasman Outflow - Deepwater current that flows from the Pacific Ocean past Tasmania into the Indian Ocean

Currents of the Southern Ocean

* Earth:Antarctic Circumpolar Current - Ocean current that flows clockwise from west to east around Antarctica
* Earth:Tasman Outflow - Deepwater current that flows from the Pacific Ocean past Tasmania into the Indian Ocean

Oceanic gyres

* Earth:Beaufort Gyre - Wind-driven ocean current in the Arctic Ocean polar region
* Earth:Indian Ocean Gyre - Major oceanic gyre in the Indian Ocean
* Earth:North Atlantic Gyre - Major circular system of ocean currents
* Earth:North Pacific Gyre - Major circulating system of ocean currents
* Earth:South Atlantic Gyre - Subtropical gyre in the south Atlantic Ocean

## See also

* Earth:Currentology - Science that studies the internal movements of water masses
* Earth:Deep ocean water - Cold, salty water deep below the surface of Earth's oceans
* Biology:Fish migration - Movement of fishes from one part of a water body to another on a regular basis
* Earth:Geostrophic current - Oceanic flow in which the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis effect
* Earth:List of ocean circulation models
* Marine habitats § Ocean currents
* Earth:Marine current power - Extraction of power from ocean currents
* Physics:Ocean gyre - Any large system of circulating ocean surface currents
* Earth:Physical oceanography - Study of physical conditions and processes within the ocean
* Earth:Subsurface ocean current - Oceanic currents that flow beneath surface currents
* Earth:Thermohaline circulation - Part of large-scale ocean circulation
* Earth:Volta do mar - Archaic navigational technique

## References

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2. ↑ "Understanding surface currents vs deep ocean currents" (in en). https://www.sofarocean.com/posts/understanding-surface-currents-vs-deep-ocean-currents.
3. ↑ "Massive Southern Ocean current discovered". Apr 27, 2010. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/04/100427101234.htm.
4. ↑ Yasushi Fukamachi, Stephen Rintoul (Apr 2010). "Strong export of Antarctic Bottom Water east of the Kerguelen plateau". Nature Geoscience 3 (5): 327–331. doi:10.1038/NGEO842. Bibcode: 2010NatGe...3..327F. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47656862.
5. ↑ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (16 June 2024). "What is a current?" (in EN-US). https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/current.html#:~:text=Ocean currents are driven by,or 1.15 miles per hour)..
6. ↑ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1 August 2011). "Ocean currents" (in en). https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-currents#:~:text=via research ship.-,Surface currents,influencing local and global climate..
7. ↑ "Current". National Geographic. 2 September 2011. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/current/#:~:text=or as lightning.-,Air Currents,flow in a certain direction.
8. ↑ "Ocean Currents of the World: Causes". 29 August 2020. https://dashamlav.com/ocean-currents-world-map-types-causes-characteristics/.
9. ↑ National Ocean Service (March 25, 2008). "Surface Ocean Currents". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/currents/05currents1.html.
10. ↑ Rahmstorf, S (2003). "The concept of the thermohaline circulation". Nature 421 (6924): 699. doi:10.1038/421699a. PMID 12610602. Bibcode: 2003Natur.421..699R. http://www.pik-potsdam.de/~stefan/Publications/Nature/nature_concept_03.pdf.
11. ↑ Lappo, SS (1984). "On reason of the northward heat advection across the Equator in the South Pacific and Atlantic ocean". Study of Ocean and Atmosphere Interaction Processes (Moscow Department of Gidrometeoizdat (in Mandarin)): 125–9.
12. ↑ The global ocean conveyor belt is a constantly moving system of deep-ocean circulation driven by temperature and salinity; What is the global ocean conveyor belt?
13. ↑ Primeau, F (2005). "Characterizing transport between the surface mixed layer and the ocean interior with a forward and adjoint global ocean transport model". Journal of Physical Oceanography 35 (4): 545–64. doi:10.1175/JPO2699.1. Bibcode: 2005JPO....35..545P. https://escholarship.org/content/qt5f76r4wn/qt5f76r4wn.pdf?t=n3tp5j.
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15. ↑ "What Is the Gulf Stream? | NOAA SciJinks – All About Weather". https://scijinks.gov/gulf-stream/.
16. ↑ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1 April 2020). "Ocean pollution and marine debris" (in en). https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-pollution.
17. ↑ van Sebille, Erik; Aliani, Stefano; Law, Kara Lavender; Maximenko, Nikolai; Alsina, José M; Bagaev, Andrei; Bergmann, Melanie; Chapron, Bertrand et al. (2020-02-01). "The physical oceanography of the transport of floating marine debris". Environmental Research Letters 15 (2): 023003. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab6d7d. ISSN 1748-9326. Bibcode: 2020ERL....15b3003V. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab6d7d.
18. ↑ Royce, William F., ed (1996). "Circulation". Introduction to the Practice of Fishery Science. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-600952-1.x5000-2. ISBN 978-0-12-600952-1. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780126009521X50002.
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20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Wilson, Laura J.; Fulton, Christopher J.; Hogg, Andrew McC; Joyce, Karen E.; Radford, Ben T. M.; Fraser, Ceridwen I. (2016-05-02). "Climate-driven changes to ocean circulation and their inferred impacts on marine dispersal patterns". Global Ecology and Biogeography 25 (8): 923–939. doi:10.1111/geb.12456. ISSN 1466-822X. Bibcode: 2016GloEB..25..923W. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/geb.12456.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Miller, Johanna L. (2017). "Ocean currents respond to climate change in unexpected ways". Physics Today 70 (1): 17–18. https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/70/1/17/1040900.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Peng, Qihua; Xie, Shang-Ping; Wang, Dongxiao; Huang, Rui Xin; Chen, Gengxin; Shu, Yeqiang; Shi, Jia-Rui; Liu, Wei (2022-04-22). "Surface warming–induced global acceleration of upper ocean currents". Science Advances 8 (16). doi:10.1126/sciadv.abj8394. ISSN 2375-2548. PMID 35442733. Bibcode: 2022SciA....8J8394P.
23. ↑ Wu, Lixin; Cai, Wenju; Zhang, Liping; Nakamura, Hisashi; Timmermann, Axel; Joyce, Terry; McPhaden, Michael J.; Alexander, Michael et al. (2012-01-29). "Enhanced warming over the global subtropical western boundary currents". Nature Climate Change 2 (3): 161–166. doi:10.1038/nclimate1353. ISSN 1758-6798. Bibcode: 2012NatCC...2..161W. https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1353.
24. ↑ Ditlevsen, Peter; Ditlevsen, Susanne (2023-07-25). "Warning of a forthcoming collapse of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation". Nature Communications 14 (1): 4254. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-39810-w. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 37491344. Bibcode: 2023NatCo..14.4254D.
25. ↑ Zhu, Chenyu; Liu, Zhengyu; Zhang, Shaoqing; Wu, Lixin (2023-03-04). "Likely accelerated weakening of Atlantic overturning circulation emerges in optimal salinity fingerprint" (in en). Nature Communications 14 (1): 1245. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-36288-4. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 36871075. Bibcode: 2023NatCo..14.1245Z.
26. ↑ Boulton, Chris A.; Allison, Lesley C.; Lenton, Timothy M. (2014-12-08). "Early warning signals of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation collapse in a fully coupled climate model" (in en). Nature Communications 5 (1): 5752. doi:10.1038/ncomms6752. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 25482065. Bibcode: 2014NatCo...5.5752B.
27. ↑ Science Media Centre (25 July 2023). "Expert reaction to paper warning of a collapse of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation" (in en-GB). https://www.sciencemediacentre.org/expert-reaction-to-paper-warning-of-a-collapse-of-the-atlantic-meridional-overturning-circulation/.
28. ↑ Rahmstorf, Stefan (10 April 2024). "Is the Atlantic Overturning Circulation Approaching a Tipping Point?". Oceanography 37 (3): 1–0. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2024.501. https://tos.org/oceanography/article/is-the-atlantic-overturning-circulation-approaching-a-tipping-point.
29. ↑ Met Office Press (2 May 2024). "The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation in a changing climate" (in en). https://blog.metoffice.gov.uk/2024/05/02/the-atlantic-meridional-overturning-circulation-in-a-changing-climate/.
30. ↑ State of the Cryosphere 2024 Lost Ice, Global Damage. International Cryosphere Climate Initiative. November 2024. pp. x (in the beginning), 8, 48, 52. https://articles.unesco.org/sites/default/files/medias/fichiers/2024/11/State of the Cryosphere Report 2024.pdf. Retrieved 20 November 2024.
31. ↑ "State of the Cryosphere Report 2024 Lost Ice, Global Damage". https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/state-cryosphere-report-2024.
32. ↑ Constantin, Adrian (2021-01-02). "Frictional effects in wind-driven ocean currents". Geophysical & Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics 115 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1080/03091929.2020.1748614. ISSN 0309-1929. Bibcode: 2021GApFD.115....1C.
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Dobrynin, Mikhail; Murawski, Jens; Baehr, Johanna; Ilyina, Tatiana (2015-02-15). "Detection and Attribution of Climate Change Signal in Ocean Wind Waves". Journal of Climate 28 (4): 1578–1591. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00664.1. ISSN 0894-8755. Bibcode: 2015JCli...28.1578D. https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/28/4/jcli-d-13-00664.1.xml.
34. ↑ Cai, W.; Shi, G.; Cowan, T.; Bi, D.; Ribbe, J. (2005-12-10). "The response of the Southern Annular Mode, the East Australian Current, and the southern mid-latitude ocean circulation to global warming". Geophysical Research Letters 32 (23). doi:10.1029/2005GL024701. ISSN 0094-8276. Bibcode: 2005GeoRL..3223706C. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2005GL024701.
35. ↑ Kininmonth, Stuart (2011-04-11). "Dispersal connectivity and reserve selection for marine conservation". Ecological Modelling 222 (7): 1272–1282. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2011.01.012. Bibcode: 2011EcMod.222.1272K. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304380011000445.
36. ↑ Vergés, Adriana; Steinberg, Peter D.; Hay, Mark E.; Poore, Alistair G. B.; Campbell, Alexandra H.; Ballesteros, Enric; Heck, Kenneth L.; Booth, David J. et al. (2014-08-22). "The tropicalization of temperate marine ecosystems: climate-mediated changes in herbivory and community phase shifts". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281 (1789). doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.0846. ISSN 0962-8452. PMID 25009065.
37. ↑ Kumagai, Naoki H.; García Molinos, Jorge; Yamano, Hiroya; Takao, Shintaro; Fujii, Masahiko; Yamanaka, Yasuhiro (2018-09-04). "Ocean currents and herbivory drive macroalgae-to-coral community shift under climate warming". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115 (36): 8990–8995. doi:10.1073/pnas.1716826115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 30126981. Bibcode: 2018PNAS..115.8990K.
38. ↑ "Atlantic Ocean - Exploration, Currents, Marine Life | Britannica". https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean/Study-and-exploration.
39. ↑ US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Boundary Currents - Currents: NOAA's National Ocean Service Education". https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/04currents3.html#:~:text=The Gulf Stream is a,current is the Gulf Stream.
40. ↑ Chang, Yu-Chia; Tseng, Ruo-Shan; Chen, Guan-Yu; Chu, Peter C.; Shen, Yung-Ting (November 2013). "Ship Routing Utilizing Strong Ocean Currents". The Journal of Navigation 66 (6): 825–835. doi:10.1017/S0373463313000441. ISSN 0373-4633. Bibcode: 2013JNav...66..825C. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-navigation/article/abs/ship-routing-utilizing-strong-ocean-currents/02039ECA1A45DCDD0B7935C94F79CBB9.
41. ↑ Ramesh, Nandini; Rising, James A.; Oremus, Kimberly L. (2019-06-21). "The small world of global marine fisheries: The cross-boundary consequences of larval dispersal". Science 364 (6446): 1192–1196. doi:10.1126/science.aav3409. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31221860. Bibcode: 2019Sci...364.1192R. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aav3409.
42. ↑ Talley, Lynne D. (April 1, 1995). "North Pacific Intermediate Water in the Kuroshio/Oyashio Mixed Water Region". American Meteorological Society 25 (4): 475–501. doi:10.1175/1520-0485(1995)025<0475:NPIWIT>2.0.CO;2. Bibcode: 1995JPO....25..475T. https://journals-ametsoc-org.ezp1.lib.umn.edu/view/journals/phoc/25/4/1520-0485_1995_025_0475_npiwit_2_0_co_2.xml.

## Further reading

* Hansen, B.; Østerhus, S; Quadfasel, D; Turrell, W (2004). "Already the day after tomorrow?". Science 305 (5686): 953–954. doi:10.1126/science.1100085. PMID 15310882.
* Kerr, Richard A. (2004). "A slowing cog in the North Atlantic ocean's climate machine". Science 304 (5669): 371–372. doi:10.1126/science.304.5669.371a. PMID 15087513.
* Munday, Phillip L.; Jones, Geoffrey P.; Pratchett, Morgan S.; Williams, Ashley J. (2008). "Climate change and the future for coral reef fishes". Fish and Fisheries 9 (3): 261–285. doi:10.1111/j.1467-2979.2008.00281.x. Bibcode: 2008AqFF....9..261M.
* Rahmstorf, S. (2003). "Thermohaline circulation: The current climate". Nature 421 (6924): 699. doi:10.1038/421699a. PMID 12610602. Bibcode: 2003Natur.421..699R.
* Roemmich, D. (2007). "Physical oceanography: Super spin in the southern seas". Nature 449 (7158): 34–35. doi:10.1038/449034a. PMID 17805284. Bibcode: 2007Natur.449...34R.

## External links

* Current global map of sea surface currents

* v
* t
* e

Ocean currents and gyres

Currents|

| Arctic Ocean|

* East Greenland
* North Icelandic
* Norwegian
* Transpolar Drift Stream

|

Atlantic Ocean|

* Angola
* Antilles
* Azores
* Baffin Island
* Benguela
* Brazil
* Canary
* Cape Horn
* Caribbean
* East Greenland
* East Iceland
* Falkland
* Florida
* Guinea
* Gulf Stream
* Irminger
* Labrador
* Lomonosov
* Loop
* North Atlantic
* North Brazil
* North Equatorial
* Norwegian
* Portugal
* Slope Jet
* South Atlantic
* South Equatorial
* West Greenland
* West Spitsbergen

Indian Ocean|

* Agulhas
* Agulhas Return
* East Madagascar
* Equatorial Counter
* Indian Monsoon
* Indonesian Throughflow
* Leeuwin
* Madagascar
* Mozambique
* North Madagascar
* Somali
* South Australian
* South Equatorial
* West Australian

Pacific Ocean|

* Alaska
* Aleutian
* California
* Cromwell
* Davidson
* East Australian
* East Korea Warm
* Equatorial Counter
* Humboldt
* Indonesian Throughflow
* Kamchatka
* Kuroshio
* Mindanao
* North Equatorial
* North Korea Cold
* North Pacific
* Oyashio
* South Equatorial
* Tasman Front

Southern Ocean|

* Antarctic Circumpolar
* Tasman Outflow

Gyres|

| Major gyres|

* Indian Ocean Gyre
* North Atlantic Gyre
* South Atlantic Gyre
* North Pacific Gyre
* South Pacific Gyre

|

Other gyres|

* Beaufort Gyre
* Ross Gyre
* Weddell Gyre

Related|

* Atmospheric circulation
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* Marine debris
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* v
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Physical oceanography

Waves|

* Airy wave theory
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* Breaking wave
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* Cross sea
* Dispersion
* Edge wave
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* Mild-slope equation
* Radiation stress
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* one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
* shallow water equations
* Wind wave
* model

Circulation|

* Atmospheric circulation
* Baroclinity
* Boundary current
* Coriolis force
* Coriolis–Stokes force
* Craik–Leibovich vortex force
* Downwelling
* Eddy
* Ekman layer
* Ekman spiral
* Ekman transport
* El Niño–Southern Oscillation
* General circulation model
* Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
* Geostrophic current
* Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
* Gulf Stream
* Halothermal circulation
* Humboldt Current
* Hydrothermal circulation
* Langmuir circulation
* Longshore drift
* Loop Current
* Modular Ocean Model
* Ocean dynamics
* Ocean gyre
* Princeton ocean model
* Rip current
* Subsurface currents
* Sverdrup balance
* Thermohaline circulation
* shutdown
* Upwelling
* Whirlpool
* World Ocean Circulation Experiment

Tides|

* Amphidromic point
* Earth tide
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* Internal tide
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* Rule of twelfths
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* Tidal force
* Tidal power
* Tidal race
* Tidal range
* Tidal resonance
* Tide gauge
* Tideline
* Theory of tides

Landforms|

* Abyssal fan
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* Atoll
* Bathymetric chart
* Coastal geography
* Cold seep
* Continental margin
* Continental rise
* Continental shelf
* Contourite
* Guyot
* Hydrography
* Oceanic basin
* Oceanic plateau
* Oceanic trench
* Passive margin
* Seabed
* Seamount
* Submarine canyon
* Submarine volcano

Plate
tectonics|

* Convergent boundary
* Divergent boundary
* Fracture zone
* Hydrothermal vent
* Marine geology
* Mid-ocean ridge
* Mohorovičić discontinuity
* Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
* Oceanic crust
* Outer trench swell
* Ridge push
* Seafloor spreading
* Slab pull
* Slab suction
* Slab window
* Subduction
* Transform fault
* Volcanic arc

Ocean zones|

* Benthic
* Deep ocean water
* Deep sea
* Littoral
* Mesopelagic
* Oceanic
* Pelagic
* Photic
* Surf
* Swash

Sea level|

* Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
* Future sea level
* Global Sea Level Observing System
* North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
* Sea-level curve
* Sea level rise
* World Geodetic System

Acoustics|

* Deep scattering layer
* Hydroacoustics
* Ocean acoustic tomography
* Sofar bomb
* SOFAR channel
* Underwater acoustics

Satellites|

* Jason-1
* Jason-2 (Ocean Surface Topography Mission)
* Jason-3

Related|

* Argo
* Benthic lander
* Color of water
* DSV Alvin
* Marginal sea
* Marine energy
* Marine pollution
* Mooring
* National Oceanographic Data Center
* Ocean
* Ocean exploration
* Ocean observations
* Ocean reanalysis
* Ocean surface topography
* Ocean thermal energy conversion
* Oceanography
* Pelagic sediment
* Sea surface microlayer
* Sea surface temperature
* Seawater
* Science On a Sphere
* Thermocline
* Underwater glider
* Water column
* World Ocean Atlas

* Category
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Underwater diving

* Diving modes
* Atmospheric pressure diving
* Freediving
* Saturation diving
* Scuba diving
* Snorkeling
* Surface-supplied diving
* Unmanned diving

Diving equipment

| Basic equipment|

* Diving mask
* Snorkel
* Swimfin

|

Breathing gas|

* Bailout gas
* Bottom gas
* Breathing air
* Decompression gas
* Emergency gas supply
* Heliox
* Nitrox
* Oxygen
* Travel gas
* Trimix

Buoyancy and
trim equipment|

* Buoyancy control device
* Power inflator
* Dump valve
* Diving weighting system
* Ankle weights
* Integrated weights
* Trim weights
* Weight belt

Decompression
equipment|

* Decompression buoy
* Decompression cylinder
* Decompression trapeze
* Dive computer
* Diving shot
* Jonline

Environmental
protection|

* Atmospheric diving suit
* Diving suit
* Dry suit
* Sladen suit
* Standard diving suit
* Rash vest
* Wetsuit
* Dive skins
* Hot-water suit

Helmets
and masks|

* Anti-fog
* Diving helmet
* Free-flow helmet
* Lightweight demand helmet
* Reclaim helmet
* Standard diving helmet
* Diving mask
* Band mask
* Half mask
* Full-face mask

Instrumentation|

* Bottom timer
* Depth gauge
* Dive computer
* Dive timer
* Diving compass
* Diving watch
* Pneumofathometer
* Submersible pressure gauge

Mobility
equipment|

* Diving bell
* Closed bell
* Wet bell
* Diving stage
* Diver propulsion vehicle
* Advanced SEAL Delivery System
* Cosmos CE2F series
* Dry Combat Submersible
* Human torpedo
* Motorised Submersible Canoe
* R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle
* SEAL Delivery Vehicle
* Shallow Water Combat Submersible
* Siluro San Bartolomeo
* Wet Nellie
* Wet sub
* Necker Nymph
* Swimfins
* Monofin
* Towboard

Safety
equipment|

* Alternative air source
* Bailout block
* Bailout bottle
* Bolt snap
* Buddy line
* Distance line
* Dive light
* Dive reel
* Diver's cutting tool
* Diver's knife
* Diver's telephone
* Through-water communications
* Diving bell
* Diving safety harness
* Emergency gas supply
* Lifeline
* Screw gate carabiner
* Line marker
* Octopus regulator
* Pony bottle
* Rescue tether
* Safety helmet
* Shark-proof cage
* Surface marker buoy
* Personal locator beacon

Underwater
breathing
apparatus|

* Atmospheric diving suit
* Diving cylinder
* Burst disc
* Diving cylinder valve
* Diving helmet
* Diving regulator
* Single-hose regulator
* Twin-hose regulator
* Regulator malfunction
* Regulator freeze
* Full face diving mask
* Reclaim helmet
* Open-circuit scuba
* Scuba set
* Bailout bottle
* Decompression cylinder
* Independent doubles
* Manifolded twin set
* Scuba manifold
* Pony bottle
* Sidemount
* Sling cylinder
* Scuba replacement
* Standard diving dress
* Diving rebreather
* Carbon dioxide scrubber
* Carleton CDBA
* CDLSE
* Cis-Lunar
* Cryogenic rebreather
* CUMA
* DSEA
* Dolphin
* Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor
* FROGS
* Halcyon PVR-BASC
* Halcyon RB80
* IDA71
* Interspiro DCSC
* KISS
* LAR-5
* LAR-6
* LAR-V
* LARU
* Porpoise
* Dräger Ray
* Siebe Gorman CDBA
* Siva
* Viper
* Surface-supplied diving equipment
* Air line
* Diver's umbilical
* Diving air compressor
* Hookah
* Sea Trek
* Snuba
* Standard diving dress

Diving
equipment
manufacturers|

* AP Diving
* Apeks
* Aqua Lung America
* Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique
* Beuchat
* René Cavalero
* Cressi-Sub
* Dacor
* DESCO
* Dive Xtras
* Divex
* Diving Unlimited International
* Drägerwerk
* Fenzy
* Maurice Fernez
* Technisub
* Oscar Gugen
* Heinke
* HeinrichsWeikamp
* Johnson Outdoors
* Mares
* Morse Diving
* Nemrod
* Oceanic Worldwide
* Porpoise
* Sub Sea Systems
* Shearwater Research
* Siebe Gorman
* Submarine Products
* Suunto

Diving support equipment

| Breathing gas|

* Air filtration
* Booster pump
* Carbon dioxide scrubber
* Cascade filling system
* Diver's pump
* Diving air compressor
* Diving air filter
* High pressure breathing air compressor
* Low pressure breathing air compressor
* Gas blending
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Gas panel
* Gas reclaim system
* Gas storage bank
* Gas storage quad
* Gas storage tube
* Helium analyzer
* Nitrox production
* Membrane method of gas concentration
* Pressure swing adsorption
* Oxygen analyser
* Oxygen compatibility

|

Decompression
equipment|

* Built-in breathing system
* Decompression tables
* Dive computer
* Diving bell
* Bell cursor
* Closed bell
* Clump weight
* Launch and recovery system
* Wet bell
* Diving chamber
* Diving stage
* Jersey upline
* Recreational Dive Planner
* Saturation system

Platforms|

* Dive boat
* Boarding stirrup
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Combat Rubber Raiding Craft
* Diving platform (scuba)
* Liveaboard
* Subskimmer
* Diving support vessel
* HMS Challenger (K07)
* Moon pool
* Underwater habitat
* Aquarius Reef Base
* Continental Shelf Station Two
* Helgoland Habitat
* Jules' Undersea Lodge
* Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station
* SEALAB
* Tektite habitat

Remotely operated
underwater vehicles|

* 8A4-class ROUV
* ABISMO
* Atlantis ROV Team
* CURV
* Épaulard
* Global Explorer ROV
* Goldfish-class ROUV
* Kaikō ROV
* Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System
* Mini Rover ROV
* OpenROV
* ROV KIEL 6000
* ROV PHOCA
* Scorpio ROV
* Sea Dragon-class ROV
* Seabed tractor
* Seafox drone
* Seahorse ROUV
* SeaPerch
* SJT-class ROUV
* T1200 Trenching Unit
* VideoRay UROVs

Safety equipment|

* Diver down flag
* Diving shot
* Hyperbaric lifeboat
* Hyperbaric stretcher
* Jackstay
* Jonline
* Reserve gas supply

General|

* Diving ladder
* Hot water system
* Downline

Freediving

| Activities|

* Aquathlon
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving
* Haenyeo
* Pearl hunting
* Ama
* Snorkeling
* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Underwater ice hockey
* Underwater rugby
* Underwater target shooting

|

Competitions|

* Nordic Deep
* Vertical Blue
* Disciplines
* Constant weight (CWT)
* Constant weight without fins (CNF)
* Dynamic apnea (DYN)
* Dynamic apnea without fins (DNF)
* Free immersion (FIM)
* No-limits apnea (NLT)
* Static apnea (STA)
* Skandalopetra diving
* Variable weight apnea (VWT)
* Variable weight apnea without fins

Equipment|

* Diving mask
* Diving suit
* Fins
* Hawaiian sling
* Monofin
* Polespear
* Snorkel (swimming)
* Speargun
* Water polo cap

Freedivers|

* Deborah Andollo
* Peppo Biscarini
* Sara Campbell
* Derya Can Göçen
* Goran Čolak
* Carlos Coste
* Robert Croft
* Mandy-Rae Cruickshank
* Yasemin Dalkılıç
* Leonardo D'Imporzano
* Flavia Eberhard
* Şahika Ercümen
* Emma Farrell
* Francisco Ferreras
* Pierre Frolla
* Flavia Eberhard
* Mehgan Heaney-Grier
* Elisabeth Kristoffersen
* Loïc Leferme
* Enzo Maiorca
* Jacques Mayol
* Audrey Mestre
* Karol Meyer
* Stéphane Mifsud
* Alexey Molchanov
* Natalia Molchanova
* Dave Mullins
* Patrick Musimu
* Guillaume Néry
* Herbert Nitsch
* Umberto Pelizzari
* Annelie Pompe
* Michal Risian
* Stig Severinsen
* Tom Sietas
* Aharon Solomons
* Martin Štěpánek
* Walter Steyn
* Tanya Streeter
* William Trubridge
* Devrim Cenk Ulusoy
* Danai Varveri
* Alessia Zecchini
* Nataliia Zharkova

Hazards|

* Barotrauma
* Drowning
* Freediving blackout
* Deep-water blackout
* Shallow-water blackout
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Historical|

* Ama
* Octopus wrestling
* Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming

Organisations|

* AIDA International
* Scuba Schools International
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Freediving Association
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* Performance Freediving International

Professional diving

| Occupations|

* Ama
* Commercial diving
* Commercial offshore diving
* Hazmat diving
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Diving safety officer
* Diving supervisor
* Haenyeo
* Media diving
* Underwater photography
* Underwater videography
* Military diving
* Army engineer diver
* Clearance diver
* Frogman
* Police diving
* Public safety diving
* Scientific diving
* Underwater archaeology

|

Underwater work|

* Commercial offshore diving
* Dive guide
* Diver training
* Recreational diver training
* Hyperbaric welding
* Nondestructive testing
* Pearl hunting
* Police diving
* Public safety diving
* Salvage diving
* Scientific diving
* Sponge diving
* Submarine pipeline
* Underwater archaeology
* Underwater demolition
* Underwater photography
* Underwater search and recovery
* Underwater videography

Tools & equipment|

* Abrasive waterjet
* Airlift
* In-water surface cleaning
* Brush cart
* Cavitation cleaning
* Pressure washing
* Lifting bag
* Remotely operated underwater vehicle
* Silt screw
* Snoopy loop
* Thermal lance
* Tremie
* Water jetting

Underwater
weapons|

* Limpet mine
* Speargun
* Hawaiian sling
* Polespear

| Underwater
firearm|

* Gyrojet
* Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun
* Powerhead
* Underwater pistols
* Heckler & Koch P11
* SPP-1 underwater pistol
* Underwater revolvers
* AAI underwater revolver
* Underwater rifles
* ADS amphibious rifle
* APS underwater rifle
* ASM-DT amphibious rifle

|

Recreational diving

| Specialties|

* Altitude diving
* Cave diving
* Deep diving
* Ice diving
* Muck diving
* Open-water diving
* Rebreather diving
* Sidemount diving
* Solo diving
* Technical diving
* Wreck diving

|

Diver
organisations|

* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP)

Diving tourism
industry|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Scuba diving tourism
* Shark tourism
* Sinking ships for wreck diving sites

Recreational
dive sites|

| Reef diving
regions|

* Arrecifes de Cozumel National Park
* Great Barrier Reef
* iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area
* Poor Knights Islands
* Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area

|

Reef dive
sites|

* Artificial reef
* Gibraltar Artificial Reef
* Shark River Reef
* Osborne Reef
* Palancar Reef
* Underwater artworks
* Cancún Underwater Museum
* Christ of the Abyss
* The Diver
* Molinere Underwater Sculpture Park

Wreck diving
regions|

* Chuuk Lagoon
* Maritime Heritage Trail – Battle of Saipan
* Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve
* Wreck Alley, San Diego

Wreck dive
sites|

* HMS A1
* HMS A3
* Engineering:USS Aaron Ward
* Abessinia
* Aeolian Sky
* Albert C. Field
* Andrea Doria
* Antilla
* Antilles
* Aquila
* Engineering:USS Arkansas
* HMS Boadicea
* Bianca C.
* Booya
* HMSAS Bloemfontein
* Breda
* HMAS Brisbane
* Bungsberg
* HMAS Canberra
* Carl D. Bradley
* Carnatic
* SMS Dresden
* Dunraven
* Eastfield
* HMT Elk
* Ellengowan
* RMS Empress of Ireland
* HMS Falmouth
* Fifi
* SS Francisco Morazan
* Fujikawa Maru
* Fumizuki
* SATS General Botha
* USNS General Hoyt S. Vandenberg
* HMS Ghurka
* Glen Strathallan
* SAS Good Hope
* Gothenburg
* Herzogin Cecilie
* Hilma Hooker
* Hispania
* HMS Hood
* HMAS Hobart
* Igara
* James Eagan Layne
* Captain Keith Tibbetts
* King Cruiser
* SMS Kronprinz
* Kyarra
* HMS Laforey
* USAT Liberty
* Louis Sheid
* Engineering:USS LST-507
* SMS Markgraf
* Mikhail Lermontov
* HMS M2
* Maine
* Maloja
* HMS Maori
* Marguerite
* SS Mauna Loa
* USAT Meigs
* Mendi
* USCGC Mohawk
* Mohegan
* RMS Moldavia
* HMS Montagu
* MV RMS Mulheim
* Nagato
* Oceana
* Engineering:USS Oriskany
* Oslofjord
* P29
* P31
* Pedernales
* Persier
* HMAS Perth
* SAS Pietermaritzburg
* Piłsudski
* Pool Fisher
* HMS Port Napier
* Preußen
* President Coolidge
* PS Queen Victoria
* Radaas
* Error: {{Ship}} missing prefix (help)
* RMS Rhone
* Rondo
* Rosehill
* Error: {{Ship}} missing prefix (help)
* Royal Charter
* Rozi
* HMS Safari
* Salem Express
* Engineering:USS Saratoga
* Engineering:USS Scuffle
* HMS Scylla
* HMS Sidon
* Engineering:USS Spiegel Grove
* Stanegarth
* Stanwood
* Stella
* HMAS Swan
* Engineering:USS Tarpon
* Thesis
* Thistlegorm
* Toa Maru
* Torrey Canyon
* SAS Transvaal
* Tulagi
* Tulamben
* U-40
* U-352
* U-1195
* Um El Faroud
* Varvassi
* Walter L M Russ
* Washingtonian (1913)
* HMNZS Wellington
* Engineering:USS Yancey
* Yongala
* Zenobia
* Zealandia
* Zingara

Cave diving
sites|

* Devil's Throat at Punta Sur
* Engelbrecht
* Fossil Cave
* Piccaninnie Ponds
* Pollatoomary
* Sistema Ox Bel Ha
* Sistema Sac Actun
* Sistema Dos Ojos
* Sistema Nohoch Nah Chich

Freshwater
dives|

* Ewens Ponds
* Little Blue Lake

Training sites|

* Capernwray Dive Centre
* National Diving and Activity Centre
* Stoney Cove

Open ocean
diving|

* Blue-water diving
* Black-water diving

Diving safety

* Ergonomics of diving equipment
* Human factors in diving safety
* Life support system
* Safety-critical system

| Diving hazards|

* Trait anxiety
* Cold shock response
* Decompression
* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Nitrogen narcosis
* Overconfidence effect
* Oxygen toxicity
* Panic
* Penetration diving
* Seasickness
* Silt out
* Single point of failure
* Task loading
* Uncontrolled decompression

|

Consequences|

* Barotrauma
* Decompression sickness
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Hypoxia
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Risk
management|

* Checklist
* Hazard identification and risk assessment
* Hazard analysis
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Risk control
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Incident pit
* Lockout-tagout
* Permit To Work
* Redundancy
* Safety data sheet
* Situation awareness
* Diving team
* Bellman
* Chamber operator
* Diver's attendant
* Diving supervisor
* Diving systems technician
* Life support technician
* Stand-by diver
* Equipment safety
* Breathing gas quality
* Testing and inspection of diving cylinders
* Hydrostatic test
* Sustained load cracking
* Diving regulators
* Breathing performance of regulators
* Occupational safety and health
* Approaches to safety
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Toolbox talk
* Housekeeping
* Association of Diving Contractors International
* Code of practice
* Contingency plan
* Diving regulations
* Emergency procedure
* Emergency response plan
* Evacuation plan
* Hazardous Materials Identification System
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Administrative controls
* Engineering controls
* Hazard elimination
* Hazard substitution
* Personal protective equipment
* International Marine Contractors Association
* Occupational hazard
* Biological hazard
* Chemical hazard
* Physical hazard
* Psychosocial hazard
* Occupational hygiene
* Exposure assessment
* Occupational exposure limit
* Workplace health surveillance
* Safety culture
* Code of practice
* Health and safety representative
* Operations manual
* Safety meeting
* Standard operating procedure

Diving
procedures|

* Ascending and descending
* Emergency ascent
* Boat diving
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Buddy diving
* Decompression
* Decompression practice
* Pyle stop
* Ratio decompression
* Dive briefing
* Dive log
* Dive planning
* Scuba gas planning
* Diver communications
* Diving hand signals
* Diving line signals
* Diver voice communications
* Diver rescue
* Diver training
* Doing It Right
* Drift diving
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Night diving
* Solo diving
* Water safety

Incidents|

| Diver rescues|

* Tham Luang cave rescue

|

Early diving|

* John Day (carpenter)
* Charles Spalding
* Ebenezer Watson

Freediving|

* Loïc Leferme
* Audrey Mestre
* Nicholas Mevoli
* Natalia Molchanova

Professional
diving|

* Johnson Sea Link accident
* Offshore diving incidents
* Byford Dolphin diving bell accident
* Drill Master diving accident
* Star Canopus diving accident
* Venture One diving accident
* Waage Drill II diving accident
* Wildrake diving accident
* Professional diver fatalities
* Roger Baldwin
* John Bennett
* Victor F. Guiel Jr.
* Craig M. Hoffman
* Peter Henry Michael Holmes
* Edwin Clayton Link
* Gerard Anthony Prangley
* Pier Skipness
* Robert John Smyth
* Albert D. Stover
* Richard A. Walker
* Lothar Michael Ward
* Joachim Wendler
* Death of Bradley Westell
* Arne Zetterström

Scuba diving
fatalities|

* Ricardo Armbruster
* Allan Bridge
* David Bright
* Berry L. Cannon
* Cotton Coulson
* Cláudio Coutinho
* E. Yale Dawson
* Deon Dreyer
* Milan Dufek
* Sheck Exley
* Maurice Fargues
* Guy Garman
* Steve Irwin
* Jim Jones
* Henry Way Kendall
* Artur Kozłowski
* Chris and Chrissy Rouse
* Kirsty MacColl
* Agnes Milowka
* François de Roubaix
* Dave Shaw
* Wesley C. Skiles
* Dewey Smith
* Rob Stewart
* Esbjörn Svensson
* Josef Velek

Diving medicine

| Diving
disorders|

* List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders
* Cramps
* Motion sickness
* Surfer's ear

| Pressure
related|

* Aerosinusitis
* Air embolism
* Alternobaric vertigo
* Barodontalgia
* Barostriction
* Barotrauma
* Compression arthralgia
* Decompression illness
* Dental barotrauma
* Dysbarism
* Pulmonary barotrauma

| Oxygen|

* Freediving blackout
* Hyperoxia
* Hypoxia
* Oxygen toxicity

|

Inert gases|

* Avascular necrosis
* Decompression sickness
* Isobaric counterdiffusion
* Taravana
* Dysbaric osteonecrosis
* High-pressure nervous syndrome
* Hydrogen narcosis
* Nitrogen narcosis

Carbon dioxide|

* Hypercapnia
* Hypocapnia

Breathing gas
contaminants|

* Carbon monoxide poisoning

Immersion
related|

* Asphyxia
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Immersion diuresis
* Instinctive drowning response
* Laryngospasm
* Salt water aspiration syndrome
* Swimming-induced pulmonary edema

Treatment|

* Demand valve oxygen therapy
* First Aid
* Hyperbaric medicine
* Hyperbaric treatment schedules
* In-water recompression
* Oxygen therapy
* Therapeutic recompression

Personnel|

* Diving Medical Examiner
* Diving Medical Practitioner
* Diving Medical Technician
* Hyperbaric nursing

Screening|

* Atrial septal defect
* Fitness to dive
* Psychological fitness to dive

Research|

| Researchers in
diving physiology
and medicine|

* Arthur J. Bachrach
* Albert R. Behnke
* Paul Bert
* George F. Bond
* Robert Boyle
* Albert A. Bühlmann
* John R. Clarke
* Guybon Chesney Castell Damant
* William Paul Fife
* John Scott Haldane
* Robert William Hamilton Jr.
* Leonard Erskine Hill
* Brian Andrew Hills
* Felix Hoppe-Seyler
* Christian J. Lambertsen
* Simon Mitchell
* Charles Momsen
* John Rawlins R.N.
* Charles Wesley Shilling
* Edward D. Thalmann
* Jacques Triger

|

Diving medical
research
organisations|

* Aerospace Medical Association
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)
* Diving Medical Advisory Council (DMAC)
* European Diving Technology Committee (EDTC)
* European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS)
* National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology
* Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
* Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine
* Rubicon Foundation
* South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society (SPUMS)
* Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association (SAUHMA)
* Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS)
* United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU)

Law

* Civil liability in recreational diving
* Duty of care
* List of legislation regulating underwater diving
* Investigation of diving accidents

History of underwater diving

* Aqua-Lung
* History of decompression research and development
* History of scuba diving
* List of researchers in underwater diving
* Porpoise regulator
* Standard diving dress
* Timeline of diving technology
* Underwater diving in popular culture
* Vintage scuba

Publications

| Manuals|

* NOAA Diving Manual
* U.S. Navy Diving Manual
* Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival

|

Standards and
Codes of Practice|

* DIN 7876

General non-fiction|

* The Darkness Beckons
* Goldfinder
* The Last Dive
* Shadow Divers

Training and registration

| Diver
training|

* Diving instructor
* Diving school
* Occupational diver training
* Commercial diver training
* Military diver training
* Public safety diver training
* Scientific diver training
* Competence and assessment
* Competency-based learning
* Skill assessment
* Refresher training (diving)
* Diver training standard
* Recreational diver training
* Introductory diving
* Skills
* Diver navigation
* Diver trim
* Ear clearing
* Frenzel maneuver
* Valsalva maneuver
* Finning techniques
* Scuba skills
* Buddy breathing
* Low impact diving
* Diamond Reef System
* Surface-supplied diving skills
* Underwater searches
* Teaching methods
* Muscle memory
* Overtraining
* Stress exposure training

|

Organisations|

* European Underwater Federation (EUF)
* International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF)
* International Diving Schools Association (IDSA)
* International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA)
* List of diver certification organizations
* National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
* Nautical Archaeology Society
* Universal Referral Program
* World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC)

| Commercial diver
certification
authorities|

* Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS)
* Commercial diver registration in South Africa
* Divers Institute of Technology
* Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
* Department of Employment and Labour

|

Commercial diving
schools|

* Divers Academy International

Free-diving
certification
agencies|

* AIDA International (AIDA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Performance Freediving International (PI)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)

Recreational scuba
certification
agencies|

* American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC)
* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (ANMP)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* International Diving Educators Association (IDEA)
* Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* National Academy of Scuba Educators (NASE)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond (NOB)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Sub-Aqua Association (SAA)
* Scuba Diving International (SDI)
* Scuba Educators International (SEI)
* Scottish Sub Aqua Club (ScotSAC)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* United Diving Instructors (UDI)
* YMCA SCUBA Program

Recreational scuba
certification
levels|

* Advanced Open Water Diver
* Autonomous diver
* CMAS* scuba diver
* CMAS** scuba diver
* Dive leader
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Introductory diving
* Low Impact Diver
* Master Instructor
* Master Scuba Diver
* Open Water Diver
* Rescue Diver
* Solo diver
* Supervised diver

Scientific diver
certification
authorities|

* American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS)
* CMAS Scientific Committee

Technical
certification
agencies|

* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Diving Science and Technology (DSAT)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)
* Trimix Scuba Association (TSA)
* Technical Extended Range (TXR)

| Cave
diving|

* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)

|

Underwater sports

| Surface snorkeling|

* Finswimming (surface swimming & bi-fins)

|

Snorkeling/breath-hold|

* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Underwater rugby
* Underwater target shooting

Breath-hold|

* Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving
* Underwater ice hockey

Open Circuit Scuba|

* Immersion finswimming
* Sport diving (sport)
* Underwater orienteering
* Underwater photography (sport)

Rebreather|

* Underwater photography (sport)

Sports governing
organisations|

* International
* AIDA International
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques)
* National
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Octopush Association
* British Underwater Sports Association
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* South African Underwater Sports Federation
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu
* Underwater Society of America)

Freediver Federations|

* AIDA International
* AIDA Hellas
* British Freediving Association (BFA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)

Sports federations|

* Australian Underwater Federation (AUF)
* British Octopush Association (BOA)
* British Underwater Sports Association (BUSA)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* South African Underwater Sports Federation (SAUSF)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* Underwater Society of America (USOA)

Underwater divers

| Pioneers of diving|

* Aquanaut
* Jacques Cousteau
* Hans Hass
* Arne Zetterström

|

Underwater scientists and archaeologists|

* Michael Arbuthnot
* Robert Ballard
* George Bass
* Mensun Bound
* Louis Boutan
* Hugh Bradner
* Cathy Church
* Eugenie Clark
* James P. Delgado
* Sylvia Earle
* John Christopher Fine
* George R. Fischer
* Anders Franzén
* Honor Frost
* David Gibbins
* Robert F. Marx
* Charles T. Meide
* Mark M. Newell
* John Peter Oleson
* Margaret Rule
* Gunter Schöbel
* E. Lee Spence
* Robert Sténuit
* Peter Throckmorton

Scuba record holders|

* Sheck Exley
* Nuno Gomes

Underwater filmmakers|

* Samir Alhafith
* David Attenborough
* Ramón Bravo
* Ivan Tors
* Andrew Wight

Underwater photographers|

* Tamara Benitez
* Georges Beuchat
* Adrian Biddle
* Jonathan Bird
* Eric Cheng
* Neville Coleman
* Jacques Cousteau
* John D. Craig
* Ben Cropp
* Bernard Delemotte
* David Doubilet
* John Christopher Fine
* Dermot FitzGerald
* Rodney Fox
* Ric Frazier
* Stephen Frink
* Peter Gimbel
* Monty Halls
* Hans Hass
* Henry Way Kendall
* Rudie Kuiter
* Joseph B. MacInnis
* Luis Marden
* Agnes Milowka
* Noel Monkman
* Steve Parish
* Zale Parry
* Pierre Petit
* Leni Riefenstahl
* Peter Scoones
* Brian Skerry
* Wesley C. Skiles
* E. Lee Spence
* Philippe Tailliez
* Ron and Valerie Taylor
* Albert Tillman
* John Veltri
* Stan Waterman
* Jiang Wenhao
* Michele Westmorland
* John Ernest Williamson
* J. Lamar Worzel

Underwater explorers|

* Caves
* Sheck Exley
* Martyn Farr
* Jill Heinerth
* William Hogarth Main
* Rick Stanton
* Bill Stone
* John Volanthen
* Reefs
*   * Wrecks
* Clive Cussler
* Aristotelis Zervoudis

Science of underwater diving

| Diving
physics|

* Breathing performance of regulators
* Buoyancy
* Archimedes' principle
* Neutral buoyancy
* Diffusion
* Molecular diffusion
* Force
* Gas law
* Amontons's law
* Boyle's law
* Charles's law
* Combined gas law
* Dalton's law
* Gay-Lussac's law
* Ideal gas law
* Oxygen fraction
* Permeation
* Pressure
* Absolute pressure
* Ambient pressure
* Atmospheric pressure
* Gauge pressure
* Hydrostatic pressure
* Metre sea water
* Partial pressure
* Psychrometric constant
* Solubility
* Henry's law
* Saturation
* Solution
* Supersaturation
* Surface tension
* Hydrophobe
* Surfactant
* Torricellian chamber
* Underwater vision
* Snell's law
* Weight
* Apparent weight

|

Diving
physiology|

* Artificial gills
* Circulatory system
* Blood shift
* Patent foramen ovale
* Perfusion
* Systemic circulation
* Cold shock response
* Diving reflex
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Lipid
* Maximum operating depth
* Metabolism
* Physiological response to water immersion
* Respiration
* Blood–air barrier
* Breathing
* CO₂ retention
* dead space
* Gas exchange
* Hypocapnia
* Normocapnia
* Respiratory exchange ratio
* Respiratory quotient
* Respiratory system
* Work of breathing
* Tissue
* Underwater vision

| Decompression
theory|

* Decompression models:
* Bühlmann decompression algorithm
* Haldane's decompression model
* Reduced gradient bubble model
* Thalmann algorithm
* Thermodynamic model of decompression
* Varying Permeability Model
* Equivalent air depth
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Maximum operating depth
* Oxygen window in diving decompression
* Physiology of decompression
* Pulmonary circulation

|

Diving
environment|

| Diving
environment
classification|

* Altitude diving
* Benign water diving
* Confined water diving
* Deep diving
* Inland diving
* Inshore diving
* Muck diving
* Night diving
* Open water diving
* Open ocean diving
* Black-water diving
* Blue-water diving
* Penetration diving
* Cave diving
* Ice diving
* Wreck diving
* Recreational dive sites
* Underwater environment

|

Environmental
impact|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Low impact diving

Environmental
factors|

* Algal bloom
* Currents:
* Current
* Longshore drift
* Ocean current
* Rip current
* Tidal race
* Undertow
* Upwelling
* Ekman transport
* Halocline
* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Reef
* Coral reef
* Stratification
* Thermocline
* Tides
* Turbidity
* Wind wave
* Breaking wave
* Surf
* Surge
* Wave shoaling

Special interest groups

* Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia (ARSBC)
* CMAS Europe
* Diving Equipment and Marketing Association (DEMA)
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Green Fins
* Historical Diving Society
* Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS)
* Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club
* Project AWARE
* Reef Life Survey
* Save Ontario Shipwrecks (SOS)
* SeaKeys
* Sea Research Society

Other

* Submarine escape training facility

* Category
* Commons
*   * Glossary
* Indexes: dive sites
* divers
* diving
*   * Outline
* Portal

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