Operation Compass

Overview
Date | December 9, 1940-9 February 1941
Location | Libya, North African Campaign
Victor | N/A
Combatants
Western Desert Force |  Italian 10th Army
Commanders
Archibald Wavell
General, British Army  |  Rodolfo Graziani
Marshal, Italian Army
Strength
35, 000 (not including Egyptian Frontier Guards Division and Mediterranean Fleet)  |  200,000
Casualties
1,873
Killed: 500
Wounded: 1,373
Captured or missing: 56  |  11,000
Killed: 3,000
Wounded: 8,000
Captured or missing: 100,000-150,000

Operation Compass was the first major World War II Allied military operation in the Western Desert Campaign. It resulted in British Commonwealth forces pushing 800 kilometres across Libya and capturing 100,000[1][2] [3][4][5][6][7] or 150,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan soldiers at the cost of 500 killed, 1,373 wounded and 56 missing or captured.

## Contents

* 1 Prelude
* 2 Italian invasion of Egypt
* 3 Battle of the Camps
* 4 Battle of Bardia
* 5 Battle of Tobruk
* 6 Battle of Derna
* 7 Battle of Beda Fomm
* 8 Battle of Giarabub
* 9 Aftermath
* 10 Notes

## Prelude[edit]

After the Italian declaration of war on France and the United Kingdom on 10 June 1940, the British and Italian forces in Libya began a series of incurisons. Among the more notable achievements of these raids were the capture of Fort Capuzzo by the British Army's 11th Hussars on 17 June. On 12 June, 63 Italians were captured in a raid. Benito Mussolini urged the Libyan Governor-General Marshal Italo Balbo to launch a large scale offensive against the British in Egypt. Mussolini's immediate aim was to capture the Suez Canal, ultimately wanting to link up his forces in Libya with those in Italian East Africa. But, fearing a Free French invasion and Senussi Arab uprising, Balbo was reluctant. After Balbo's accidental death on 28 June, Mussolini was just as adamant in urging his replacement, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, to attack. Like Balbo, Graziani too was reluctant.

Graziani was the commander of the Italian Tenth Army in Libya, then an Italian colony, with the Fifth Army located towards the west in Tripolitania and the Tenth Army located towards the east in Cyrenaica. Once the French in Tunisia no longer posed a threat to Tripolitania, the assets of the Fifth Army were used more and more to supplement the needs of the Tenth Army.

Initially the British Middle East Command under General Archibald Wavell only had 30,000 troops stationed in Egypt to defend against the 150,000-250,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan troops stationed in Libya. Airplanes available to both sides in the desert tended to be older biplanes. The Italians had Fiat CR.32s and Fiat CR.42s while the British had Gloster Gladiators. The British also several warships from the Mediterranean Fleet under Admiral Andrew Cunningham to bombard Tobruk, Bardia adn Tripoli.

Graziani expressed doubts about the capabilities of his larger but largely conscript un-mechanized army to defeat the British Commonwealth forces, who, though smaller in numbers, were largely mechanized and had a professional army. Graziani's mobile group was the partially motorized and lightly armored Maletti Group. This group was commanded by General Pietro Maletti. But even this group was short on transport vehicles. Maletti Group's tanks were mostly machine gun-armed Fiat L3s tankettes. His heaviest tank type was the Fiat M11/39. This tank featured a relatively weak hull-mounted 37 mm tank gun, and their numbers were small. In comparison, the British were able to field some faster Cruiser tanks (A9s, A10s, and A13s) which were more than match to the M11/39s. The British also had a limited number of heavy Matilda Infantry tanks that, while slow, were strongly armored and well armed. The armor of the Matilda tanks could not be pierced by any of the available Italian tank guns or anti-tank guns available at that time though Italian anti-aircraft guns could be used against them in the same manner as the German 88 mm.

## Italian invasion of Egypt[edit]

On 9 August 1940, in a special meeting of the Libyan nationalist leaders in Cairo, a Senussi government-in-exile was announced under Sayyid Idris with British political, financial and military support.

A month later, Graziani followed Mussolini's orders and the 10th Army attacked on 13 September 1940. The Italian and supporting Libyan troops advanced across the Libyan/Egyptian border into Egypt against a force of 10,000 British and 10,000 Egyptian troops.[8] In addition to the Maletti Group, the five attacking infantry divisions included the Cirene, Marmarica, and 23 Marzo Divisions. Elite Arditi troops advanced ahead of the spearhead, which comprised the two supporting Libyan Divisions.

After recapturing Fort Capuzzo and Halfaya Pass from a determined British rearguard, the Italian and Libyan divisions were bombed and strafed by Royal Air Force (RAF) Wellington and Blenheim bombers from Nos 30, 70, 84 and 211 Squadrons and Gladiators.[9] In the meantime, Fairey Fulmars fighters from the aircraft-carrier HMS Illustrious bombed and torpedoed Italian shipping and warships from the Mediterranean Fleet closed in and shelled Libyan towns, port facilities and motorized columns travelling along the coastal road.

On 16 September, the two Libyan divisions recaptured Sidi Barrani under the cover of a sandstorm. That same day, the invaders stopped at the town of Maktila. The invaders had advanced approximately 95 kilometers in three days, suffering heavy casualties, and now proceeded to take up defensive positions and wait for reinforcements. The next day, Italian torpedo-bombers from 278a Squadriglia intervened, putting out of action the cruiser HMS Kent.

By the end of 1940, the British Commonwealth forces were moving towards Marshal Graziani's 10th Army in Egypt; Admiral Cunningham's fleet was operating from Malta, while General Leclerc's Free French Forces was heading to the Libyan border from Chad. Eventually a French brigade joined the British offensive in December, advanced through Fezzan, re-occupying Murzuq on 8 January 1943 as well as taking part in the battles at Bardia and Tobruk.

## Battle of the Camps[edit]

Following the Italian halt, Wavell ordered the commander British Troops Egypt, Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson to plan a limited operation to push the Italians back. Operation Compass was originally planned as a five-day raid but was extended after its initial success.

Operation Compass began with the RAF preemptive strikes carried out by No. 202 Group of the Desert Air Force. Their target would be the nearby Italian airfields, successfully destroying twenty-nine aircraft over the course of two days from 7 December - 8 December. Further attacks came from the Mediterranean Fleet in the form of HMS Terror, HMS Ladybird and HMS Aphis that bombarded the Italian positions. On 9 December, the British Commonwealth forces (under General Richard O'Connor) commenced their attack. Under the cover of darkness and the bombardments, the 4th Indian Division and British 7th Royal Tank Regiment (7 RTR), is able to penetrate behind Graziani's forces, overrunning and capturing the Nibeiwa camp outside Sidi Barrani. General Pietro Maletti is killed in the fighting, and about 2,000 or 4,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan fall into British hands.

On 10 December, the British 7th Armoured Division advances to Sidi Barrani and Buqbuq, overrunning the Catanzaro Division and capturing the town. Italian artillery gunners and anti-tank crews win the praise of the attackers, damaging forty cruiser tanks from the 6th Royal Tank Regiment (6 RTR) on 10 December, and damaging thirteen other tanks near Buq Buq on 11 December. Nevertheless, in four days' fighting, four Italian divisions are completely overrun and some 20,000 or 40,000 (depending on the source) Italians fall into British hands (including four generals) along with 180 or 400 guns (depending on the source) and some 50 tanks .[5]The Italian Cirene Division, defending Rabia and Sofafi, manages to withdraw and regroup at Halfaya Pass.

Despite claims of low morale, the Italian regular forces suffer and inflict heavy losses, and US War Correspodent Edward Kennedy reports that the 4th 3 Gennaio Blackshirt Division fought stubbornly in defence of the Maktila positions:

US War Correspodent Edward Kennedy reported that the 4th Blackshirt Division fought well in defence of the Maktila positions:

“  |  With the dawn the British column, made entirely of English and Scottish regiments—started for Sidi Barrani with tanks leading the way ... Two-thirds of a mile south of the town they came under the fire of Italians entrenched on a ridge ... After seven hours of hard fighting, in which the British said the Blackshirts fought well and inflicted considerable casualties, the British drove them back and took the ridge at 2 pm.[10] |  ”

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The Rajputana Rifles had lost 41 officers and 394 other ranks killed or wounded in the attacks and dozens of British tanks had been destroyed or disabled. The participating British and Indian forces having paused to recover, then moved quickly west along the Via della Vittoria, through Halfaya Pass, and again captured Fort Capuzzo in Libya.

## Battle of Bardia[edit]

On 3 January 1941, following the reorganisation of his forces (now renamed XIII Corps), O'Connor resumed his offensive. As the British Commonwealth forces advanced, several Italian battalions and brigades were surrounded, cut off and forced to surrender. During the previous days, Royal Air Force Wellington, Bombay and Blenheim bombers dropped over 20,000 pounds of bombs on Tobruk. The Australians captured Bardia on 4 January, capturing 25,000[11][12] or 45,000[13][14](depending on the source) Italians and Libyans, suffering 130 killed and 326 wounded in the process. The Italian armament captured included 126 field guns and 127 tanks.[15]

The assault on Bardia was launched at dawn from the south-western perimeter of the defences by the 16th (under Brigadier Allen) and 17th (under Brigadier Savige) Brigades from the Australian 6th Infantry Division, supported by the British Northumberland Fusiliers and the remaining 25 tanks of 7th RTR. The British 7th Armoured Division and supporting Free French Forces were tasked with ensuring that the Bardia garrrison could not escape or receive reinforcements. By nightfall, the Australians had penetrated two miles (3 km) on a nine-mile (14 km) frontage, capturing 8,000 Italians.

On crossing the startline at around 05:30 hours, the Australian 2nd/1st Battalion soon suffered casualties, losing four killed and ten wounded. Nevertheless, it continued to advance under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Eather while still under fire from mortar crews and artillery batteries. The lead platoons advanced accompanied by engineer parties carrying bangalore torpedoes-12 foot (4m) pipes as Italian artillery fire began to land in and around them. Immediately after the torpedoes were fired, the engineers rushed forward to break down the anti-tank ditch and complete their task in half an hour. The Italian platoons defending Posts 49, 47 and 46 were rapidly overrun in the initial infantry attack. Within half an hour Post 48 had also surrendered and another Australian company forced the surrender of the platoons tasked with the defence of Posts 45 and 44. The two other rifle companies now advanced beyond these positions as artillery began to fall along the broken wire. At 06.30 the Australian 2/2nd Battalion found that it was best to keep skirmishing forward throughout this advance, because taking cover for too long meant sitting in the middle of the defensive artillery fire concentrations that inflicted further casualties. The Australian troops made good progress, six tank crossings were cleared and mines between them and the wire had been detected. Five minutes later, 23 Matilda tanks from 7 RTR advanced accompanied by 2nd/2nd Battalion smoking en singing "South of the Border". Passing through the gaps, they swung right along the double line of abandoned reinforced concrete bunkers. Italian morale was clearly broken, worn down by six weeks of aerial and naval bombardment and lack of food and water. But other units were determined to fight. The companies of the 2nd/1st Battalion succeeded in taking several hundred prisoners, a battalion of the 1st Blackshirt Division. However, the machine-gun carriers of A Squadron, under Major Denzil Macarthur-Onslow, from the 6th Division's Cavalry Regiment encountered problems as they moved forward during the initial attack. One of the Bren gun carriers was hit and destroyed in the advance and another lost near Wadi Ghereidia.

At 07:50 hours the Australian 2nd/3rd Battalion, supported by the 6th Cavalry Regiment moved off for Bardia. Major Abbot's company advanced to the Italian posts, and attacked a group of sangers with very close fighting; the Italian platoons were cleared with grenades. By 09:20 they had linked with another battalion, strung out in a very thin line, but a squadron of enemy tanks counterattacked, overrunning part of 2nd/3rd Battalion before advancing dangerously close to battalion headquarters[16] while the supporting British tankers dismissed all reports of them. Finally, they were stopped by British anti-tank guns that were wheeled into place by trucks, and the brave action of two Australian sergeants operating a captured Italian anti-tank gun. The local Italian commanders were now irretrievably losing. However, they were fighting desperately, but were fighting against better-trained infantry that properly deployed supporting machine-gun carriers to take strongpoint after strongpoint. By midday, 6,000 Italians POWs had already reached the provosts at the collection point near Post 45, escorted by increasingly fewer guards that the attacking company commanders could ill afford to detach. The Australian advance was greatly assisted at one point by the heavy shelling from the British Mediterranean Force in the form of HMS Barham, HMS Valiant and HMS Warspite, accompanied by four destroyers firing for nearly an hour at key targets in the town.

The Australian 2nd/5th Battalion (under Lieutenant-Colonel Walker) from the 17th Brigade, now took over the advance and covered 15 miles (24 km) in nine hours. The battalion's task was to clear "The Triangle". The sun had now risen, so Captain Smith's company came under sustained fire from machine-guns within 700 yards (640 m), and soon the lead company was pinned down and suffering casualties. Captain Griffiths called for support from 3-inch (76 mm) mortars and Vickers machine-guns from the Northumberland Fusiliers ("The Fighting Fifth"). This proved effective, another company advanced along the Wadi Scemmas, eventually collecting 3,000 prisoners. After Post 24 had been taken, two Matilda tanks arrived and they helped to take Post 22. Here an unfortunate incident occurred. As the prisoners were being rounded up, one shot the company commander dead, then threw down his rifle and climbed out of the pit to surrender. He was immediately thrown back and a Bren gun emptied into him. The company second-in-command then had to intervene and prevent his soldiers from killing the other prisoners. The incident was reportedly witnessed by the Italians at Post 25 some 500 yards (455 m) away, who quickly surrendered. Brigade Major Brock, upon hearing of the losses in the 2nd/5th Battalion (including two officers that had been wounded), sent Captain Savige's rifle Company of the 2nd/7th Battalion to reinforce the attack on "The Triangle". Savige gathered his men and with the help of machine-gun teams attacked the objective, 3,000 yards (2,700 m) away. The company captured several artillery batteries, machine-gun emplacements and a large number of prisoners on the way, but sustained 50 percent casualties in the process.

Before nightfall on 4 January, the Italian units occupying the whole of the northern sector of the defences had been forced to surrender, and the only remaining enemy resistance was confined to a restricted area in the southern zone of the perimeter defences.

That night, the Australian 2nd/7th Battalion's D Company under Captain Halliday attacked the Italian company dug in and around Posts 14, 17 and 19 from which a heavy volume of fire had been laid down. After a fierce fight, during which it sustained some casualties, the Australians cleared the positions, capturing 103 Italians.

The two attacking brigades were now too exhausted or disorganized to continue the advance, and O'Connor brought forward the 19th Brigade to resume the attack in the morning.[17] In the meantime, the Italians prepared their final effort and at first light several hundred Italians counterattacked, overrunning D Company near Wadi Muatered[18] from the 2nd/6th Battalion (under Lieutenant-Colonel Arthur Godfrey), and nearly overrnunning another which waited until their attackers were at close range before opening fire.

Later that morning, the fresh infantry reinforcements in the form of the 19th Brigade, and supporting tanks, closed in on the town of Bardia. At 17:45 on 4 January, Major-General Iven Giffard Mackay, who commanded the 6th Infantry Division, formally accepted the surrender of the survivors from the reported 25,000[19][20] or 45,000[21](depending on the source) strong garrison that had garrisoned Bardia. The Australians also captured 127 tanks and 216 field guns.[22] The Australians suffered 130 killed and 326 wounded.

Among the captured of the Bardia garrison, was Captain Tua Felice, commander of a rifle company from the Cirene Division, who won the Medaglia D'Oro, Italy's highest award for bravery. He had been badly wounded in the fighting and in an effort to save his life, the British transferred him to a Cairo military hospital. (He recovered and spent the remainder of the war as a prisoner in British India. Upon his return to Italy in May 1946, he resumed his military career, rretiring with the rank of full colonel.)

It would later emerge that the Italian defenders were in a terrible state, with several dying of hunger and thirst soon after the surrender:

“  |  The impact of insufficient food and drink on the Italian defenders at Bardia was soon quite clear to the Australians ... many were dying and weak with hunger and thirst ... They went down on their knees and drank up puddles of water ... Warrant Officer R. Donovan, 2/21 Field Regiment was haunted by mass cries for 'aqua, aqua,' ... Some died of exhaustion and thirst.[23] |  ”

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Captain Halliday was later decorated for his outstanding courage and leadership in North Africa with the Military Cross (MC).

## Battle of Tobruk[edit]

Following the capture of Bardia, the 7th Armoured Division with an Australian brigade, the British Northumberland Fusiliers and the New Zealand Service Corps advanced to forward positions at Sidi Begassem outside Tobruk. The Italian defences at Tobruk comprised General della Mura's 61st Sirte Division, backed up by 45 tankettes, 20 medium tanks and 208 field guns. In overall command was General Petassi Manella, commander of the XX Corps. The attacking Allied infantry force comprised the 16th, 17th and 19th Brigades of the Australian 6th Division under Major-General Iven MacKay. The Free French Forces in the form of their Marines would also support the Australian attack. The RAF Blenheim bombers from Nos. 55 and 113 Squadron along with the Mediterranean Fleet in the form of HMS Ladybird, HMS Terror, HMS Aphis and HMAS Stuart and HMAS Vampire, would play an important role in softening up the Tobruk defences.

After nearly a fortnight of preparations, General O'Connor attacked on 21 January and Tobruk was captured on 22 January, yielding around 15,000 or 35,000[24][25][26][27] prisoners (depending on the source) along with 208 field guns, 87 tanks and 200 trucks. Some fierce fighting took place and an Australian infantry company was nearly overrun in an Italian counter-attack and the French attack initially defeated.

The assault went in under the cover of darkness on the morning of 21 January. Once it appeared that the 2nd/3rd Battalion had penetrated the forward defences, the leading companies of the 2nd/1st Battalion started their advance. The 2nd/2nd Battalion (under Lieutenant-Colonel England) made good progress, capturing 10 artillery batteries. In the meantime, a rifle company ran into booby-traps that killed or wounded several in a platoon. Another company captured 1,000 men, including a general. Major Abbot's company proceeded to clear several bunkered platoons, which it took after some determined resistance from the determined defenders manning Post 55, that forced one of his platoons to fall back. In the close-quarter fighting for Post 55, Sergeant Hoddinot had to use hand grenades to cover the withdrawal of his men, after the platoon commander (Lieutenant MacDonald) had been shot in the stomach and a section commander (Corporal Foster) killed and wounded five other men wounded.[28] For his courage and leadership in the action, Hoddinot won the Distinguished Conduct Medal (D.C.M) and was later promoted to captain.

An Italian platoon also fought well in defence of Post 62, despite British tank and artillery fire. Lieutenant Clark had to pour a mixture of crude oil and kerosene into the bunker in order to silence the defenders.[29] Eleven Italians were killed and the remaining 35 surrendered.

By mid-day, the 2nd/28th Battalion from the 19th Brigade was moving on Fort Pilastrino, the Sirte Division’s headquarters. The battalion came under fire from dug-in Italian tanks, wounding Captain Anderson and Lieutenant Russell. The Australians attacked with bayonets and grenades, destroying one tank and forcing the remaining tank crews to surrender. The 2nd/8th Battalion took 1,300 prisoners but suffered heavy casualties in the attack.[30] At dusk, the 2nd/4th Battalion reached Fort Pilastrino, having to brave anti-aircraft and tank fire from the airfield.

At around 14:00 hours, the Italians mounted a battalion-sized infantry counterattack with the help of a squadron of tanks, forcing Campbell's company to withdraw, losing many killed, wounded or captured, before help arrived in the form of British anti-tank guns and tanks.[31]

Meanwhile, the 2nd/4th and 2nd/11th Battalions made good progress, capturing Tobruk airfield, Fort Solaro and 600 infantry. In a confused action, Lieutenant Trevorrow and Sergeant Duncan from the 2nd/28th Battalion were gravely wounded attacking a dug-in platoon that killed one of the attackers and shot two other platoon commanders that escaped serious injury or death despite bullet holes in their clothing. The enraged Australians killed twenty of the Italian survivors that had fought until the Australians were upon them.[32]

At one point, Captain McDonald had to request the help of two British tanks to silence another stubborn platoon defending Post 42. After some fierce close-quarter combat the Italians gave up Post 41. As Captain Abbot's company also came under effective fire from the Italian platoons dug in in and around Posts 34 and 35, and was forced to withdraw.

In the southern sector, the Free French in the form of a marine battalion were also defeated in their initial attack, and had to request more British artillery fire and for Bofors 40mm anti-aircraft guns to be sent forward in order to force the surrender of an Italian regiment dug in and around five concrete bunkers.[33]

During the night, the 19th Brigade headquarters attempted to negotiate a ceasefire with the commander of the Italian garrison in Tobruk. It was hoped they would succeed, but a cable from the Italian Supreme Command put paid to their efforts. Mussolini himself had ordered that General Petassi Manella continue fighting, informing him that formations of Italian bombers were on their way to help the defenders. Later that night Italian SM.79s carried out a surprise low-level attack, but bombed some 8,000 prisoners who had been gathered inside a fenced enclosure, killing and wounding hundreds of their own men. This friendly-fire incident helped break the morale of the more determined units that were prepared to continue fighting.

Next day, the capture of the remaining Italian strongpoints, from R1 to S11, was completed and assisted by tanks from the Support Group. The 2nd Rifle Brigade and 1st King's Royal Rifle Corps had also arrived as reinforcements that morning. Meanwhile, the 7th Armoured Division which had also entered the perimeter from the Derna road that morning stood by ready to advance into the Tobruk if needed. That afternoon, General della Mura and the remaining defenders surrendered. The Italians had lost 15,000-30,000 killed, wounded or captured (depending on the source) and 208 field guns, 87 tanks and 200 trucks. The Australian losses were 49 dead and 306 wounded. The Free French Force lost 5 killed and 40 wounded. Although, the 2nd/8th Battalion (according to the official war historian) captured 1,300 Italians, Lieutenant Stan Jacobs estimates the real number of prisoners his battalion marched off to captivity took to be around 3,000.[34]

That night, according to Australian war correspondent Chester Wilmot, the local Senussi men entered Tobruk and taking advantage of the drunk and exhausted state of the Australian soldiers, were able to loot the shops and cafes of the town that had survived the bombings and steal discarded Italian rifles.

## Battle of Derna[edit]

In November and December 1940, the Italian Supreme Command moved quickly to organize and deploy in Albania and Libya the "Special Armored Brigade" (Brigata Corazzato Speciale, or BCS), consisting of fifty-five M13/40 tanks, artillery batteries and three Bersaglieri battalions specializing in the anti-tank role and equipped with anti-tank mines. In hardly more than a month, the Italians dispatched the bulk of this force under General Valentino Babini to North Africa. The M13s in the BCS were a vast improvement to the M11s. They had a better turret-mounted 47 mm tank gun which was more than able to pierce the armour of the British light and cruiser tanks. However, other than command vehicles, Italian tanks were not equipped with radios. Communicating for most Italian tankers required the use of signal flags.

Following the fall of Tobruk, O'Connor continued the advance towards Derna and Mechili, employing the Australian 6th Division and British 7th Armoured Division. On 24 January the 4th Armoured Brigade engaged the BCS deployed on the Derna-Mechili track in support of the Italian XX Corps under General Ferdinando Cona (HQ Giovanni Berta). While the British tankers managed to destroy nine Italian tanks in the confrontation, they also lost seven tanks and were forced to initially retreat. The following day, the Australian 2nd/11th Battalion clashed with pert of the 60th Sabratha Infantry Division and Bersaglieri from the BCS defending Derna airfield and a nearby height. Regia Aeronautica bombers and fighters flew sorties against the Australian battalion as it attacked the determined Italian defences.[35] On 26 January, the Australians capture Derna along with 10,000 residents.

In the dogfights that take place on 26 January, British fighter pilots intercept 22 Italian fighters, shooting down two G.50s and three C.42s, but losing a Hurricane (P3722) in a forced landing.

On 27 January, the Australian 2nd/4th Battalion managed to survive a strong regimental-size counterattack from the Sabratha Division near Wadi Derna, when reinforcements from the Northumberland Fusiliers arrived in time to help the Australians.[36]

That same day, concealed soldiers from the BCS ambushed a column of armoured vehicles of the 6th Cavalry Regiment, taking the survivors prisoners. The advance of other units further to the south of the Wadi Derna eventually threatened the Sabratha and BCS with encirclement and General Cona ordered the defenders to disengage on the night of 28 January. On 4 February, the Italian rearguards again ambush an armoured column from the 11th Hussars Cavalry Regiment, destroying three armoured cars and killing and wounding several[37] Precise casualty figures for the fighting for Derna and Giovanni Berta have not been compiled, but at least 20 Australians and British soldiers were killed in the ground fighting, and two RAF crewmen (Sergeants Harry Cecil Thomas Holmans and Colin Pryce Edwards)lost their lives when their bomber was shot down.

General Cona loset a substantial part of the 'Sabratha' and BCS but the Italian soldiers were reported to have fought very well in defence of Derna and Giovanni Berta:

“  |  Jan. 30.—The third major Italian bastion to fall in Libya—Derna, 175 miles west of the Egyptian frontier—was occupied today by British imperial troops after four days of the bitterest resistance offered by the Fascists in the whole of the African campaign. The town had been defended by less than 10,000 Italians, British sources disclosed, but they fought with a violence encountered nowhere else in General Sir Archibald P. Wavell's long continued thrust to the west.[38] |  ”

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On 4 February, Italian pilots shot down a British Bleinheim (Mk.I L8538) and an Australian Hurricane from 73 Squadron (Pilot Officer Ken M. Millist) on 4 February, but lost a Caproni Ca.133 from 366a Squadriglia and a CR.42 from 368a Squadriglia the same day.[39]

## Battle of Beda Fomm[edit]

The rapid advance of the British Commonwealth units, forced the Italian Supreme Command to issue orders for the 30,000-strong Benghazi stronghold to abandon the city and instead defend Tripoli. In late January 1941, the British Middle East Command in Cairo learned that the Italians were abandoning Cyrenaica along the main coastal road from Benghazi. The British 7th Armoured Division, under Major General Sir Michael O'Moore Creagh, was dispatched to intercept and defeat the remnants of Marshall Graziani'sItalian Tenth Army.

Creagh's division was ordered to cut through Msus and Antelat, while the Australian 6th Division pursued the Italians along the coastal road at the foot of the Jebel Akhdar mountains. The poor terrain was difficult going for the armoured columns, and Creagh took the bold decision to send a "flying column" (christened Combe Force) south-west across the virtually unmapped Libyan Desert. Combe Force, under Lieutenant Colonel John Combe of the 11th Hussars, consisted of 11th Hussars, a squadron of King's Dragoon Guards, 2nd Rifle Brigade, a Royal Air Force armoured car squadron, anti-tank guns from 3 Royal Horse Artillery (RHA) and 'C' battery 4 RHA. The force totalled about 2,000 men. In order to maintain speed, only light and Cruiser tanks were part of the Combe Force column.

On 5 February, Combe Force arrived at the Benghazi–Tripoli road and set up road blocks near Sidi Saleh, some 20 miles (32 km) north of Ajedabia and 30 miles (48 km) southwest of Antelat. The leading elements of the Italian Tenth Army arrived some 30 minutes later and were forced to come to a halt. On the evening, 4th Armoured Brigade had reached Beda Fomm, overlooking the coastal road some 10 miles (16 km) to the north of them, while 7th Armoured Support Group took a more northerly route to threaten the retreating Italian Tenth Army's flank and rear and prevent a breakout across the desert. Under the cover of darkness, the Italian force regrouped and counter-attacked. The fighting was intense and at times threatened to break through the British lines.

The fighting lasted 30 hours, and Combe Force managed to hold off about 15,000 or 25,000 (depending on the source) Italian soldiers supported by 120 medium tanks, 75 field guns and 50 anti-tank guns. In this engagement, the 10th Bersaglieri Regiment and Special Armoured Brigade nearly overrun the British infantry headquarters in two determined counterattacks.[40]

After having failed to break through the British lines, and with the rest of the British 7th Armoured Division and 6th Australian Infantry Division arriving and deploying in support of Combe Force, the Italians have no option but to surrender.

## Battle of Giarabub[edit]

General Wavell's offensive had cut off approximately 2,000 Italian and Libyan troops (under the command of Major Salvatore Castagna) defending the Giarabub stronghold guarding against the Free French Forces in Chad. Giarabub was an oasis 160 miles (260 km) to the south of Bardia and 25 miles (40 km) from the border. Although the Libyan troops eventually deserted the defences, the Italian troops held firm and were still fighting off aerial missions and ground fighting patrols in mid-March. Although cut off, the garrison was supplied by air and the 6th Australian Division's divisional mechanized cavalry unit which was besieging the oasis did not have the necessary strength to overcome the opposition.

In late March Wavell needed capture the oasis to allow him to withdraw the divisional cavalry regiment to join the rest of the division to reinforce northern Greece. The cavalry unit was joined by 2/9th Australian Infantry battalion and an attack launched under the leadership of Brigadier Wootten. On 21 March, the final attack on Giararub took place and the fighting lasted two days with both sides taking heavy casualties, but the Australians prevailed although 2/9th Battalion lost 17 killed and 77 wounded. It was estimated that 250 defenders had been killed or wounded in the siege and final battle.

## Aftermath[edit]

After ten weeks of fighting, Graziani's 10th Army had been completely outfought and forced to relinquish most strongholds (Bardia, Tobruk, Derna, etc.). The British Commonwealth and Free French forces had advanced 800 km, destroyed or captured about 400 tanks and 850 or 1,290 artillery pieces, and 100,000 or 150,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan soldiers besides a vast quantity of other war material. Among the Italian captured were 22 generals. The Italian general staff and Graziani in his memoirs acknowledge 960 guns of all types lost and 100,000 captured, including 17,000 Libyan soldiers. The British and Commonwealth forces admit 494 dead, 1,225 wounded and 50 captured or missing, not including Free French losses.

Contrary to expectations the British advance stopped short of capturing Tripoli and completely defeating the Italians in North Africa. As the British Commonwealth vanguards reached El Agheila, Churchill ordered that the offensive be stopped and infantry, armoured units and Hurricane fighter squadrons units dispatched urgently to defend northern Greece. The Greeks still had most of their divisions pinned down in Albania containing Italian counteroffensives and a German invasion was soon expected to materialize through the undermanned Metaxas Line.

With the respite, the Italian Supreme Command is soon able to reinforce Italian strongholds in Libya. Among the Italian reinforcements were the 17th ''Pavia'' Infantry Division, the 25th ''Bologna'' Infantry Division and the 102nd ''Trento'' Motorised Division, making available about 150,000 men for the defence of Italian Libya. Also, on 10 January 1941, the British aircraft-carrier HMS Illustrious was disabled in a dive-bomber attack by German and Italian Stukas (with the Italian dive-bombers equipped with heavy bombs) and bombs from 96° Gruppo (under captain Ercolano Ercolani) hit the aft-lift, forcing the British carrier to limp back to Malta for repairs, allowing the German Afrika Korps (under General Erwin Rommel) to begin arriving in Tripoli (Operation Sonnenblume) without losses.

General Rommel is determined to regain the intiative, and with General O'Connor stripped off fighter squadrons in favour of Greece, the surviving Regia Aeronautica fighters along with 20 recently arrived Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin-engine heavy fighters, win back air superiority, permitting Rommel to recover Benghazi, Derna, Mechili, Bardia and forcing the Australian 9th Division back to Tobruk.[41][42]

## Notes[edit]

1. ↑ "By February 10, 194 1, El Agheila was captured, with a total of 100,000 prisoners, which slowed up the British advance, and the Italian force was pretty well smashed." Africa, the Near East and the War, p. 129, University of California Press, 1943
2. ↑ "In Egypt he showed that he could put his theories into execution on the battlefield, when he suddenly struck at the Italians, and in a brilliant campaign reached Benghazi in 57 days and captured 100,000 prisoners." Great Britain and the East, Volume 60, p. 129, Eastern Question 1943
3. ↑ "These initial exchanges were a prelude to the German advance into North Africa, after Wavell's armies put the Italians to flight, captured Tobruk and took 100,000 prisoners." The Silent Service: The Inside Story of the Royal Navy's Submarine Heroes, John Parker, Hachette, 2013
4. ↑ " The British took about 100,000 Italian prisoners and captured large stores of equipment." World History: The Story of Man's Achievements, William Habberton, Lawrence V. Roth, William R. Spears, p. 537, Laidlaw Bros., 1962
5. ↑ "In Operation Compass his desert forces seized Cyrenaica, taking more than 100,000 prisoners." Commanders, p. 314, Dorling Kindersley, 2011
6. ↑ "Churchill was profoundly relieved in the winter of 1940-41 when Wavell defeated the Italians ... capturing over 100,000 prisoners and much materiel." Winston Churchill: A Biography, Piers Brendon, p. 155, Harper & Row, 1984
7. ↑ "The Italians were driven back into Libya, had their lines of communication cut at Beda Fomm and lost over 100,000 prisoners." Encyclopedia of World War II, John Keegan, p. 107, Gallery Books, 1990
8. ↑ "Italian soldiers now vastly outnumbered the normal Egyptian garrison of 10,000 British and 10,000 Egyptian troops." Test Case : Italy, Ethiopia, and the League of Nations, George W. Baer, p. 84, Hoover Press, 1976
9. ↑ "...only a few days after the start of their offensive, the Italian pilots were confronted by the R.A.F. which had sent Nos 30, 211 and 84 Squadrons with Bristol Blenheim bombers, No 80 Sqn with Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters and No 70 Squadron with Vickers Wellington bombers." In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe 1939-1945, Hans Werner Neulen, p. 38, Crowood, 2000
10. ↑ British Astonished At Great Italian Supplies, Ottawa Citizen, 16 December 1940
11. ↑ "The report filed by the British journalist Jan Yindrich for the Australian Associated Press on 5 January was headlined SMASH WAY THROUGH MODERN HINDENBURG LINE: FEW CASUALTIES IN CAPTURING 25,000 PRISONERS." The Longest Siege: Tobruk, The Battle That Saved North Africa, Robert Lyman, p. 59, Pan Australia, 2009
12. ↑ Bardia Falls to British, 25,000 Fascists Captured, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 6 January 1941
13. ↑ "On 3 January, O'Connor's assault on Bardia was launched with 22 Matildas leading the way as "can-openers." The Italian defence quickly collapsed and by the third day, 45,000 surrendered." An analytical history of World War II, Volume 1, Edward Norman Peterson, p.276, P. Lang, 1995
14. ↑ "By 1745 hours on 4 January, Italian forces in Bardia had surrendered. The British netted 45,000 prisoners, 462 guns, 117 light, and 13 medium tanks." Intelligence and Anglo-American Air Support in World War Two: The Western Desert and Tunisia, 1940-43, B. Gladman, p.50, Springer, 2016
15. ↑ "The Australians also captured much equipment (including 127 tanks and 216 field guns), but at the cost of 130 Australians killed." Paul Cullen, Citizen and Soldier: The Life and Times of Major-General Paul Cullen AC, CBE, DSO and Bar, ED, FCA, Kevin Baker, p. 56, Rosenberg, 2005
16. ↑ "On the afternoon of 3 January Italian tanks pierced the 2/3rd's thin line and proceeded to threaten its headquarters. This counter-rattack revealed Vivien England's poor control of his battalion and its supporting arms. England had to race the tanks across the desert in his Bren gun carrier to improvise the defence of battalion headquarters, which was saved only by the chance arrival of a paltoon of anti-tank guns." Australian Battalion Commanders in the Second World War, Garth Pratten, Cambridge University Press, 2009
17. ↑ "By Jan. 4th, the 17th Brigade was scattered, 16th Brigade exhausted. Mackay sent in his reserve, 19th Brigade, for the coup de grace." Western Desert Force
18. ↑ ""B, C and D Companies attacked Italian posts perched on the far bank of the steep wadi, and all succeeded in forcing an entry. B and C clung to their gains; D was heavily counter-attacked and forced to withdraw into the wadi, which was covered by well-sited machine guns and registered by artillery ... only four returned to the battalion that day. Godfrey was left with two companies marooned and vulnerable across the fire-swept wadi." Australian Battalion Commanders in the Second World War, Garth Pratten, Cambridge University Press, 2009
19. ↑ "The report filed by the British journalist Jan Yindrich for the Australian Associated Press on 5 January was headlined SMASH WAY THROUGH MODERN HINDENBURG LINE: FEW CASUALTIES IN CAPTURING 25,000 PRISONERS." The Longest Siege: Tobruk, The Battle That Saved North Africa, Robert Lyman, p. 59, Pan Australia, 2009
20. ↑ Bardia Falls to British, 25,000 Fascists Captured, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 6 January 1941
21. ↑ "On 3 January, O'Connor's assault on Bardia was launched with 22 Matildas leading the way as "can-openers." The Italian defence quickly collapsed and by the third day, 45,000 surrendered." An analytical history of World War II, Volume 1, Edward Norman Peterson, p.276, P. Lang, 1995
22. ↑ "The Australians also captured much equipment (including 127 tanks and 216 field guns), but at the cost of 130 Australians killed." Paul Cullen, Citizen and Soldier: The Life and Times of Major-General Paul Cullen AC, CBE, DSO and Bar, ED, FCA, Kevin Baker, p. 56, Rosenberg, 2005
23. ↑ Bardia: Myth, Reality and the Heirs of Anzac, Craig Stockings, p. 316, UNSW Press, 2009
24. ↑ "Tobruk, which had been by-passed, was attacked on 21 January and surrendered next day with a further bag of 30,000 prisoners." The Desert Air War 1939 – 1945, Richard Bickers, p.48, Pen and Sword, 1991
25. ↑ "Tobruk was attacked on 21 January and fell next day — yielding a bag of 30,000 prisoners." The New Cambridge Modern History. Volume XII, p.761, 1960
26. ↑ "The 7th Armored drove westward to isolate Tobruk, which was attacked on 21 January and fell the next day with 30,000 prisoners." An analytical history of World War II, Volume 1, Edward Norman Peterson, p.276, P. Lang, 1995
27. ↑ "Yet, on 21 January 1941, Tobruk had fallen to the aggressive 7th Australian Division, yielding 35, 000 prisoners, their equipment and their supplies." The Elite: The Special Forces of the World, John Pimlott, p. 1135, Marshall Cavendish, 1987
28. ↑ "Foster was killed and MacDonald wounded in the stomach but he (until he collapsed) and Hoddinott continued throwing grenades, until five more men in the platoon had been wounded by Italian fire. Hoddinott withdrew the twenty survivors." Australia in the war of 1939-1945, p. 222, Australian War Memorial, 1966
29. ↑ "Post 62 fought back under tank and artillery shelling until Lt. F.D. Clark of Adelaide poured a mixture of crude oil and kerosene through the post’s windows to silence it. 11 Italians died and 35 surrendered." Western Desert Force
30. ↑ "Even so, the Italians put up a dogged resistance that cost the attackers an unprecedented number of casualties and one company was down to only twenty-one men when the complex was finally cleared around midday on 21 January." Tobruk: The Great Siege, 1941-42, William F Buckingham, The History Press, 2012
31. ↑ "The advance was resumed at 14:00 and once again the 2/8th Battalion bore the brunt of the action, almost immediately running into an Italian counter-attack involving several hundred infantry supported by a dozen M13/40 tanks, seven of which got in amongst the Batalion's left hand company and overran its leading platoon ... The situation was saved by two Australian sergeants manhandling a captured Italian anti-tank gun into action and the arrival of two 2-ponder Portees from the 3rd RHA." (Tobruk: The Great Siege, 1941-42, William F Buckingham, The History Press, 2012)
32. ↑ "At one stone wall the Italians threw grenades until the last yard, then flung up their hands; and one threw a grenade from among his surrendering comrades and killed an Australian. A Bren gun was fired into the others killing twenty (according to one observer). In the advance Lieutenant Trevorrow and Sergeant Duncan, an outstanding leader, were wounded; two of the platoon commanders had bullet holes in their clothing and equipment." Australia in the War of 1939–1945: Volume IV— Medical Services of the Royal Australian Navy and Royal Australian Air Force with a section on women in the Army Medical Services (1st edition, 1961), Allan S. Walker, p. 229, Australian War Memorial, 1952
33. ↑ "...the French marines were given the task of taking out five blockhouses in the southeast sector, all protected by minefields and wire. The marines attacked with their usual vigor, but were driven back, suffering five dead in the attempt. A second effort, aided by the 25-pounders of the British artillery and with Bofors 40 mm antiaircraft guns used in direct fire, succeeded. The marines captured 850 Italians, including 30 officers. Tricolor Over the Sahara: The Desert Battles of the Free French, 1940-1942, Edward L. Bimberg, p. 37, Greenwood Publishing, 2002
34. ↑ "On arrival at Fort Capuzzo ... on the gate there was a British sentry. 'How many have you got'? he asked. 'About 3,500,' Jacobs replied. 'Oh hell,' exclaimed the sentry." An Unqualified Success, Peter Golding, Rosenberg Publising, 2013
35. ↑ https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1301&dat=19410201&id=FudjAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BZUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7277,3450456&hl=en (Fight for Airfield, The Sydney Morning Herald, 1 February 1941)
36. ↑ "At one point the 2/4th Battalion was pinned down and almost overrun by a force of about 1000 enemy infantry. It was only the timely arrival of the Northumberland Fusiliers that checked the Italian attack." The Western Desert Campaign, 1940-41, Glenn Wahlert, Big Sky Publishing, 2009
37. ↑ "At dusk on 4 February, after passing through Megara, six of the 11th Hussars' armoured cars that were leading the convoy were ambushed by antitank guns. Three of the vehicles were destroyed anda a number of soldiers were killed or wounded. Several war correspondents were travelling with the Hussars and some were wounded..." An Unqualified Success, Peter Golding, Rosenberg Publishing, 2013
38. ↑ British Take Derna After Fierce Fight, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 31 January 1941
39. ↑ Sergente Maggiore Antonio Camerini
40. ↑ "...the Italians mounted a series of fierce night attacks against the 2nd Rifle Brigade's positions at Sidi Saleh. Although the first attack penetrated the Rifle Brigade's defences the onslaught was held, the combination of mines anti-tank fire and the 25-pounders of the RHA proving too strong even for the gallant Bersaglieri. The attacks continued, accompanied by heavy Italian shellfire, on the morning of 7 February, and once again the Rifle Brigade positions were penetrated. this time by M13 tanks, one of which was only halted outside battalion headquarters." (The Longest Siege: Tobruk, The Battle That Saved North Africa, Robert Lyman, p. 73, Pan Australia, 2009)
41. ↑ "By the end of February 1941, 5th Squadra Aerea had more than 120 serviceable aircraft in Tripolitania, while the Luftwaffe had only 80 (20 Bf 110s and 60 Ju 87s). With this modest air support, Gen Rommel began an offensive on 24 March, and by 13 April had recaptured all of Cyrenaica with the exception of Tobruk. In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe 1939-1945, Hans Werner Neulen, p. 48, Crowood, 2000
42. ↑ "The Royal Air Force had sent the best squadrons in the Middle East to support the operations in Greece, leaving the bombers and fighters of the Regia Aeronautica a free hand to harass the retreating British mercilessly. Field Marshal: The Life and Death of Erwin Rommel, Daniel Allen Butler, p. 210, Casemate, 2015