Processor (computing)

Short description: Electrical component for processing data

In computing and computer science, a processor or processing unit is an electrical component (digital circuit) that performs operations on an external data source, usually memory or some other data stream.[1] It typically takes the form of a microprocessor, which can be implemented on a single or a few tightly integrated metal–oxide–semiconductor integrated circuit chips.[2][3] In the past, processors were constructed using multiple individual vacuum tubes,[4][5] multiple individual transistors,[6] or multiple integrated circuits.

The term is frequently used to refer to the central processing unit (CPU), the main processor in a system.[7] However, it can also refer to other coprocessors, such as a graphics processing unit (GPU).[8]

Traditional processors are typically based on silicon; however, researchers have developed experimental processors based on alternative materials such as carbon nanotubes,[9] graphene,[10] diamond,[11] and alloys made of elements from groups three and five of the periodic table.[12] Transistors made of a single sheet of silicon atoms one atom tall and other 2D materials have been researched for use in processors.[13] Quantum processors have been created; they use quantum superposition to represent bits (called qubits) instead of only an on or off state.[14][15]

## Contents

* 1 Moore's law
* 2 Types
* 3 See also
* 4 References

## Moore's law

Transistor count over time, demonstrating Moore's law

Moore's law, named after Gordon Moore, is the observation and projection via historical trend that the number of transistors in integrated circuits, and therefore processors by extension, doubles every two years.[16] The progress of processors has followed Moore's law closely.[17]

## Types

Central processing units (CPUs) are the primary processors in most computers. They are designed to handle a wide variety of general computing tasks rather than only a few domain-specific tasks. If based on the von Neumann architecture, they contain at least a control unit (CU), an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and processor registers. In practice, CPUs in personal computers are usually also connected, through the motherboard, to a main memory bank, hard drive or other permanent storage, and peripherals, such as a keyboard and mouse.

Graphics processing units (GPUs) are present in many computers and designed to efficiently perform computer graphics operations, including linear algebra. They are highly parallel, and CPUs usually perform better on tasks requiring serial processing. Although GPUs were originally intended for use in graphics, over time their application domains have expanded, and they have become an important piece of hardware for machine learning.[18]

There are several forms of processors specialized for machine learning. These fall under the category of AI accelerators (also known as neural processing units, or NPUs) and include vision processing units (VPUs) and Google's Tensor Processing Unit (TPU).

Sound chips and sound cards are used for generating and processing audio. Digital signal processors (DSPs) are designed for processing digital signals. Image signal processors are DSPs specialized for processing images in particular.

Deep learning processors, such as neural processing units are designed for efficient deep learning computation.

Physics processing units (PPUs) are built to efficiently make physics-related calculations, particularly in video games.[19]

Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) are specialized circuits that can be reconfigured for different purposes, rather than being locked into a particular application domain during manufacturing.

The Synergistic Processing Element or Unit (SPE or SPU) is a component in the Cell microprocessor.

Processors based on different circuit technology have been developed. One example is quantum processors, which use quantum physics to enable algorithms that are impossible on classical computers (those using traditional circuitry). Another example is photonic processors, which use light to make computations instead of semiconducting electronics.[20] Processing is done by photodetectors sensing light produced by lasers inside the processor.[21]

## See also

* Microprocessor
* Multi-core processor
* Central processing unit
* Graphics processing unit
* Superscalar processor
* Hardware acceleration
* Von Neumann architecture
* All pages with titles containing processing unit

## References

1. ↑ "Oxford English Dictionary". https://www.lexico.com/definition/central_processing_unit.
2. ↑ "Reading: The Central Processing Unit | Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts". https://courses.lumenlearning.com/zeliite115/chapter/reading-the-central-processing-unit/.
3. ↑ "The Silicon Engine". https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/.
4. ↑ Garner, Robert; Dill, Frederick (Rick) (Winter 2010). "The Legendary IBM 1401 Data Processing System". IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine 2 (1): 28–39. doi:10.1109/MSSC.2009.935295. http://ibm-1401.info/IBM1401_IEEE_SSCS_Mag_Jan2010-100DPI.pdf.
5. ↑ "IBM100 - The IBM 700 Series" (in en-US). 2012-03-07. http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/ibm700series/transform/.
6. ↑ "Megaprocessor". https://www.megaprocessor.com/.
7. ↑ "Oxford English Dictionary". https://www.lexico.com/definition/processor.
8. ↑ Sakdhnagool, Putt (4 September 2018). "Comparative analysis of coprocessors". Concurrency and Computation Practice and Experience 31 (1). doi:10.1002/cpe.4756. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/cpe.4756.
9. ↑ Hills, Gage; Lau, Christian; Wright, Andrew; Fuller, Samuel; Bishop, Mindy D.; Srimani, Tathagata; Kanhaiya, Pritpal; Ho, Rebecca et al. (2019-08-29). "Modern microprocessor built from complementary carbon nanotube transistors" (in en). Nature 572 (7771): 595–602. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1493-8. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 31462796. Bibcode: 2019Natur.572..595H. http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1493-8.
10. ↑ Akinwande, Deji; Huyghebaert, Cedric; Wang, Ching-Hua; Serna, Martha I.; Goossens, Stijn; Li, Lain-Jong; Wong, H.-S. Philip; Koppens, Frank H. L. (2019-09-26). "Graphene and two-dimensional materials for silicon technology" (in en). Nature 573 (7775): 507–518. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1573-9. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 31554977. Bibcode: 2019Natur.573..507A. http://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1573-9.
11. ↑ "Using artificial intelligence to engineer materials' properties". 11 February 2019. https://news.mit.edu/2019/artificial-intelligence-engineer-microchips-0211.
12. ↑ Riel, Heike; Wernersson, Lars-Erik; Hong, Minghwei; del Alamo, Jesús A. (August 2014). "III–V compound semiconductor transistors—from planar to nanowire structures" (in en). MRS Bulletin 39 (8): 668–677. doi:10.1557/mrs.2014.137. ISSN 0883-7694. http://link.springer.com/10.1557/mrs.2014.137.
13. ↑ Li, Ming-Yang; Su, Sheng-Kai; Wong, H.-S. Philip; Li, Lain-Jong (March 2019). "How 2D semiconductors could extend Moore's law" (in en). Nature 567 (7747): 169–170. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-00793-8. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 30862924. Bibcode: 2019Natur.567..169L.
14. ↑ "quantum computer | Description & Facts | Britannica" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/technology/quantum-computer.
15. ↑ "Experimental Implementation of Fast Quantum Searching". http://cba.mit.edu/docs/papers/98.03.grover.pdf.
16. ↑ "Moore's law: computer science" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/technology/Moores-law.
17. ↑ "Moore's Law". https://www.umsl.edu/~siegelj/information_theory/projects/Bajramovic/www.umsl.edu/_abdcf/Cs4890/link1.html.
18. ↑ "CPU vs. GPU: What's the Difference?" (in en). https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/products/docs/processors/cpu-vs-gpu.html.
19. ↑ "Revolution in Gaming: Physics Processing Units (PPUs) Elevate Realism with Efficient Physics-Related Calculations -PCMasters.de" (in de). https://www.pcmasters.de/.
20. ↑ Sun, Chen; Wade, Mark T.; Lee, Yunsup; Orcutt, Jason S.; Alloatti, Luca; Georgas, Michael S.; Waterman, Andrew S.; Shainline, Jeffrey M. et al. (December 2015). "Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light" (in en). Nature 528 (7583): 534–538. doi:10.1038/nature16454. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 26701054. Bibcode: 2015Natur.528..534S. http://www.nature.com/articles/nature16454.
21. ↑ Yang, Sarah (2015-12-23). "Engineers demo first processor that uses light for ultrafast communications" (in en-US). https://news.berkeley.edu/2015/12/23/electronic-photonic-microprocessor-chip/.

* v
* t
* e

Electronic components

Semiconductor
devices|

| MOS transistors|

* BiCMOS
* BioFET
* Chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET)
* Complementary MOS (CMOS)
* Depletion-load NMOS
* Fin field-effect transistor (FinFET)
* Floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS)
* Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
* ISFET
* LDMOS
* MOS field-effect transistor (MOSFET)
* Multi-gate field-effect transistor (MuGFET)
* NMOS
* PMOS
* Power MOSFET
* Thin-film transistor (TFT)
* VMOS

|

Other transistors|

* Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
* Darlington transistor
* Diffusion transistor
* Field-effect transistor (FET)
* JFET
* Light-emitting transistor (LET)
* Organic field-effect transistor (OFET)
* Organic light-emitting transistor (OLET)
* Pentode transistor
* Point-contact transistor
* Programmable unijunction transistor (PUT)
* Static induction transistor (SIT)
* Tetrode transistor
* Unijunction transistor (UJT)

Diodes|

* Avalanche diode
* Constant-current diode (CLD, CRD)
* Laser diode (LD)
* Light-emitting diode (LED)
* Organic light-emitting diode (OLED)
* Photodiode
* PIN diode
* Schottky diode
* Step recovery diode
* Zener diode

Other devices|

* DIAC
* Heterostructure barrier varactor
* Integrated circuit (IC)
* Memistor
* Memory cell
* Memristor
* Organic semiconductor
* Photodetector
* Solaristor
* Quantum circuit
* Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
* Static induction thyristor (SITh)
* Three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D IC)
* Thyristor
* TRIAC
* Varicap

Voltage regulators|

* Linear regulator
* Low-dropout regulator
* Switching regulator
* Buck
* Boost
* Buck–boost
* Split-pi
* Ćuk
* SEPIC
* Charge pump
* Switched capacitor

Vacuum tubes|

* Acorn tube
* Audion
* Beam tetrode
* Barretter
* Compactron
* Diode
* Fleming valve
* Nonode
* Nuvistor
* Pentagrid (Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
* Pentode
* Photomultiplier
* Phototube
* Tetrode
* Triode

Vacuum tubes (RF)|

* Backward-wave oscillator (BWO)
* Cavity magnetron
* Crossed-field amplifier (CFA)
* Gyrotron
* Inductive output tube (IOT)
* Klystron
* Maser
* Sutton tube
* Traveling-wave tube (TWT)

Cathode ray tubes|

* Beam deflection tube
* Charactron
* Iconoscope
* Magic eye tube
* Monoscope
* Selectron tube
* Storage tube
* Trochotron
* Video camera tube
* Williams tube

Gas-filled tubes|

* Cold cathode
* Crossatron
* Dekatron
* Ignitron
* Krytron
* Mercury-arc valve
* Neon lamp
* Nixie tube
* Thyratron
* Trigatron
* Voltage-regulator tube

Adjustable|

* Potentiometer
* digital
* Variable capacitor
* Varicap

Passive|

* Connector
* audio and video
* electrical power
* RF
* Electrolytic detector
* Ferrite
* Fuse
* resettable
* Resistor
* Switch
* Thermistor
* Transformer
* Varistor
* Wire
* Wollaston wire

Reactive|

* Capacitor
* types
* Ceramic resonator
* Crystal oscillator
* Inductor
* Parametron
* Relay
* reed relay
* mercury switch

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* e

Digital electronics

Components|

* Combinational logic
* Sequential logic
* Integrated circuit (IC)
* Logic gate

Theory|

* Digital signal
* Boolean algebra
* Logic synthesis
* Logic in computer science
* Computer architecture
* Digital signal
* Digital signal processing
* Circuit minimization
* Switching circuit theory

Design|

* Logic synthesis
* Place and route
* Placement
* Routing
* Register-transfer level
* Hardware description language
* High-level synthesis
* Formal equivalence checking
* Synchronous logic
* Asynchronous logic
* Finite-state machine
* Hierarchical state machine

Applications|

* Computer hardware
* Hardware acceleration
* Digital audio
* radio
* Digital photography
* Digital telephone
* Digital video
* cinema
* television
* Electronic literature

Design issues|

* Metastability
* Runt pulse

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Basic computer components

Input devices|

* Keyboard
* Image scanner
* Microphone
* Pointing device
* Graphics tablet
* Game controller
* Light pen
* Mouse
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* Touchpad
* Touchscreen
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* Refreshable braille display
* Sound card
* Sound chip
* Webcam
* Softcam
* Video card
* GPU

Output devices|

* Monitor
* Screen
* Refreshable braille display
* Printer
* Plotter
* Speakers
* Sound card
* Video card

Removable
data storage|

* Disk pack
* Floppy disk
* Optical disc
* CD
* DVD
* Blu-ray
* Flash memory
* Memory card
* USB flash drive

Computer case|

* Central processing unit
* Microprocessor
* Motherboard
* Memory
* RAM
* BIOS
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* Power supply
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* MOSFET
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Ports|

* Ethernet
* FireWire (IEEE 1394)
* Parallel port
* Serial port
* PS/2 port
* USB
* Thunderbolt
* DisplayPort / HDMI / DVI / VGA
* eSATA
* Audio jack

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* e

Processor technologies

Models|

* Turing machine
* Universal
* Post–Turing
* Quantum
* Belt machine
* Stack machine
* Finite-state machine
* with datapath
* Hierarchical
* Queue automaton
* Register machines
* Counter
* Pointer
* Random-access
* Random-access stored program

Architecture|

* Microarchitecture
* Von Neumann
* Harvard
* modified
* Dataflow
* Transport-triggered
* Cellular
* Endianness
* Memory access
* NUMA
* HUMA
* Load/store
* Register/memory
* Cache hierarchy
* Memory hierarchy
* Virtual memory
* Secondary storage
* Heterogeneous
* Fabric
* Multiprocessing
* Cognitive
* Neuromorphic

Instruction set
architectures|

| Types|

* CISC
* RISC
* Application-specific
* EDGE
* TRIPS
* VLIW
* EPIC
* MISC
* OISC
* NISC
* ZISC
* comparison
* addressing modes

|

* x86
* ARM
* MIPS
* Power ISA
* SPARC
* Itanium
* Unicore
* MicroBlaze
* RISC-V
* others

Execution|

| Instruction pipelining|

* Pipeline stall
* Operand forwarding
* Classic RISC pipeline

|

Hazards|

* Data dependency
* Structural
* Control
* False sharing

Out-of-order|

* Tomasulo algorithm
* Reservation station
* Re-order buffer
* Register renaming

Speculative|

* Branch prediction
* Memory dependence prediction

Parallelism|

| Level|

* Bit
* Bit-serial
* Word
* Instruction
* Pipelining
* Scalar
* Superscalar
* Task
* Thread
* Process
* Data
* Vector
* Memory
* Distributed

|

Multithreading|

* Temporal
* Simultaneous
* Hyperthreading
* Speculative
* Preemptive
* Cooperative

Flynn's taxonomy|

* SISD
* SIMD
* SWAR
* SIMT
* MISD
* MIMD
* SPMD

Processor
performance|

* Transistor count
* Instructions per cycle (IPC)
* Cycles per instruction (CPI)
* Instructions per second (IPS)
* Floating-point operations per second (FLOPS)
* Transactions per second (TPS)
* Synaptic updates per second (SUPS)
* Performance per watt (PPW)
* Cache performance metrics
* Computer performance by orders of magnitude

Types|

* Central processing unit (CPU)
* Graphics processing unit (GPU)
* GPGPU
* Vector
* Barrel
* Stream
* Coprocessor
* ASIC
* FPGA
* CPLD
* Multi-chip module (MCM)
* System in package (SiP)

| By application|

* Microprocessor
* Microcontroller
* Mobile
* Notebook
* Ultra-low-voltage
* ASIP

|

Systems
on chip|

* System on a chip (SoC)
* Multiprocessor (MPSoC)
* Programmable (PSoC)
* Network on a chip (NoC)

Hardware
accelerators|

* AI accelerator
* Vision processing unit (VPU)
* Physics processing unit (PPU)
* Digital signal processor (DSP)
* Tensor processing unit (TPU)
* Secure cryptoprocessor
* Network processor
* Baseband processor

Word size|

* 1-bit
* 2-bit
* 4-bit
* 8-bit
* 16-bit
* 32-bit
* 48-bit
* 64-bit
* 128-bit
* 256-bit
* 512-bit
* others
* variable

Core count|

* Single-core
* Multi-core
* Manycore
* Heterogeneous architecture

Components|

* Core
* Cache
* CPU cache
* replacement policies
* coherence
* Bus
* Clock rate
* Clock signal
* FIFO

| Functional units|

* Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
* Address generation unit (AGU)
* Floating-point unit (FPU)
* Memory management unit (MMU)
* Load–store unit
* Translation lookaside buffer (TLB)
* Integrated memory controller (IMC)

|

Logic|

* Combinational
* Sequential
* Glue
* Logic gate
* Quantum
* Array

Registers|

* Processor register
* Status register
* Stack register
* Register file
* Memory buffer
* Program counter

Control unit|

* Instruction unit
* Data buffer
* Write buffer
* Microcode ROM
* Counter

Datapath|

* Multiplexer
* Demultiplexer
* Adder
* Multiplier
* CPU
* Binary decoder
* Address decoder
* Sum addressed decoder
* Barrel shifter

Circuitry|

* Integrated circuit
* 3D
* Mixed-signal
* Power management
* Boolean
* Digital
* Analog
* Quantum
* Switch

Power
management|

* PMU
* APM
* ACPI
* Dynamic frequency scaling
* Dynamic voltage scaling
* Clock gating
* Performance per watt (PPW)
* Race to sleep

Related|

* History of general-purpose CPUs
* Microprocessor chronology
* Processor design
* Digital electronics
* Hardware security module
* Semiconductor device fabrication
* Tick–tock model

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