Karlsruhe Congress

Short description: International meeting of chemists in 1860

Formulas of acetic acid given by August Kekulé in 1861

The Karlsruhe Congress was an international meeting of chemists organized by August Kekulé and held in Karlsruhe, Germany from 3 to 5 September 1860. It was the first international conference of chemistry, with 140 participants.

The conference is known for the adoption of atomic weights in chemistry motivated by the participation of Stanislao Cannizzaro. During the congress he showed evidence using Avogadro's hypothesis, that certain gases were not made of atoms but of diatomic molecules.

It has been argued[1] that the Karlsruhe meeting was the first international meeting of chemists and that it led to the eventual founding of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).

## Contents

* 1 Organization and invitation
* 2 Meeting
* 2.1 First two days
* 2.2 Last day
* 3 Attendance
* 4 References
* 5 Further reading
* 6 External links

## Organization and invitation

The Karlsruhe Congress was called so that European chemists could discuss matters of chemical nomenclature, notation, and atomic weights. The organization, invitation, and sponsorship of the conference were handled by August Kekulé, Adolphe Wurtz, and Karl Weltzien.[2] As an example of the problems facing the delegates, Kekulé's Lehrbuch der Organischen Chemie gave nineteen different formulas used by chemists for acetic acid, as shown in the figure on this page.[3][4]

An understanding was reached on the time and place of the meeting, and printing of a circular addressed to European chemists listed below, which explained the objectives and goals of an international congress was agreed upon. The circular concluded: "...with the aim of avoiding any unfortunate omissions, the undersigned request that the individuals to whom this circular will be sent please communicate it to their scientist friends who are duly authorized to attend the planned conference."[5] The circular of the conference was sent to:

Country  | City  | Scientists

|
|

Austria  | Innsbruck  | Heinrich Hlasiwetz
Vienna  | Anton Schrötter von Kristelli
Leopold von Pebal
Belgium  | Brussels  | Jean Servais Stas
Ghent  | Friedrich August Kekule von Stradonitz
France  | Paris  | Anselme Payen
Antoine Bussy
Antoine Jérôme Balard
Auguste André Thomas Cahours
Charles Adolphe Wurtz
Edmond Frémy
Eugéne-Melchior Péligot
Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville
Henri Victor Regnault
Jean-Baptiste Boussingault
Jean-Baptiste Dumas
Louis Pasteur
Théophile-Jules Pelouze.
Rennes  | Faustino Malaguti
Germany  | Berlin  | Eilhard Mitscherlich
Freiburg im Breisgau  | Lambert Henrich von Babo
Giessen  | Heinrich Will (de)
Hermann Franz Moritz Kopp
Göttingen  | Friedrich Wöhler
Heidelberg  | Robert Bunsen
Karlsruhe  | Karl Weltzien
Leipzig  | Otto Linné Erdmann
Munich  | Justus von Liebig
Stuttgart  | Hermann von Fehling
Tübingen  | Adolph Strecker
Italy  | Genova  | Stanislao Cannizzaro
Turin  | Raffaele Piria
Russia  | Kasan  | Nikolay Nikolayevich Beketov
St. Petersburg  | Alexander Nikolayevich Engelhardt
Carl Julius Fritzsche
Nikolai Nikolaevich Sokolov[6]
Nikolay Nikolaevich Zinin
Switzerland  | Geneva  | Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac
Zurich  | Georg Andreas Karl Staedeler
United Kingdom  | London  | Alexander William Williamson
August Wilhelm von Hofmann
Sir Edward Frankland
William Odling
Manchester  | Henry Enfield Roscoe
Oxford  | Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 2nd Baronet

Of the above, only 20 of 45 attended.[7]

## Meeting

### First two days

The congress opened in the assembly hall of the Baden Parliament on 3 September, with Weltzien serving as the general secretary. In his address, he highlighted the international and discipline-specific nature of the meeting. Kekulé delivered an opening address. Wurtz documented the proceedings for future publication. A dinner for 120 people was held in the museum hall.[8][9]

The next day, the assembly, led by Weltzien, discussed the committee's proposed theme of the day before regarding the disputed meanings of "atom," "molecule," and "equivalence." However, no conclusions were reached, leading the committee to meet twice on the same day. They decided to present three specific nomenclature proposals to the assembly for further consideration.[8]

### Last day

The Karlsruhe meeting started with no firm agreement on the vexing problem of atomic and molecular weights. However, on the meeting's last day reprints of Stanislao Cannizzaro's 1858 paper on atomic weights,[10] in which he utilized earlier work by Amedeo Avogadro and André-Marie Ampère, were distributed. Cannizzaro's efforts exerted a heavy and, in some cases, an almost immediate influence on the delegates. Lothar Meyer later wrote that on reading Cannizzaro's paper,[11][12]

“  | I was astonished at its clarity, the little manuscript covered all the important points in dispute. It was as if scales fell from my eyes, doubts vanished, and a feeling of calm certainty came over me.  | ”

|
|

An important long-term result of the Karlsruhe Congress was the adoption of the now-familiar atomic weights. Prior to the Karlsruhe meeting, and going back to John Dalton's work in 1803, several systems of atomic weights were in use.[13] In one case, a value of 1 was adopted as the weight of hydrogen (the base unit), with 6 for carbon and 8 for oxygen. As long as there were uncertainties over atomic weights then the compositions of many compounds remained in doubt. Following the Karlsruhe meeting, values of about 1 for hydrogen, 12 for carbon, 16 for oxygen, and so forth were adopted. This was based on a recognition that certain elements, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, were composed of diatomic molecules and not individual atoms.

## Attendance

The number of people who wanted to participate was considerable, and on 3 September 1860, 140 chemists met together in the meeting room of the second Chamber of State, which was made available by the Frederick I, Grand Duke of Baden.

According to Wurtz, the printed list of members, supplemented by handwritten additions, contains 126 names listed below.[14]

Country  | City  | Scientists

|
|

Austria  | Innsbruck  | Heinrich Hlasiwetz
Lemberg  | Leopold von Pebal
Pesth  | Theodor Wertheim
Vienna  | Viktor von Lang
Adolf Lieben
Karl Folwarczny (de)[15]
Franz Schneider
Belgium  | Brussels  | Jean Stas
Ghent  | François Donny Jr. (nl)
August Kekulé
France  | Montpellier  | Antoine Béchamp
Armand Gautier
C. G. Reischauer[16]
Mulhouse  | Th. Schneider[17]
Nancy  | Jérôme Nicklès (de)
Paris  | Jean Baptiste Boussingault
Jean-Baptiste Dumas
Charles Friedel
Louis Grandeau (fr)
Louis René Le Canu[18] (1800–1871)
Jean-François Persoz
Alfred Riche (fr)[19] (1829–1908)
Paul Thénard
Émile Verdet
Charles-Adolphe Wurtz
Strasbourg  | Eugène Théodore Jacquemin[20] (1828–1909)
Charles Oppermann[21] (1805–1872)
Frédéric Charles Schlagdenhauffen[22] (1830–1907)
Paul Schützenberger
Tann  | Charles Kestner (fr)
Auguste Scheurer-Kestner
Germany  | Berlin  | Adolf von Baeyer
Georg Hermann Quincke
Bonn  | Hans Heinrich Landolt
Breslau  | Lothar Meyer
Kassel  | Carl Gustav Guckelberger
Klausthal  | Johann August Streng (de)
Darmstadt  | Emil Wilhelm Winckler
Erlangen  | Eugen Freiherr von Gorup-Besanez
Freiburg i. B.  | Lambert Heinrich von Babo
Woldemar Alexander Adolph von Schneider[23] (1843–1914)
Giessen  | Emil Boeckmann[24]
Hermann Franz Moritz Kopp
Heinrich Will (de)
Göttingen  | Friedrich Konrad Beilstein
Halle a. S.  | Wilhelm Heinrich Heintz
Hanover  | Friedrich Heeren
Heidelberg  | Becker
O. Braun
Robert Bunsen
Georg Ludwig Carius
Richard August Carl Emil Erlenmeyer
Otto Mendius[25]
Jacob Heinrich Wilhelm Schiel[26] (1813–1889)
Jena  | Karl Gotthelf Lehmann
Hermann Ludwig (chemist) (de)[27]
Karlsruhe  | A. Klemm
R. Muller
Julius Neßler
Theodor Petersen (de)
Karl Friedrich Heinrich Seubert[28] (1815–1868)
Karl Weltzien
Leipzig  | Otto Linné Erdmann
Christoph Heinrich Hirzel (de)
Wilhelm Knop
Kuhn
Mannheim  | Carl Gundelach[29][30]
Heinrich G. F. Schröder
Marburg a. L.  | Rudolf Schmitt
Constantin Zwenger (de)
Munich  | Friedrich Geiger[31] (1833–1889)
Nuremberg  | Ernst von Bibra
Offenbach  | Grimm[32]
Rappenau  | Finck
Schönberg  | Gustav Reinhold Hoffmann[33] (1831–1919)
Speyer  | Franz Keller[34]
Albert Mühlhaüser[35]
Stuttgart  | Hermann von Fehling
W. Hallwachs
Tübingen  | Karl Finckh[36][37] von Winterbach
Alexander Naumann
Adolph Strecker
Wiesbaden  | Wilhelm Theodor Oscar Casselmann (de)
Carl Remigius Fresenius
Carl Neubauer (de)
Würzburg  | Johann Joseph Scherer
Valentin Schwarzenbach[38] (1830–1890)
Italy  | Genoa  | Stanislao Cannizzaro
Pavia  | Angelo Pavesi[39]
Mexico  |  | Louis Posselt (es) (1817-1880 brother of Christian Posselt (de))
Portugal  | Coimbra  | Matias de Carvalho e Vasconcelos (pt)[40] (1832–1910)
Russia  | Kharkov  | Alexei Nikolajewitsch Sawitsch (de)
St. Petersburg  | Alexander Borodin
Dmitri Mendeleev
Leon Nikolajewitsch Schischkow (de)
Nikolay Zinin
Warsaw  | Teofil Lesiński (pl)
Jakub Natanson
Sweden  | Harpenden  | Joseph Henry Gilbert
Lund  | Nils Johan Berlin
Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand
Stockholm  | Johann Friedrich Bahr (de)
Switzerland  | Bern  | Carl Emanuel Brunner (de)
Hugo Schiff
Geneva  | Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac
Lausanne  | Henri Bischoff[41] (1813–1889)
Reichenau bei Chur  | Adolph von Planta (es)
Zurich  | Johannes Wislicenus
Spain  | Madrid  | Ramón Torres Muñoz de Luna (es)
United Kingdom  | Dublin  | James Apjohn
Edinburgh  | Alexander Crum Brown
James Alfred Wanklyn
Frederick Guthrie
Glasgow  | Thomas Anderson
London  | Baldwin Francis Duppa[42] (1828–1873)
Carey Foster
John Hall Gladstone
Hugo Müller
Henry Minchin Noad
Alphonse René Le Mire de Normandy
William Odling
Manchester  | Henry Enfield Roscoe
Oxford  | Charles Giles Bridle Daubeny
George Griffith[43]
Friedrich Schickendantz
Woolwich  | Frederick Augustus Abel

## References

1. ↑ Ihde, Aaron J. (1961). "The Karlsruhe Congress: A Centennial Retrospective". Journal of Chemical Education 38 (2): 83–86. doi:10.1021/ed038p83. Bibcode: 1961JChEd..38...83I. http://search.jce.divched.org/JCEIndex/FMPro?-db=jceindex.fp5&-lay=wwwform&combo=karlsruhe&-find=&-format=detail.html&-skip=0&-max=1&-token.2=0&-token.3=10. (subscription required)
2. ↑ Leicester, Henry M. (1956). The Historical Background of Chemistry. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 191–192. ISBN 978-0-486-61053-5.
3. ↑ Kekulé, A. (1861) (in de). Lehrbuch der Organischen Chemie … , vol. 1. Erlangen, (Germany): Ferdinand Enke. p. 58. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101058262955;view=1up;seq=72.
4. ↑ The French chemist Auguste Laurent also listed many different contemporary representations of acetic acid (acide acétique) in his book: Laurent, Auguste (1854) (in fr). Méthode de Chimie. Paris, France: Mallet-Bachelier. pp. 27–28. https://archive.org/details/mthodedechimie00laurgoog.
5. ↑ "Charles-Adolphe Wurtz". http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/karlsruhe.html.
6. ↑ Brooks, Nathan M. (1995-11-01). "Russian chemistry in the 1850s: A failed attempt at institutionalization". Annals of Science 52 (6): 577–589. doi:10.1080/00033799500200411. ISSN 0003-3790.
7. ↑ de Milt, Clara (1951). "The Congress at Karlsruhe" (in en). Journal of Chemical Education 28 (8): 421. doi:10.1021/ed028p421. ISSN 0021-9584. Bibcode: 1951JChEd..28..421D. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed028p421.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Mönnich, Michael W. (2010). "Thriving for Unity in Chemistry: The First International Gathering of Chemists". Chemistry International 32 (6). https://old.iupac.org/publications/ci/2010/3206/4_monnich.html.
9. ↑ Mönnich, Michael (2010). ""Für unsere schöne Wissenschaft eine Einigung anzubahnen"" (in en). Nachrichten aus der Chemie 58 (5): 539–543. doi:10.1002/nadc.201071445. ISSN 1439-9598. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/nadc.201071445.
10. ↑ See:
* Cannizzaro, Stanislao (1858). "Lettera del Prof. Stanislao Cannizzaro al Prof. S. de Luca; Sunto di un corso di filosofia chimica fatto nella Reale Università di Genova dal Professore S. Cannizzaro" (in it). Il Nuovo Cimento 7 (1): 321–366. doi:10.1007/bf02827711. Bibcode: 1858NCim....7..321.. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433062756915;view=1up;seq=331.
* English translation: Cannizzaro, Stanislao (1911). Sketch of a Course of Chemical Philosophy. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Alembic Club. https://archive.org/stream/sketchofcourseof00cannrich#page/n3/mode/2up.
11. ↑ Moore, F. J. (1931). A History of Chemistry. McGraw-Hill. pp. 182–184. ISBN 978-0-07-148855-6. https://archive.org/details/apchemistry200820000moor/page/182. (2nd edition)
12. ↑ Cannizzaro, Stanislao (1891) with Arthur Miolati, trans., and Lothar Meyer, ed. Abriss eines Lehrganges der theoretischen Chemie [Outline of a Course of Theoretical Chemistry] (Leipzig, (Germany): Wilhelm Engelmann, 1891), p. 59. On p. 59, Lothmar Meyer wrote: "Nach Schluss der Versammlung vertheilte Freund Angelo Pavesi im Auftrage des Verfassers eine kleine ziemlich unscheinbare Schrift, den hier wiedergegeben "Sunto" etc. Cannizzaro's, der schon einige Jahre früher erschienen, aber wenig bekannt geworden war. Auch ich erhielt ein Exemplar, das ich einsteckte, um es unterwegs auf der Heimreise zu lesen. Ich las es wiederholt auch zu Hause und war erstaunt über die Klarheit, die das Schriftchen über die wichtigsten Streitpunkte verbreitete. Es fiel mir wie Schuppen von den Augen, die Zweifel schwanden, und das Gefühl ruhigster Sicherheit trat an ihre Stelle." (At the conclusion of the meeting, friend Angelo Pavesi, on behalf of the author, distributed a small, inconspicuous pamphlet, Cannizzaro's "Sunto" etc. [which is] reproduced here [Note: "Sunto" refers to: Stanislao Cannizzaro (1858) "Lettera del Prof. Stanislao Cannizzaro al Prof. S. de Luca; Sunto di un corso di filosofia chimica fatto nella Reale Università di Genova dal Professore S. Cannizzaro," Il Nuovo Cimento, 7 : 321–366.], which had appeared a few years earlier but has been little known. I too received a copy, which I pocketed to read on the way home. I also read it at home repeatedly and was amazed at the clarity that the pamphlet spread about the main issues. It was as if the scales fell from my eyes, the doubts faded, and the feeling of calmest assurance took its place.)
13. ↑ An example of the confusion is provided by the table of atomic weights in the various prevailing systems, which appears in: Gehler, Johann Samuel Traugott (1840). Gmelin; Littrow; Muncke et al.. eds (in de). Johann Samuel Traugott Gehler's Physikalisches Wörterbuch, 9. Band, 3. Abtheilung. Leipzig, (Germany): E.B. Schwickert. pp. 1909–1912. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044089527675;view=1up;seq=321. In the tables of pages 1911–1912, Column C presents the relative atomic weights of the known elements, assigning to hydrogen (Wasserstoff) an atomic weight of 1. Column D contains the same relative atomic weights as column C, except that oxygen (Sauerstoff) is assigned a relative atomic weight of 100. (Gehler says of columns C and D: "In den Columnen C und D finden sich die Atomgewichte, wie sie sich nach den so eben entwickelten Grundsätzen als die wahrscheinlichsten ergeben möchten, … " (In columns C and D are found the atomic weights, as they would result from the principles [that have been] developed just now as the most probable ones … ) But this system assigns to oxygen an atomic weight of 8 and to carbon (Kohlenstoff) an atomic weight of 6.) Column E presents the relative atomic weights according to Berzelius, who assigned to hydrogen atoms (das Atomgewicht des einfachen Wasserstoffatoms (the atomic weight of single hydrogen atoms)) a value of 0.5 and who found oxygen to have a value of 8.01 — about 16 times greater than that of the hydrogen atom, which is correct. Column F contains the same relative atomic weights as column E, except that oxygen is assigned a relative atomic weight of 100.
14. ↑ Anschütz, Richard. "Charles-Adolphe Wurtz (1817-1884)". http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/karlsruhe.html.
15. ↑ (in de) Oesterreichisch-ungarischer Ordens-Almanach. Sommer. 1876. https://books.google.com/books?id=9dy-eUjKAREC&q=Carl+Folwarezny:+Physiologische+und+pathologische+Chemie&pg=PA115.
16. ↑ (in de) Archiv Der Pharmazie: Chemistry in Life Sciences. Wiley-Blackwell. 1865. https://books.google.com/books?id=YJgp9CqrpjkC&q=C.+G.+Reischauer&pg=PA181.
17. ↑ (in de) Jahresberichte über die leistungen der chemischen technologie. O. Wigand. 1866. https://books.google.com/books?id=GThGAQAAMAAJ&q=Th.+Schneider+mulhousen+garancine&pg=PA620.
18. ↑ "Le CanuLouis-René Études chimiques sur le Sang Humain. Thèse.". https://www.medicusbooks.com/2-Medizin/Anatomie-und-Physiologie/Biochemie-Physiologische-Chemie/Le-Canu-Louis-Rene-Etudes-chimiques-sur-le-Sang-Humain-These::32313.html.
19. ↑ Figurovskii, N. A.; Solov'ev, Yu I. (2012-12-06). Aleksandr Porfir'evich Borodin: A Chemist's Biography. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9783642727320. https://books.google.com/books?id=nG_tCAAAQBAJ&q=Jean+Baptiste+Leopold+Alfred+Riche&pg=PA143.
20. ↑ "Eugène Jacquemin (1828–1909)". https://data.bnf.fr/fr/10708625/eugene_jacquemin/.
21. ↑ Nationalizing Science: Adolphe Wurtz and the Battle for French Chemistry. MIT Press. 8 November 2000. ISBN 9780262264297. https://books.google.com/books?id=gySfgVZ8LtgC&q=Charles+Oppermann+chemistry&pg=PA84.
22. ↑ "Frédéric Charles Schlagdenhauffen". 5 December 2016. https://www.geni.com/people/Frédéric-Schlagdenhauffen/6000000020850410841.
23. ↑ "Woldemar Alexander Adolph von Schneider" (in en-US). https://www.geni.com/people/Woldemar-Alexander-Adolph-von-Schneider/6000000013737978128.
24. ↑ Boeckmann, Emil (1837-01-01). "Ueber einige Doppelverbindungen von Cyanquecksilber mit Schwefelcyan-Metallen". Annalen der Pharmacie 22 (2): 153–158. doi:10.1002/jlac.18370220205.
25. ↑ http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/otto-mendius/
26. ↑ Partington, J. R. (1964-06-18). History of Chemistry. Macmillan International Higher Education. ISBN 9781349005543. https://books.google.com/books?id=-1JdDwAAQBAJ&q=Jacob+Heinrich+Wilhelm+Schiel+chemistry&pg=PA413.
27. ↑ "[Earliest: (01/01/1846 TO 12/31/1930) AND [Author: Ludwig H] : Search"] (in en). https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/doSearch?ContribAuthorStored=Ludwig,+H&content=articlesChapters&countTerms=true&target=default&AfterYear=1846&BeforeYear=1930&.
28. ↑ "handbuch der allgemeinen waarenkunde von seubert karl – ZVAB". https://www.zvab.com/buch-suchen/titel/handbuch-der-allgemeinen-waarenkunde/autor/seubert-karl/.
29. ↑ Ärzte, Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und (1861) (in de). Tageblatt der Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte. https://books.google.com/books?id=7j0_AAAAcAAJ&q=Dr.+Carl+Gundelach,+Fabrikdirectors+in+Mannheim&pg=PA85.
30. ↑ (in de) Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft. Verlag Chemie.. 1878. https://books.google.com/books?id=4RhKAQAAMAAJ&q=Dr.+Carl+Gundelach,+Fabrikdirectors+in+Mannheim&pg=PA157.
31. ↑ Brock, William H. (2002-06-20) (in en). Justus Von Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521524735. https://books.google.com/books?id=VugoemP2th0C&q=justus+von+liebig+munich+Geiger&pg=PA139.
32. ↑ Ärzte, Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und (1861) (in de). Tageblatt der Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte. https://books.google.com/books?id=7j0_AAAAcAAJ&q=Grimm,+Dr.,+Chemiker+in+Offenbach&pg=PA85.
33. ↑ Fruton, Joseph Stewart (1990) (in en). Contrasts in Scientific Style: Research Groups in the Chemical and Biochemical Sciences. American Philosophical Society. p. 282. ISBN 9780871691910. https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_tRlC9NyNNN8C. "Gustav Reinhold Hoffmann (1831–1919)."
34. ↑ (in de) Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. C.F. Winter'sche. 1859. https://books.google.com/books?id=juq3mNJubykC&q=Franz+Keller+chemiker+speyer&pg=PA209.
35. ↑ Ärzte, Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und (1861) (in de). Tageblatt der Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte. https://books.google.com/books?id=xrPxxZmHPzAC&q=mühlhausen+speyer&pg=PA89.
36. ↑ Hermann, Armin; Wankmüller, Armin (1980) (in de). Physik physiologische Chemie und Pharmazie an der Universität Tübingen. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 9783164428019. https://books.google.com/books?id=leQcAOFbyK8C&q=chemiker+Tübingen+Carl+Finckh&pg=PA160.
37. ↑ (in da) Archiv for Pharmacie Og Technisk Chemie Med Deres Grundvidenskaber. 1864. https://books.google.com/books?id=FrB35xQvBiUC&q=chemiker+Tübingen+Carl+Finckh&pg=PA256.
38. ↑ Buchner, Max (2014-01-13) (in de). Aus der Vergangenheit der Universität Würzburg: Festschrift Zum 350 Jährigen Bestehen der Universität. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 9783642995781. https://books.google.com/books?id=83WuBgAAQBAJ&q=von+Schwarzenbach+privatdozent+in+würzburg&pg=PA674.
39. ↑ McDonald, Donald; Hunt, Leslie B. (1982-01-01). A History of Platinum and its Allied Metals. Johnson Matthey Plc. ISBN 9780905118833. https://books.google.com/books?id=xriMAgAAQBAJ&q=Angelo+Pavesi+Chemistry+Pavia&pg=PA338.
40. ↑ Formosinho, Sebastião J. (2007-08-01) (in pt). Nos Bastidores da Ciência: 20 anos depois. Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra / Coimbra University Press. ISBN 9789898074096. https://books.google.com/books?id=ONb3bmzAzXkC&q=Mide+Carvalho+coimbra&pg=PT111.
41. ↑ "Bischoff Henri" (in fr). https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/articles/031285/2002-11-21/.
42. ↑ Archives, The National. "The Discovery Service". https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/c/F32630.
43. ↑ Gadd, Ian Anders; Eliot, Simon; Louis, William Roger; Robbins, Keith (November 2013). History of Oxford University Press: Volume II: 1780 to 1896. OUP Oxford. ISBN 9780199543151. https://books.google.com/books?id=_bYJAgAAQBAJ&q=George+Griffith&pg=PA540.

## Further reading

* de Milt, Clara (1951). "The Congress at Karlsruhe". Journal of Chemical Education 28 (8): 421–425. doi:10.1021/ed028p421. Bibcode: 1951JChEd..28..421D. http://search.jce.divched.org/JCEIndex/FMPro?-db=jceindex.fp5&-lay=wwwform&combo=karlsruhe&-find=&-format=detail.html&-skip=1&-max=1&-token.2=1&-token.3=10. (subscription required)
* Hartley, Harold (1966). "Stanislao Cannizzaro, F.R.S. (1826–1910) and the First International Chemical Conference at Karlsruhe". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 21 (1): 56–63. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1966.0006.
* Hudson, John (1992). The History of Chemistry. Chapman and Hall. pp. 122–125. ISBN 978-0-12-007208-8.

(Note the incorrect spelling of Weltzien's name.)

* Ihde, Aaron J. (1984). The Development of Modern Chemistry. Dover. pp. 228–230. ISBN 978-0-486-64235-2.

(Originally published in 1964.)

* Laing, Michael (November 1995). "The Karlsruhe Congress, 1860". Education in Chemistry (Royal Society of Chemistry) 32 (6): 151–153. http://pubs.rsc.org/historical-collection/products/EIC#!issueid=EIC-1995-32-6.
* Partington, J. R. (1951). A Short History of Chemistry. MacMillan and Company. pp. 256–258. ISBN 978-0-486-65977-0. https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofch0000part_q6h4/page/256.

(Note the incorrect month given for the conference.)

* Nye, Mary Jo (1984). The Question of the Atom: From the Karlsruhe Congress to the First Solvay Conference, 1860–1911. Springer. ISBN 978-0-938228-07-3. https://archive.org/details/questionofatomfr0000unse.

## External links

* When Science Went International, Chemical & Engineering News, Vol. 88, 3.9.2010
* Charles-Adolphe Wurtz's report on the Karlsruhe Congress
* Cannizzaro's 1858 paper
* A History of Chemistry by F. J. Moore (1918) New York: McGraw-Hill

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