Responsive interpretation

We the People do ordain and establish this
US Constitution

Standards of review

* Rational basis review
* Intermediate scrutiny
* Strict scrutiny

Other legal theories

* Substantive due process
* State action doctrine

Amendments
I \- II \- III \- IV \- V \- XIV
Defining moments in law

* Civil Rights Cases
* Romer v. Evans
* Hollingsworth v. Perry
* Pentagon Papers
* Vashti McCollum

Interpretation

* Originalism
* Purposive
* Responsive
* Textualism

Issues

* Civil rights
* Bill of Rights (United States)
* Gay rights
* Commerce rights
* Free speech

v \- t \- e

Responsive interpretation is the idea that, when interpreting the Constitution of the United States of America, judges should seek reference to the meaning of the document in light of society's current ethos or idea of morality. The idea has its background in McCulloch v. Maryland, a landmark early Supreme Court case where Justice Marshall stated: "let us remember that it is a Constitution that we are expounding," arguing that the Constitution must be ensured to stand the test of time.[1]

## Contents

* 1 Constitutional Faith
* 2 Flaws in textualism and originalism
* 3 Example cases
* 4 References

## Constitutional Faith[edit]

Sanford Levinson is a prominent responsive jurist and academician. In his book, Constitutional Faith, Levinson argues that the Constitution is a civil religion which carries with it a particular set of moral beliefs. That means that when making laws, the question is less "is this inline with my own moral beliefs?" and more "is this inline with the moral beliefs of the Constitution?"

However, the foundational morality of the nation is somewhat... wanting. Levinson notes that the founders themselves contained many moral defects which society has either amended[2] or rejected in foundational caselaw.[3] Levinson believes that the only way to grapple with the moral dilemma posed by a flawed directional document is a doctrine of "generosity" — that is, read the Constitution where possible to fix moral defects. This is one theory of responsive interpretation.[4]

## Flaws in textualism and originalism[edit]

Opponents of responsive interpretation argue that it is far too subjective, and that the only way to remain objective (the standard to which all judges must aspire) is to remain faithful to only "plain meaning," or to remain faithful to the original intent of the Constitution or its Amendments. The baseline of this theory is that original intent is objectively knowable, verifiable, and plain to any interpreter.

The problem with originalism, responsive jurists counter, is that original intent is no such thing. Balkin argues that, aside from being a betrayal of morality, scrutinizing original intent does not yield easy, objective answers. Instead, a jurist using an originalist interpretation must choose which historical narrative to believe, and therefore chooses which history is "original" enough.[5] As a result, originalist interpretation is just as subjective as responsive interpretation, but has the added drawback of being morally bankrupt (as Levinson argues). Several cases highlight the failure of objective originalism.[6] This debate is far from closed, though, and remains an essential question in American law.

## Example cases[edit]

Justice Brennan strongly advocated responsive interpretation of the Constitution to solve problems such as racism inherent in society, and remedy other social defects.[7]

## References[edit]

1. ↑ McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. 316 (1819).
2. ↑ See Fourteenth Amendment.
3. ↑ Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967).
4. ↑ Sanford Levinson, Constitutional Faith.
5. ↑ Balkin, Tradition & Betrayal.
6. ↑ Lawrence v. Texas, 388 U.S. 1 (1967), (finding no historical, legal animus against homosexuality), but cf. Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186 (1986), (disagreeing on the same issue).
7. ↑ See, e.g., U.S. v. Weber, where Brennan argued for an expansive interpretation of Title VII based on its perceived societal need.

U.S. Constitution articles on RationalWiki

v \- t \- e

Preamble • Articles: 1 \- 2 \- 3 \- 4 \- 5 \- 6 \- 7

Bill of Rights: I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X \- Further amendments: XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII

Pending: Congressional Apportionment \- Titles of Nobility \- Corwin \- Child Labor \- Disputed: Equal Rights \- Failed: \- D.C. Voting Rights

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Related topics

Interpretation: Originalism \- Textualism \- Responsive interpretation • Modes of review: Rational basis \- Intermediate scrutiny \- Strict scrutiny
Other stuff: Articles of Confederation \- Establishment Clause \- Gun control