Phoenicia

Phoenicians were an ancient Semitic people who inhabited city-states in Canaan along the Levantine coast of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily in present-day Lebanon and parts of coastal Syria.[1] Their maritime civilization expanded and contracted over time, with its cultural core stretching from Arwad to Mount Carmel.[2] Through trade and colonization, the Phoenicians extended their influence across the Mediterranean, from Cyprus to the Iberian Peninsula, leaving behind thousands of inscriptions.

The Phoenicians emerged directly from the Bronze Age Canaanites, and their cultural traditions survived the Late Bronze Age collapse, continuing into the Iron Age with little interruption. They referred to themselves as Canaanites and their land as Canaan, though the territory they occupied was smaller than that of earlier Bronze Age Canaan.[3] The name Phoenicia is a Greek exonym that did not correspond to a unified native identity.[4][5] Modern scholarship generally views the distinction between Canaanites and Phoenicians after c. 1200 BC as artificial.[3][6]

Renowned for seafaring and trade, the Phoenicians established one of antiquity's most extensive maritime networks, active for over a millennium. This network facilitated exchanges among cradles of civilization such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece. They founded colonies and trading posts throughout the Mediterranean; among these, Carthage in North Africa developed into a major power by the 7th century BC.

Phoenician society was organized into independent city-states, notably Byblos, Sidon, and Tyre.[7] Each retained political autonomy, and there is no evidence of a shared national identity.[8] While kingship was common, powerful merchant families likely exercised influence through oligarchies. The Phoenician cities flourished most in the 9th century BC, but subsequently declined under the expansion of empires such as the Neo-Assyrian and Achaemenid. Their influence nevertheless endured in the western Mediterranean until the Roman destruction of Carthage in the mid-2nd century BC.

Long regarded as a "lost" civilization due to the absence of native historical accounts, the Phoenicians became better understood only after the discovery of inscriptions in the 17th and 18th centuries. Since the mid-20th century, archaeological research has revealed their significance in the ancient world.[9] Their most enduring legacy is the development of the earliest verified alphabet, derived from the Proto-Sinaitic script,[10] which spread across the Mediterranean and gave rise to the Greek alphabet, which in turn gave rise to the Latin and Cyrillic scripts, as well as influencing Syriac and Arabic writing systems.[11][12] They also contributed innovations in shipbuilding, navigation, industry, agriculture, and governance. Their commercial networks played a foundational role in the economic and cultural development of classical Mediterranean civilization.[13][14]

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
* 2.1 Origins
* 2.2 Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)
* 2.3 Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)
* 2.4 Foundation of Carthage
* 2.5 Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)
* 2.6 Persian period (539–332 BC)
* 2.7 Hellenistic period (332–152 BC)
* 3 Demographics
* 3.1 Genetic studies
* 4 Economy
* 4.1 Trade
* 4.2 Industry
* 4.2.1 Tyrian purple
* 4.2.2 Mining
* 4.2.3 Viticulture
* 4.2.4 Shipbuilding
* 5 Important cities and colonies
* 5.1 Phoenician colonization
* 6 Society and culture
* 6.1 Politics and government
* 6.2 Law and administration
* 6.3 Military
* 6.4 Language
* 6.4.1 Alphabet
* 6.5 Art
* 6.6 Women
* 7 Religion
* 8 See also
* 9 References
* 9.1 Citations
* 9.2 Sources
* 10 Further reading
* 11 External links

## Etymology

Being a society of independent city-states, the Phoenicians apparently did not have a term to denote the land of Phoenicia as a whole;[15] instead, demonyms were often derived from the name of the city a person hailed from (e.g., Sidonian for Sidon, Tyrian for Tyre, etc.) There is no evidence that the peoples living in the area denoted as Phoenicia identified as "Phoenicians" or shared a common identity, although they may have referred to themselves as "Canaanites".[16] Krahmalkov reconstructs the Honeyman inscription (dated to c. 900 BC by William F. Albright) as containing a reference to the Phoenician homeland, calling it Pūt (Phoenician: 𐤐𐤕).[17][18]

Furthermore, as late as the first century BC, a distinction appears to have been made between 'Syrian' and 'Phoenician' people, as evidenced by the epitaph of Meleager of Gadara: 'If you are a Syrian, Salam! If you are a Phoenician, Naidius! If you are a Greek, Chaire! (Hail), and say the same yourself.'[19]

Obelisks at Karnak contain references to a "land of fnḫw", fnḫw being the plural form of fnḫ, the Ancient Egyptian word for 'carpenter'. This "land of carpenters" is generally identified as Phoenicia, given that Phoenicia played a central role in the lumber trade of the Levant.[20] As an exonym, fnḫw was evidently loaned into Greek as φοῖνιξ, phoînix, which meant variably 'Phoenician person', 'Tyrian purple, crimson' or 'date palm'. Homer used it with each of these meanings.[21] The word is already attested in Linear B script of Mycenaean Greek from the 2nd millennium BC, as po-ni-ki-jo. In those records, it means 'crimson' or 'palm tree' and does not denote a group of people.[22] The name Phoenicians, like Latin Poenī (adj. poenicus, later pūnicus), comes from Greek Φοινίκη, Phoiníkē. According to Krahmalkov, Poenulus, a Latin comedic play written in the early 2nd century BC, appears to preserve a Punic term for the Phoenician/Punic language which may be reconstructed as Pōnnīm,[23] a point disputed by Joseph Naveh, a professor of West Semitic epigraphy and palaeography at the Hebrew University.[24]

## History

Since little has survived of Phoenician records or literature, most of what is known about their origins and history comes from the accounts of other civilizations and inferences from their material culture excavated throughout the Mediterranean. The scholarly consensus is that the Phoenicians' period of greatest prominence was 1200 BC to the end of the Persian period (332 BC).[25]

It is debated among historians and archaeologists whether Phoenicians were actually distinct from the broader group of Semitic-speaking peoples known as Canaanites.[26][27] Historian Robert Drews believes the term "Canaanites" corresponds to the ethnic group referred to as "Phoenicians" by the ancient Greeks;[28] archaeologist Jonathan N. Tubb argues that "Ammonites, Moabites, Israelites, and Phoenicians undoubtedly achieved their own cultural identities, and yet ethnically they were all Canaanites", "the same people who settled in farming villages in the region in the 8th millennium BC".[29] Brian R. Doak states that scholars use "Phoenicians" as a short-hand for "Canaanites living in a set of cities along the northern Levantine coast who shared a language and material culture in the Iron I–II period and who also developed an organized system of colonies in the western Mediterranean world".[30]

The Phoenician Early Bronze Age is largely unknown.[31] The two most important sites are Byblos and Sidon-Dakerman (near Sidon), although, as of 2021, well over a hundred sites remain to be excavated, while others that have been are yet to be fully analysed.[31] The Middle Bronze Age was a generally peaceful time of increasing population, trade, and prosperity, though there was competition for natural resources.[32] In the Late Bronze Age, rivalry between Egypt, the Mittani, the Hittites, and Assyria had a significant impact on Phoenician cities.[32]

### Origins

Main articles: Place:Canaan, Retjenu, and Prehistory of the Levant

The Canaanite culture that gave rise to the Phoenicians apparently developed in situ from the earlier Ghassulian chalcolithic culture. The Ghassulian culture itself developed from the Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex, which in turn developed from a fusion of their ancestral Natufian and Harifian cultures with Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) farming cultures. These practiced the domestication of animals during the 8.2 kiloyear event, which led to the Neolithic Revolution in the Levant.[33] The Late Bronze Age state of Ugarit is considered Canaanite,[34] even though the Ugaritic language does not belong to the Canaanite languages proper,[35][36] and some of the texts on clay tablets discovered there indicate that the inhabitants of Ugarit did not consider themselves Canaanites.[37]

The fourth-century BC Greek historian Herodotus claimed that the Phoenicians had migrated from the Erythraean Sea around 2750 BC and the first-century AD geographer Strabo reports a claim that they came from Tylos and Arad (Bahrain and Muharraq).[38][39][40][41] Some archaeologists working on the Persian Gulf have accepted these traditions and suggest a migration connected with the collapse of the Dilmun civilization c. 1750 BC.[39][40][41] However, most scholars reject the idea of a migration; archaeological and historical evidence alike indicate millennia of population continuity in the region, and recent genetic research indicates that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population.[42]

### Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)

The first known account of the Phoenicians relates the conquests of Pharaoh Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC), including the subjugation of those the Egyptians called Fenekhu ('carpenters').[43] The Egyptians targeted the coastal cities such as Byblos, Arwad, and Ullasa for their crucial geographic and commercial links with the interior (via the Nahr al-Kabir and the Orontes rivers). The cities provided Egypt with access to Mesopotamian trade and abundant stocks of the region's native cedarwood, of which there was no equivalent in the Egyptian homeland.[44] Thutmose IV himself visited Sidon, where the purchase of lumber from Lebanon was arranged.[45]

By the mid-14th century BC, the Phoenician city-states were considered "favored cities" by the Egyptians. Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos were regarded as the most important. The Phoenicians had considerable autonomy, and their cities were reasonably well developed and prosperous. Byblos was the leading city; it was a center for bronze-making and the primary terminus of trade routes for precious goods such as tin and lapis lazuli from as far east as Afghanistan. Sidon and Tyre also commanded the interest of Egyptian governmental officials,[46] beginning a pattern of commercial rivalry that would span the next millennium.

The Amarna letters report that from 1350 to 1300 BC, neighboring Amorites and Hittites were capturing Phoenician cities, especially in the north. Egypt subsequently lost its coastal holdings from Ugarit[47] in northern Syria to Byblos near central Lebanon.

### Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)

Sometime between 1200 and 1150 BC, the Late Bronze Age collapse severely weakened or destroyed most civilizations in the region, including those of the Egyptians and the Hittites. The Phoenicians were able to survive and navigate the challenges of the crisis, and by 1230 BC city-states such as Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos maintained political independence, asserted their maritime interests, and enjoyed economic prosperity. The period sometimes described as a "Phoenician renaissance" had begun, and by the end of the 11th century BC, an alliance formed between Tyre and Israel had created a new geopolitical status quo in the Levant. Commercial maritime activity now involved not just mercantilism, but colonization as well, and Phoenician expansion into the Mediterranean was well under way.[48] The Phoenician city-states during this time were Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, Aradus, Beirut, and Tripoli. They filled the power vacuum caused by the Late Bronze Age collapse and created a vast mercantile network.[26]

The recovery of the Mediterranean economy can be credited to Phoenician mariners and merchants, who re-established long-distance trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 10th century BC.[49]

Early in the Iron Age, the Phoenicians established ports, warehouses, markets, and settlements all across the Mediterranean and up to the southern Black Sea. Colonies were established on Cyprus, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, and Malta, as well as the coasts of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.[50] Phoenician hacksilver dated to this period bears lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, indicating the extent of Phoenician trade networks.[51]

By the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the richest and most powerful Phoenician city-state, particularly during the reign of Hiram I (c. 969–936 BC). The expertise of Phoenician artisans sent by Hiram I of Tyre in significant construction projects during the reign of Solomon, the King of Israel, is alluded to in the Hebrew Bible,[3] although the reliability of this biblical history is disputed by some scientific researchers in modern times.[52]

During the rule of the priest Ithobaal (887–856 BC), Tyre expanded its territory as far north as Beirut and into part of Cyprus; this unusual act of aggression was the closest the Phoenicians ever came to forming a unitary territorial state. Once his realm reached its largest territorial extent, Ithobaal declared himself "King of the Sidonians", a title that would be used by his successors and mentioned in both Greek and Jewish accounts.[53]

The Late Iron Age saw the height of Phoenician shipping, mercantile, and cultural activity, particularly between 750 and 650 BC. The Phoenician influence was visible in the "orientalization" of Greek cultural and artistic conventions.[26] Among their most popular goods were fine textiles, typically dyed with Tyrian purple. Homer's Iliad, which was composed during this period, references the quality of Phoenician clothing and metal goods.[26]

### Foundation of Carthage

Carthage was founded by Phoenicians coming from Tyre, probably to provide an anchorage and supplies to the Tyrian merchants in their voyages.[54] The city's name in Punic, Qart-Ḥadašt (𐤒𐤓𐤕 𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕), means 'New City'.[55] There is a tradition in some ancient sources, such as Philistos of Syracuse, for an "early" foundation date of around 1215 BC—before the fall of Troy in 1180 BC. However, Timaeus, a Greek historian from Sicily c. 300 BC, places the foundation of Carthage in 814 BC, which is the date generally accepted by modern historians.[56] Legend, including Virgil's Aeneid, assigns the founding of the city to Queen Dido. Carthage would grow into a multi-ethnic empire spanning North Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia, but would ultimately be destroyed by Rome in the Punic Wars (264–146 BC). It was eventually rebuilt as a Roman city by Julius Caesar in the period from 49 to 44 BC, with the official name Colonia Iulia Concordia Carthago.[57]

### Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)

Two bronze fragments from an Assyrian palace gate depicting the collection of tribute from the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon (859–824 BC). British Museum.

As mercantile city-states concentrated along a narrow coastal strip of land, the Phoenicians lacked the size and population to support a large military. Thus, as neighboring empires began to rise, the Phoenicians increasingly fell under the sway of foreign rulers, who to varying degrees circumscribed their autonomy.[58]

The Assyrian domination of Phoenicia began with King Shalmaneser III. He rose to power in 858 BC and began a series of campaigns against neighboring states. Although he did not invade Phoenicia and maintained good relations with the Phoenician cities,[59] he demanded tribute from the "kings of the seacoast", a group which probably included the Phoenician city-states.[60] According to Aubet, Tyre, Sidon, Arwad and Byblos paid tribute in bronze and bronze vessels, tin, silver, gold, ebony and ivory.[59] Initially, they were not annexed outright—they were allowed a certain degree of freedom.[61] This changed in 744 BC with the ascension of Tiglath-Pileser III. By 738 BC, most of the Levant, including northern Phoenicia, was annexed;[62][63] only Tyre and Byblos, the most powerful city-states, remained tributary states outside of direct Assyrian control.[64]

The Babylonians, formerly vassals of the Assyrians, took advantage of the empire's collapse and rebelled, quickly establishing the Neo-Babylonian Empire in its place. Phoenician cities revolted several times throughout the reigns of the first Babylonian kings: Nabopolassar (626–605 BC) and his son Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 605 – c. 562 BC). Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre, his siege commonly having been thought to have lasted thirteen years, although the city was not destroyed and suffered little damage. The consensus opinion in contemporary Phoenician historiography is that the thirteen-year siege began soon after the conquest of Jerusalem in 587 BC, and lasted from 585 BC through 573 BC. Among the writings of ancient historians, this detail about the length of Nebuchadnezzar's supposed thirteen-year siege of Tyre in the early sixth century BC can be found only in Josephus' first century writings, recorded almost 700 years after the date of the purported event. Helen Dixon proposes that the putative 'thirteen-year' siege was more likely several small-scale interventions in the region, or a limited blockade between the land-side city and its port.[65]

### Persian period (539–332 BC)

Phoenicians build pontoon bridges for Xerxes I of Persia during the second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC (1915 drawing by A. C. Weatherstone).

In 539 BC, Cyrus the Great, king and founder of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, took Babylon.[66] As Cyrus began consolidating territories across the Near East, the Phoenicians apparently made the pragmatic calculation of "[yielding] themselves to the Persians".[67] Most of the Levant was consolidated by Cyrus into a single satrapy (province) and forced to pay a yearly tribute of 350 talents, which was roughly half the tribute that was required of Egypt and Libya.[68]

The Phoenician area was later divided into four vassal kingdoms—Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos—which were allowed considerable autonomy. Unlike in other areas of the empire, there is no record of Persian administrators governing the Phoenician city-states. Local Phoenician kings were allowed to remain in power and given the same rights as Persian satraps (governors), such as hereditary offices and the minting of coinage.[66]

Achaemenid-era coin of Abdashtart I of Sidon, who is seen at the back of the chariot, behind the Persian King

The Phoenicians remained a core asset to the Achaemenid Empire, particularly for their prowess in maritime technology and navigation;[66] they furnished the bulk of the Persian fleet during the Greco-Persian Wars of the late fifth century BC.[69] Phoenicians under Xerxes I built the Xerxes Canal and the pontoon bridges that allowed his forces to cross into mainland Greece.[70] Nevertheless, they were harshly punished by Xerxes following his defeat at the Battle of Salamis, which he blamed on Phoenician cowardice and incompetence.[71]

In the mid-fourth century BC, King Tennes of Sidon led a failed rebellion against Artaxerxes III, enlisting the help of the Egyptians, who were subsequently drawn into a war with the Persians.[72] The resulting destruction of Sidon led to the resurgence of Tyre, which remained the dominant Phoenician city for two decades until the arrival of Alexander the Great.

### Hellenistic period (332–152 BC)

Phoenicia was one of the first areas to be conquered by Alexander the Great during his military campaigns across western Asia. Alexander's main target in the Persian Levant was Tyre, now the region's largest and most important city. It capitulated after a roughly seven month siege, during which some of its non-combatant citizens were sent to Carthage.[73] Tyre's refusal to allow Alexander to visit its temple to Melqart, culminating in the killing of his envoys, led to a brutal reprisal: 2,000 of its leading citizens were crucified and a puppet ruler was installed. The rest of Phoenicia easily came under his control, with Sidon surrendering peacefully.[74]

A naval action during Alexander the Great's Siege of Tyre (332 BC). Drawing by André Castaigne, 1888–89.

Alexander's empire had a Hellenization policy, whereby Hellenic culture, religion, and sometimes language were spread or imposed across conquered peoples. However, Hellenization was not enforced most of the time and was just a language of administration until his death. This was typically implemented in other lands through the founding of new cities, the settlement of a Macedonian or Greek urban elite, and the alteration of native place names to Greek. However, there was no organized Hellenization in Phoenicia, and with one or two minor exceptions, all Phoenician city-states retained their native names, while Greek settlement and administration appears to have been very limited.[75]

The Phoenicians maintained cultural and commercial links with their western counterparts. Polybius recounts how the Seleucid King Demetrius I escaped from Rome by boarding a Carthaginian ship that was delivering goods to Tyre.[73] The adaptation to Macedonian rule was probably aided by the Phoenicians' historical ties with the Greeks, with whom they shared some mythological stories and figures; the two peoples were even sometimes considered "relatives".

When Alexander's empire collapsed after his death in 323 BC, the Phoenicians came under the control of the largest of its successors, the Seleucids. The Phoenician homeland was repeatedly contested by the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt during the forty-year Syrian Wars, coming under Ptolemaic rule in the third century BC. The Seleucids reclaimed the area the following century, holding it until the mid-first 2nd century BC. Under their rule, the Phoenicians were allowed a considerable degree of autonomy and self-governance.

During the Seleucid Dynastic Wars (157–63 BC), the Phoenician cities were mainly self-governed. Many of them were fought for or over by the warring factions of the Seleucid royal family. Some Phoenician regions were under Jewish influence, after the Jews revolted and succeeded in defeating the Seleucids in 164 BC. A significant portion of the Phoenician diaspora in North Africa thus converted to Judaism in the late millennium BC.[76][77][78] The Seleucid Kingdom was seized by Tigranes the Great of Armenia in 74/73 BC, ending the Hellenistic influence on the Levant.[79][80]

## Demographics

### Genetic studies

File:Osman Hamdi Bey. Crâne du roi Tabnit (№ 1). 2 sides. Paris, 1892.jpgSkull of King Tabnit of Sidon (reigned c. 549 BC – c. 539 BC), now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museums

See also: Canaan § Genetic studies, and Lebanese people § Genetics

A 2008 study led by Pierre Zalloua found that six subclades of Haplogroup J-M172 (J2)—thought to have originated between the Caucasus Mountains, Mesopotamia and the Levant—were of a "Phoenician signature" and present amongst the male populations of coastal Lebanon as well as the wider Levant (the "Phoenician Periphery"), followed by other areas of historic Phoenician settlement, spanning Cyprus through to Morocco. This deliberate sequential sampling was an attempt to develop a methodology to link the documented historical expansion of a population with a particular geographic genetic pattern or patterns. The researchers suggested that the proposed genetic signature stemmed from "a common source of related lineages rooted in Lebanon".[81] Another study in 2006 found evidence for the genetic persistence of Phoenicians in the Spanish island of Ibiza.[82]

In 2016, the rare U5b2c1 maternal haplogroup was identified in the DNA of a 2,500-year-old male skeleton excavated from a Punic tomb in Tunisia. The lineage of this "Young Man of Byrsa" is believed to represent early gene flow from Iberia to the Maghreb.[83]

According to a 2017 study published by the American Journal of Human Genetics, present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population, which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the Bronze Age.[84][85] More specifically, the research of geneticist Chris Tyler-Smith and his team at the Sanger Institute in Britain, who compared "sampled ancient DNA from five Canaanite people who lived 3,750 and 3,650 years ago" to modern people, revealed that 93 percent of the genetic ancestry of people in Lebanon came from the Canaanites (the other 7 percent was of a Eurasian steppe population).[85]

One 2018 study of mitochondrial lineages in Sardinia concluded that the Phoenicians were "inclusive, multicultural and featured significant female mobility", with evidence of indigenous Sardinians integrating "peacefully and permanently" with Semitic Phoenician settlers. The study also found evidence suggesting that south Europeans may have likewise settled in the area of modern Lebanon.[86]

In a 2020 study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, researchers have shown that there is substantial genetic continuity in Lebanon since the Bronze Age interrupted by three significant admixture events during the Iron Age, Hellenistic, and Ottoman period. In particular, the Phoenicians can be modeled as a mixture of the local Bronze Age population (63–88%) and a population coming from the North, related to ancient Anatolians or ancient South-Eastern Europeans (12–37%). The results show that a Steppe-like ancestry, typically found in Europeans, appears in the region starting from the Iron Age.[87]

A 2022 analysis of maternal haplogroups from ancient samples from Punic sites of Motya and Lilibeo in Sicily, indicates that the Sicilian Phoenicians shared genetic similarities with Bronze Age samples from the Iberian Peninsula, Sardinia and Italy, and are not particularly close to other Phoenicians from Sardinia and the Iberian islands. The Phoenicians in Motya shared lesser genetic similarities with samples from Bronze Age Levant.[88]

A genetic study published in Nature Communications in April 2025 examined the remains of 196 individuals from 14 sites traditionally identified as Phoenician and Punic in the central and western Mediterranean. The results suggest that during the earlier stages of the Phoenician colonization, the Punic demographic expansion was primarily driven by the spread of people with Sicilian-Aegean ancestry, while Levantine Phoenicians made little to no genetic contribution to Punic settlements in the central and western Mediterranean. The North African ancestry became widespread only after 400 BCE in the Punic world, suggesting that expanding Carthaginian influence facilitated this spread. However, this was a minority contributor of ancestry in all of the sampled sites, including in Carthage itself.[89]

## Economy

### Trade

Major Phoenician trade networks (c. 1200–800 BC)

The Phoenicians served as intermediaries between the disparate civilizations that spanned the Mediterranean and Near East, facilitating the exchange of goods and knowledge, culture, and religious traditions. Their expansive and enduring trade network is credited with laying the foundations of an economically and culturally cohesive Mediterranean, which would be continued by the Greeks and especially the Romans.[49]

File:0675 - Phoenician glass necklace - Museo Archeologico, Cagliari - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, November 11 2016.jpgPhoenician faces. Glass from Olbia, 4th century BC. The bold pools of color and detailed hair give a Greek impression.

Phoenician ties with the Greeks ran deep. The earliest verified relationship appears to have begun with the Minoan civilization on Crete (1950–1450 BC), which together with the Mycenaean civilization (1600–1100 BC) is considered the progenitor of classical Greece.[90] Archaeological research suggests that the Minoans gradually imported Near Eastern goods, artistic styles, and customs from other cultures via the Phoenicians.[citation needed]

The Phoenicians were known for trading beer across their colonies around the Mediterranean, particularly along the North African coast.[91] The trade expanded to regions beyond the Mediterranean, including the Basque Country, where it is believed that beer brewing was introduced by the Phoenicians.[92] To Egypt the Phoenicians sold logs of cedar for significant sums,[93] and wine beginning in the eighth century. The wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by shipwrecks discovered in 1997 in the open sea 50 kilometres (30 mi) west of Ascalon, Israel.[94] Pottery kilns at Tyre and Sarepta produced the large terracotta jars used for transporting wine. From Egypt, the Phoenicians bought Nubian gold.

File:MuseoArqueologicoCadiz-P1050192.JPGPhoenician sarcophagi found in Cádiz, Spain, thought to have been imported from the Phoenician homeland around Sidon.[95][96] Archaeological Museum of Cádiz.

From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the most crucial being silver, mostly from Sardinia and the Iberian Peninsula. Tin for making bronze "may have been acquired from Galicia by way of the Atlantic coast of southern Spain; alternatively, it may have come from northern Europe (Cornwall or Brittany) via the Rhone valley and coastal Massalia".[97] Strabo states that there was a highly lucrative Phoenician trade with Britain for tin via the Cassiterides, whose location is unknown but may have been off the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula.[98]

### Industry

Phoenician metal bowl with hunting scene (8th century BC). The clothing and hairstyle of the figures are Egyptian. At the same time, the subject matter of the central scene conforms with the Mesopotamian theme of combat between man and beast. Phoenician artisans frequently adapted the styles of neighboring cultures.

Phoenicia lacked considerable natural resources other than its cedar wood. Timber was probably the earliest and most lucrative source of wealth; neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia had adequate wood sources. Unable to rely solely on this limited resource, the Phoenicians developed an industrial base manufacturing a variety of goods for both everyday and luxury use.[26] The Phoenicians developed or mastered techniques such as glass-making, engraved and chased metalwork (including bronze, iron, and gold), ivory carving, and woodwork.[99]

The Phoenicians were early pioneers in mass production, and sold a variety of items in bulk. They set up trade networks to market their glassware and became its leading source in antiquity, shipping flasks, beads, and other glass objects across the Mediterranean in their vessels.[100] Excavations of colonies in Spain suggest they also used the potter's wheel.[101] Their exposure to a wide variety of cultures allowed them to manufacture goods for specific markets.[99] The Iliad suggests Phoenician clothing and metal goods were highly prized by the Greeks.[26] Specialized goods were designed specifically for wealthier clientele, including ivory reliefs and plaques, carved clam shells, sculpted amber, and finely detailed and painted ostrich eggs.

#### Tyrian purple

An Etruscan tomb (c. 350 BC) depicting a man wearing an all-purple toga picta

The most prized Phoenician goods were fabrics dyed with Tyrian purple, which formed a major part of Phoenician wealth. The violet-purple dye derived from the hypobranchial gland of the Murex marine snail, once profusely available in coastal waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea but now exploited to local extinction. Phoenicians may have discovered the dye as early as 1750 BC.[102] The Phoenicians established a second production center for the dye in Mogador, in present-day Morocco.[103]

The Phoenicians' exclusive command over the production and trade of the dye, combined with the labor-intensive extraction process, made it very expensive. Tyrian purple subsequently became associated with the upper classes. It soon became a status symbol in several civilizations, most notably among the Romans. Assyrian tribute records from the Phoenicians include "garments of brightly colored stuff" that most likely included Tyrian purple. While the designs, ornamentation, and embroidery used in Phoenician textiles were well-regarded, the techniques and specific descriptions are unknown.[99]

#### Mining

Mining operations in the Phoenician homeland were limited; iron was the only metal of any worth. The first large-scale mining operations by Phoenicians probably occurred in Cyprus, principally for copper. Sardinia may have been colonized almost exclusively for its mineral resources; Phoenician settlements were concentrated in the southern parts of the island, close to sources of copper and lead. Piles of scoria and copper ingots, which appear to predate Roman occupation, suggest the Phoenicians mined and processed metals on the island. The Iberian Peninsula was the richest source of numerous metals in antiquity, including gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead.[104] The output of silver during the Phoenician and Carthaginian occupation there was enormous.[105] The Carthaginians relied on slave labor almost exclusively in their mining operations, and according to Rawlinson, because they likely continued the established practices of their predecessors in Iberia, the Phoenicians themselves probably also used slave labor.[106]

#### Viticulture

The most notable agricultural product was wine, which the Phoenicians helped propagate across the Mediterranean.[107] The common grape vine may have been domesticated by the Phoenicians or Canaanites, although it most likely arrived from Transcaucasia via trade routes across Mesopotamia or the Black Sea. Vines grew readily in the coastal Levant, and wine was exported to Egypt as early as the Old Kingdom period (2686–2134 BC). Wine played an important part in Phoenician religion, serving as the principal beverage for offerings and sacrifice.[107] An excavation of a small Phoenician town south of Sidon uncovered a wine factory used from at least the seventh century BC, which is believed to have been aimed for an overseas market.[107] To prevent oxidation of their contents, amphorae were sealed with a disk plug made of pinewood and a mixture of resin and clay.[108]

The Phoenicians established vineyards and wineries in their colonies in North Africa, Sicily, France, and Spain,[107] and may have taught winemaking to some of their trading partners. The ancient Iberians began producing wine from local grape varieties following their encounter with the Phoenicians. Iberian cultivars subsequently formed the basis of most western European wine.[109]

#### Shipbuilding

Image of a fragment of an old shipMortise and tenon joinery in the Mazarron 1 Phoenician shipwreck. Phoenicians pioneered the pegged mortise and tenon joinery, which came to be known as Phoenician joints

As early as 1200 BC, texts from Ugarit suggest that Canaanite merchant ships were capable of carrying cargoes weighing up to 450 tons. During the first millennium BC, the cargo capacity of Phoenician merchant ships ranged between 100 and 500 tons.[110] The Phoenicians pioneered the use of locked mortise and tenon joints, known as Phoenician joints, to secure the planking of ship hulls underwater.[111][112] This method involved cutting mortises into adjoining planks and inserting wooden tenons to join them, which were then secured with dowels. Examples of this technique include the Uluburun shipwreck (c. 1320 BC)[113][114] and the Cape Gelidonya shipwreck (c. 1200 BC).[115][116] The innovation spread across the Mediterranean and influenced Greek and Roman shipbuilding,[117][118] with the Romans referring to it as coagmenta punicana.[119][120]

The Phoenicians were possibly the first to introduce the bireme. Fernand Braudel cites the bas-relief carvings on the walls of the palace of Nineveh which depict the Tyrian fleet fleeing the port of Tyre before the city was attacked by Sennacherib c. 700 BC. The Phoenicians sailed their biremes close to shore and only in fair weather.[121] They have also been credited with developing the trireme by scholars such as Lucien Basch. Referring to archaeological evidence of ships depicted in the Nineveh relief, cylinder seals, and Phoenician coins, he argues that the trireme was invented in Sidon around 700 BC and later adopted by the Greeks.[122] The classicist J. S. Morrison, a student of the trireme, quotes Thucydides' statement that triereis, or triremes, were said to have been built first at Corinth in Greece. Although he allows that Phoenicians of 701 BC were credited by the sculptor of the Nineveh relief with one type of the vessel, interpreted by Morrison as having three banks of oarsmen on each side in three tiers with the uppermost tier unmanned,[123] he argues that there is no good reason why Thucydides' account should not be believed.[124] The trieme was regarded as the most advanced vessel in the ancient Mediterranean world.[125]

Warship with two rows of oars, in relief from Nineveh (c. 700 BC)

The Timber Transportation relief at the Louvre

Two Assyrian representations of ships, which could represent Phoenician vessels

The Phoenicians developed several other maritime inventions. The amphora, a type of container used for both dry and liquid goods, was an ancient Phoenician invention that became a standardized measurement of volume for close to two thousand years. The remnants of self-cleaning artificial harbors have been discovered in Sidon, Tyre, Atlit, and Acre.[126] The first example of admiralty law also appears in the Levant.[127] The Phoenicians continued to contribute to cartography into the Iron Age.[128]

In 2014, a 12 metres (39 ft) long Phoenician trading ship was found near Gozo island in Malta. Dated 700 BC, it is one of the oldest wrecks found in the Mediterranean. Fifty amphorae, used to contain wine and oil, were scattered nearby.[129][130][131]

## Important cities and colonies

Map of Phoenician (yellow labels) and Greek (red labels) colonies around 8th to 6th century BC (with German legend)

The Phoenicians were not a nation in the political sense. However, they were organized into independent city-states that shared a common language and culture. The leading city-states were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. Rivalries were expected, but armed conflict was rare.

Numerous other cities existed in the Levant alone, many probably unknown, including Beiruta (modern Beirut) Ampi, Amia, Arqa, Baalbek, Botrys, Sarepta, and Tripolis. From the late tenth century BC, the Phoenicians established commercial outposts throughout the Mediterranean, with Tyre founding colonies in Cyprus, Sardinia, Iberia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Malta, and North Africa. Later colonies were established beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, particularly on the Atlantic coast of Iberia. The Phoenicians may have explored the Canary Islands and the British Isles.[26] Phoenician settlement was primarily concentrated in Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, northwest Africa, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia.

### Phoenician colonization

Ruins of the ancient Phoenician city of Motya, Sicily, present-day Italy

To facilitate their commercial ventures, the Phoenicians established numerous colonies and trading posts along the coasts of the Mediterranean. Phoenician city states generally lacked the numbers or even the desire to expand their territory overseas. Few colonies had more than 1,000 inhabitants; only Carthage and some nearby settlements in the western Mediterranean would grow larger.[132] A major motivating factor was competition with the Greeks, who began expanding across the Mediterranean during the same period.[133] Though largely peaceful rivals, their respective settlements in Crete and Sicily did clash intermittently.[134]

The earliest Phoenician settlements outside the Levant were on Cyprus and Crete, gradually moving westward towards Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as on the European mainland in Cádiz and Málaga.[135] The first Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean were along the northwest African coast and on Sicily, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands.[136] Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas.[137]

Phoenician colonies were fairly autonomous. At most, they were expected to send annual tribute to their mother city, usually in the context of a religious offering. However, in the seventh century BC the western colonies came under the control of Carthage,[138][139] which was exercised directly through appointed magistrates.[140] Carthage continued to send annual tribute to Tyre for some time after its independence.

## Society and culture

Since very little of the Phoenicians' writings have survived, much of what is known about their culture and society comes from accounts by contemporary civilizations or inferences from archaeological discoveries. The Phoenicians had much in common with other Canaanites, including language, religion, social customs, and a monarchical political system centered around city-states. Their culture, economy, and daily life were heavily centered on commerce and maritime trade. Their propensity for seafaring brought them into contact with many other civilizations.[141]

### Politics and government

Tomb of King Hiram I of Tyre, located in the village of Hanaouay, in southern Lebanon

The Phoenician city-states were highly independent, competing with each other. Formal alliances between city-states were rare. The relative power and influence of city-states varied over time. Sidon was dominant between the 12th and 11th centuries BC and influenced its neighbors. However, by the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the most powerful city.

At least in its earlier stages, Phoenician society was highly stratified and predominantly monarchical. Hereditary kings usually governed with absolute power over civic, commercial, and religious affairs. They often relied upon senior officials from the noble and merchant classes; the priesthood was a distinct class, usually of royal lineage or leading merchant families. The King was considered a representative of the gods and carried many obligations and duties concerning religious processions and rituals. Priests were thus highly influential and often became intertwined with the royal family.

Phoenician kings did not commemorate their reign through sculptures or monuments. Their wealth, power, and accomplishments were usually conveyed through ornate sarcophagi, like that of Ahiram of Byblos. The Phoenicians kept records of their rulers in tomb inscriptions, which are among the few primary sources still available. Historians have determined a clear line of succession over centuries for some city-states, notably Byblos and Tyre.

Starting as early as 15th century BC, Phoenician leaders were "advised by councils or assemblies which gradually took greater power".[74] In the sixth century BC, during the period of Babylonian rule, Tyre briefly adopted a system of government consisting of a pair of judges with authority roughly equivalent to the Roman consul, known as sufetes (shophets), who were chosen from the most powerful noble families and served short terms.[142][74]

19th-century depiction of Phoenician sailors and merchants. The importance of trade to the Phoenician economy led to a gradual sharing of power between the King and assemblies of merchant families.

In the fourth century BC, when the armies of Alexander the Great approached Tyre, they were met not by its King but by representatives of the commonwealth of the city. Similarly, historians at the time describe the "inhabitants" or "the people" of Sidon making peace with Alexander.[74] When the Macedonians sought to appoint a new king over Sidon, the citizens nominated their candidate.[74]

### Law and administration

After the King and council, the two most important political positions in virtually every Phoenician city-state were governor and commander of the army. Details regarding the duties of these offices are sparse. However, it is known that the governor was responsible for collecting taxes, implementing decrees, supervising judges, and ensuring the administration of law and justice. As warfare was rare among the most mercantile Phoenicians, the army's commander was generally responsible for ensuring the defense and security of the city-state and its hinterlands.

Stela from Tyre with Phoenician inscriptions (c. 4th century BC). National Museum of Beirut.

The Phoenicians had a system of courts and judges that resolved disputes and punished crimes based on a semi-codified body of laws and traditions. Laws were implemented by the state and were the responsibility of the ruler and certain designated officials. Like other Levantine societies, laws were harsh and biased, reflecting the social stratification of society. The murder of a commoner was treated as less severe than that of a nobleman, and the upper classes had the most rights; the wealthy often escaped punishment by paying a fine. Free men of any class could represent themselves in court and had more rights than women and children, while slaves had no rights. Men could often deflect punishment to their wives, children, or slaves, even having them serve their sentence in their place. Lawyers eventually emerged as a profession for those who could not plead their case.

As in neighboring societies at the time, penalties for crimes were often severe, usually reflecting the principle of reciprocity; for example, the killing of a slave would be punished by having the offender's slave killed. Imprisonment was rare, with fines, exile, punishment, and execution the main remedies.

### Military

As with most aspects of Phoenician civilization, there are few records of their military or approach to warfare. Compared to most of their neighbors, the Phoenicians generally had little interest in conquest and were relatively peaceful.[143] The wealth and prosperity of all their city-states rested on foreign trade, which required good relations and a certain degree of mutual trust. They also lacked the territory and agricultural base to support a population large enough to raise an army of conquest. Instead, each city had an army commander in charge of a defensive garrison. However, the specifics of the role, or city defense, are unknown.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}

### Language

Main articles: Social:Phoenician language and Punic

The Phoenician language was a member of the Canaanite branch of the Northwest Semitic languages. Its descendant language spoken in the Carthaginian Empire is termed Punic. Punic was still spoken in the fifth century AD and known to St. Augustine of Hippo.

#### Alphabet

Main article: Phoenician alphabet

Sarcophagus of Ahiram, which bears the oldest inscription of the Phoenician alphabet. National Museum of Beirut.

Around 1050 BC,[36] the Phoenicians developed a script for writing their own language. The Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet consists of 22 letters, all consonants (and is thus strictly an abjad).[144] It is believed to be a continuation of the Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script attested in the Sinai and in Canaan in the Late Bronze Age.[145][146] Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to Anatolia, North Africa, and Europe.[26][147] The name Phoenician is by convention given to inscriptions beginning around 1050 BC, because Phoenician, Hebrew, and other Canaanite dialects were largely indistinguishable before that time.[36][11] Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian era.

The alphabet was adopted and modified by the Greeks probably in the eighth century BC. This most likely did not occur in a single instance but via the drawn out process of long-term commercial exchange.[148] According to Alessandro Pierattini, the Apollo sanctuary at Eretria is considered one of the places where the Greeks might have first adopted the Phoenician alphabet.[149] The legendary Phoenician hero Cadmus is credited with bringing the alphabet to Greece, but it is more plausible that Phoenician immigrants brought it to Crete,[150] whence it gradually diffused northwards.

### Art

Phoenician art was largely centered on ornamental objects, particularly jewelry, pottery, glassware, and reliefs. Large sculptures were rare; figurines were more common. Phoenician goods have been found from Spain and Morocco to Russia and Iraq; much of what is known about Phoenician art is based on excavations outside Phoenicia proper. Phoenician art was highly influenced by many cultures, primarily Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. Greek inspiration was particularly pronounced in pottery, while Egyptian themes were most reflected in bronze and ivory work.[151]

Phoenician art also differed from its contemporaries in its continuance of Bronze Age conventions well into the Iron Age, such as terracotta masks.[152] Phoenician artisans were known for their skill with wood, ivory, bronze, and textiles.[153] In the Old Testament, a craftsman from Tyre is commissioned to build and decorate the legendary Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem, which "presupposes a well-developed and highly respected craft industry in Phoenicia by the mid-tenth century BC".[152] The Iliad mentions the embroidered robes of Priam's wife, Hecabe, as "the work of Sidonian women" and describes a mixing bowl of chased silver as "a masterpiece of Sidonian craftsmanship".[154][155] The Assyrians appeared to have valued Phoenician ivory work in particular, collecting vast quantities in their palaces.[156]

Phoenician art appears to have been indelibly tied to Phoenician commercial interests.[99] They have crafted goods to appeal to particular trading partners, distinguishing not only different cultures but even socioeconomic status classes.[99]

* Decorative plaque which depicts a fighting of man and griffin; 900–800 BC; Nimrud ivories; Cleveland Museum of Art (Ohio, US)

Decorative plaque which depicts a fighting of man and griffin; 900–800 BC; Nimrud ivories; Cleveland Museum of Art (Ohio, US)

* Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; terracotta; height: 24.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City, US)

Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; terracotta; height: 24.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City, US)

* Face bead; mid-4th–3rd century BC; glass; height: 2.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

* Earring from a pair, each with four relief faces; late fourth–3rd century BC; gold; overall: 3.5 x 0.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

### Women

Female figurines from Tyre (c. 1000–550 BC). National Museum of Beirut.

Women in Phoenicia took part in public events and religious processions, with depictions of banquets showing them casually sitting or reclining with men, dancing, and playing music.[157] In most contexts, women were expected to dress and behave more modestly than men; female figures are almost always portrayed as clothed from head to feet, with the arms sometimes covered as well.

Although they rarely had political power, women took part in community affairs, including in the popular assemblies that emerged in some city-states.[158] At least one woman, Unmiashtart, is recorded to have ruled Sidon in the fifth century BC. The two most famous Phoenician women are political figures: Jezebel, portrayed in the Bible as the wicked princess of Sidon, and Dido, the semi-legendary founder and first queen of Carthage. In Virgil's epic poem, the Aeneid, Dido is described as having been the co-ruler of Tyre, using cleverness to escape the tyranny of her brother Pygmalion and to secure an ideal site for Carthage.

## Religion

Figure of Ba'al with raised arm, 14th–12th century BC, found at ancient Ugarit (Ras Shamra site), a city at the far north of the Phoenician coast. Musée du Louvre.

The religious practices and beliefs of Phoenicians were generally common to those of their neighbors in Canaan, which in turn shared characteristics common throughout the ancient Semitic world.[159][160] Religious rites were primarily for city-state purposes; payment of taxes by citizens was considered in the category of religious sacrifices.[161] The Phoenician sacred writings known to the ancients have been lost.[162]

Several Canaanite practices are alleged in ancient sources and mentioned by scholars, such as temple prostitution[163] and child sacrifice.[164] Special sites known as "Tophets" were allegedly used by the Phoenicians "to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire", and are condemned in the Hebrew Bible, particularly in Jeremiah 7:30–32, and in 2nd Kings 23:10 and 17:17. Notwithstanding differences, cultural and religious similarities persisted between the ancient Hebrews and the Phoenicians.[165] Biblical traditions state that the Tribe of Asher lived amongst local Phoenicians,[166][167] and that David and Solomon gave Phoenicia full political autonomy due to their supremacy in shipping and trade.[168]

Canaanite religious mythology does not appear as elaborate as their Semitic cousins in Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was called El (𐤀𐤋, 'god').[169] The son of El was Baal (𐤁𐤏𐤋, 'master', 'lord'), a powerful dying-and-rising thunder god.[170] Other gods were called by royal titles, such as Melqart, meaning 'king of the city',[171] or Adonis for 'lord'.[172] Such epithets may often have been merely local titles for the same deities.[173]

The Semitic pantheon was well-populated; which god became primary evidently depended on the exigencies of a particular city-state.[174][175] Melqart was prominent throughout Phoenicia and overseas, as was Astarte, a fertility goddess with regal and matronly aspects.

Religious institutions in Tyre called marzeh (𐤌𐤓𐤆𐤄, 'place of reunion'), did much to foster social bonding and "kin" loyalty. Marzeh held banquets for their membership on festival days, and many developed into elite fraternities. Each marzeh nurtured congeniality and community through a series of ritual meals shared among trusted kin in honor of deified ancestors.[176] In Carthage, which had developed a complex republican system of government, the marzeh may have played a role in forging social and political ties among citizens; Carthaginians were divided into different institutions that were solidified through communal feasts and banquets. Such festival groups may also have composed the voting cohort for selecting members of the city-state's Assembly.[177][178]

The Phoenicians made votive offerings to their gods, namely in the form of figurines and pottery vessels.[179] Figurines and votive fragments have been found in ceremonial favissae, underground storage spaces for sacred objects, in the temples grounds of the Temple of the Obelisks in Byblos,[180] the Phoenician sanctuary of Kharayeb in the hinterland of Tyre,[181] and the Temple of Eshmun north of Sidon,[182] among others. Votive gifts were also recovered all over the Mediterranean, often spanning centuries between them, suggesting they were cast into the sea to ensure safe travels.[179] Since the Phoenicians were predominantly a seafaring people, some sources have speculated that many of their rituals were performed at sea or aboard ships. However, the specific nature of these practices is unknown. On land they were renowned temple builders, perhaps inspiring elements of the architecture of the First Temple, the Temple of Solomon. According to William G. Dever, an archaeologist and scholar of the Old Testament, described features of the Solomonic Temple such as its longitudinal tripartite plan, fine furnishings, and elaborate decorative motifs were clearly inspired by Phoenician examples.[183]

* Votive deposit from the Temple of the Obelisks, a Bronze Age temple in the World Heritage Site of Byblos

* Iron Age terracotta figurines from the Phoenician sanctuary of Kharayeb

* Fourth century BC votive figurine from the Phoenician sanctuary of Kharayeb

Fourth century BC votive figurine from the Phoenician sanctuary of Kharayeb

* The Baalshillem Temple Boy, a 5th century BC royal votive gift from the Temple of Eshmun

* A head of a child, fifth century BC, from the Temple of Eshmun

* Phoenician prayer to Isis on papyrus with illustration, from Rabat, Malta.

Phoenician prayer to Isis on papyrus with illustration, from Rabat, Malta.

## See also

* Maronites
* Names of the Levant
* Phoenicianism
* Punic people
* Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas

## References

### Citations

1. ↑ Malaspina, Ann (2009). Lebanon. New York, USA: Infobase Publishing. pp. 18–20. ISBN 978-1-4381-0579-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=Pfop0v79y7gC&q=phoenicia+lebanon&pg=PA19.
2. ↑ Meir Edrey (2019). Phoenician Identity in Context: Material Cultural Koiné in the Iron Age Levant. Alter Orient und Altes Testament. 469. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-3-86835-282-5.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Gates 2011, pp. 189–190.
4. ↑ Quinn 2017, p. xviii.
5. ↑ Lehmann 2024, p. 75.
6. ↑ Quinn 2017, p. 16–24.
7. ↑ Aubet 2001, p. 17.
8. ↑ Quinn 2017, pp. 201–203.
9. ↑ Markoe 2000, pp. 10–12.
10. ↑ Coulmas 1996.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Markoe 2000, p. 111.
12. ↑ Fischer 2004, p. 153.
13. ↑ Niemeyer 2004, pp. 245–250.
14. ↑ Scott, John C. (2018) "The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World", Comparative Civilizations Review: Vol. 78 : No. 78, Article 4.
15. ↑ Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–2024. "The Phoenicians (1500–300 BC)". (October 2004)
16. ↑ Killebrew 2022, p. 42.
17. ↑ Honeyman, A. M. "The Phoenician Inscriptions of the Cyprus Museum" Iraq, vol. 6, no. 2, 1939, pp. 104–108 [106-107], number 8.
18. ↑ Krahmalkov 2001, pp. 1–2.
19. ↑ Linda Jones Hall, Roman Berytus: Beirut in late antiquity (2004), p 131.
20. ↑ James P. Allen (2010) Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, 2nd edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51796-6, p. 345.
21. ↑ "Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, φοῖνιξ". https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=foi=nic.
22. ↑ Quinn 2017, p. 48.
23. ↑ Krahmalkov 2001, pp. 1–4.
24. ↑ Naveh, Joseph (2001). "Review of A Phoenician–Punic Grammar (Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section One: The Near and Middle East 54)". Israel Exploration Journal 51 (1): 113–115. ISSN 0021-2059. "Krahmalkov found that in the Punic text of Plautus's Poenulus the Phoenician/Punic language is called ponnim. In order to corroborate this Krahmalkov emends parts of Psalms 45:12-14 and reads:השתחוי לו בת צר // כבדה בת מלך פנימה 'Show him respect, O daughter of Tyre, // Honor him, O daughter of the King the Phoenicians (Ponnima!)' Krahmalkov's eagerness for innovative readings results sometimes in nonsense.".
25. ↑ Jigoulov 2021, p. 13
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7 Scott, John C (2018). "The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World". Comparative Civilizations Review 78 (78). https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/ccr/vol78/iss78/4.
27. ↑ Quinn 2017, pp. 24, 204.
28. ↑ Drews, Robert (1998). "Canaanites and Philistines". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 23 (81): 39–61. doi:10.1177/030908929802308104. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030908929802308104.
29. ↑ Tubb 1998, pp. 13–14.
30. ↑ Doak, Brian R. (2020). Ancient Israel's Neighbors. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-069063-2. https://academic.oup.com/book/33589/chapter/288065678.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Jigoulov 2021, p. 18
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Jigoulov 2021, pp. 18–9
33. ↑ Zarins, Juris (1992). "Pastoral Nomadism in Arabia: Ethnoarchaeology and the Archaeological Record—A Case Study". in Bar-Yosef, O.; Khazanov, A.. Pastoralism in the Levant. Madison: Prehistory Press. ISBN 0-9629110-8-9.
34. ↑ Tubb 1998, p. 73.
35. ↑ Woodard, Roger (2008). The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68498-9.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Naveh, Joseph (1987). "Proto-Canaanite, Archaic Greek, and the Script of the Aramaic Text on the Tell Fakhariyah Statue". in Miller. Ancient Israelite Religion. Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-0831-3. https://archive.org/details/ancientisraelite00unse. . Coulmas (1996).
37. ↑ Tubb 1998, pp. 16, 72.
38. ↑ Herodotos Histories 1.1, 2.44 & 7.89; Strabo, Geography 16.3.4.
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Bowersock, G.W. (1986). "Tylos and Tyre. Bahrain in the Graeco-Roman World". Bahrain Through The Ages – the Archaeology. Routledge. pp. 401–2. ISBN 0-7103-0112-X. https://books.google.com/books?id=2hmbc9evgB0C&pg=PA401.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Rice, Michael (1994). The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf. Routledge. p. 20. ISBN 0-415-03268-7.
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 R. A. Donkin (1998). Beyond Price: Pearls and Pearl-fishing: Origins to the Age of Discoveries, Volume 224. American Philosophical Society. p. 48. ISBN 0-87169-224-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=leHFqMQ9mw8C&pg=PA48.
42. ↑ Haber, Marc; Doumet-Serhal, Claude; Scheib, Christiana; Xue, Yali; Danecek, Petr; Mezzavilla, Massimo; Youhanna, Sonia; Martiniano, Rui et al. (2017). "Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences". American Journal of Human Genetics 101 (2): 274–282. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.013. PMID 28757201.
43. ↑ Bresciani 1997, p. 233.
44. ↑ Markoe 2000, pp. 1–19.
45. ↑ Bryan 2000, p. 79.
46. ↑ Cohen 2000, p. 94.
47. ↑ Murnane 2000, p. 110.
48. ↑ Stieglitz 1990, pp. 9, 11.
49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Bentley, Jerry H. (1999). "Sea and Ocean Basins as Frameworks for Historical Analysis". Geographical Review 89 (2): 215–219. doi:10.1111/j.1931-0846.1999.tb00214.x. Bibcode: 1999GeoRv..89..215B.
50. ↑ Barnes, William H. (1991). Studies in the Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel. Atlanta: Scholars Press. pp. 29–55.
51. ↑ Chamorro, Javier G. (1987). "Survey of Archaeological Research on Tartessos". American Journal of Archaeology 91 (2): 197–232. doi:10.2307/505217.
52. ↑ Na'aman 2019, p. 75.
53. ↑ Boyes 2012, p. 33.
54. ↑ Warmington 1960, pp. 24.
55. ↑ Charles-Picard & Picard 1968, pp. 28–35.
56. ↑ Lancel 1995, pp. 20–23.
57. ↑ Hoyos, Dexter (2020). Carthage: A Biography. Routledge. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-000-32816-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=DGwJEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT88.
58. ↑ Woolmer 2021, pp. 49–50.
59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Aubet 2008, p. 184.
60. ↑ Woolmer 2021, p. 44.
61. ↑ Hodos 2011, p. 25.
62. ↑ Faust 2021, p. 37.
63. ↑ Bunnens 2022, p. 67.
64. ↑ Elayi 2018, p. 149.
65. ↑ Dixon 2022, pp. 165–170.
66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 Katzenstein, Jacob (1979). "Tyre in the Early Persian Period (539-486 B.C.E.)". The Biblical Archaeologist 42 (1): 31. doi:10.2307/3209545.
67. ↑ Herodotus, The Histories, III.19
68. ↑ Herodotus, The Histories, III.91
69. ↑ Herodotus, The Histories, V.109
70. ↑ Herodotus, The Histories, VII.23
71. ↑ Herodotus, The Histories, VIII.90
72. ↑ "LacusCurtius • Diodorus Siculus — Book XVI Chapters 40‑65". https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/16C*.html.
73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Millar 2006, p. 58.
74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 74.2 74.3 74.4 Stockwell, Stephen (2010). "Before Athens: Early Popular Government in Phoenician and Greek City States". Geopolitics, History, and International Relations (2): 128–129.
75. ↑ Millar 2006, p. 66.
76. ↑ Feldman, Louis H. (1996) (in en). Studies in Hellenistic Judaism. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-10418-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=pACJYw0bg3QC&pg=PA195.
77. ↑ Rives, 1995 p. 220.
78. ↑ Selzer, Claudia (1984). "The Jews in Carthage and Western North Africa, 66-235 CE". in Davies, William David (in en). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The late Roman-Rabbinic period. Cambridge University Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=BjtWLZhhMoYC&pg=PA68.
79. ↑ Wright 2011, p. 128.
80. ↑ Hoover 2007, p. 298.
81. ↑ Zalloua, Pierre A. (2008). "Identifying Genetic Traces of Historical Expansions: Phoenician Footprints in the Mediterranean". American Journal of Human Genetics 83 (5): 633–642. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.10.012. PMID 18976729.
82. ↑ Tomàs, Carme (2006). "Differential maternal and paternal contributions to the genetic pool of Ibiza Island, Balearic Archipelago". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 129 (2): 268–278. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20273. PMID 16323196. Bibcode: 2006AJPA..129..268T.
83. ↑ Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth A.Expression error: Unrecognized word "et". (25 May 2016). "A European Mitochondrial Haplotype Identified in Ancient Phoenician Remains from Carthage, North Africa". PLoS ONE 11 (5). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0155046. PMID 27224451. Bibcode: 2016PLoSO..1155046M.
84. ↑ Harb, Marc (July 2017). "Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences". American Journal of Human Genetics 101 (2): 274–282. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.013. PMID 28757201.
85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 Abed, Mira (27 July 2017). "The DNA of ancient Canaanites lives on in modern-day Lebanese, genetic analysis shows". Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-canaanite-lebanese-genetics-20170727-story.html.
86. ↑ "Ancient Phoenician life was mixed and multicultural" (in en). 10 January 2018. https://cosmosmagazine.com/biology/ancient-phoenician-life-was-mixed-and-multicultural.
87. ↑ Haber, Marc; Nassar, Joyce; Almarri, Mohamed A.; Saupe, Tina; Saag, Lehti; Griffith, Samuel J.; Doumet-Serhal, Claude; Chanteau, Julien et al. (2020). "A Genetic History of the Near East from an aDNA Time Course Sampling Eight Points in the Past 4,000 Years". American Journal of Human Genetics 107 (1): 149–157. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.05.008. PMID 32470374.
88. ↑ Modi, Alessandra; Vizzari, Maria Teresa; Catalano, Giulio; Boscolo Agostini, Rajiv; Vai, Stefania; Lari, Martina; Vergata, Chiara; Zaro, Valentina et al. (2022-09-09). "Genetic structure and differentiation from early bronze age in the mediterranean island of sicily: Insights from ancient mitochondrial genomes" (in English). Frontiers in Genetics 13. doi:10.3389/fgene.2022.945227. ISSN 1664-8021. PMID 36159977.
89. ↑ Ringbauer, Harald; Salman-Minkov, Ayelet; Regev, Dalit; Olalde, Iñigo; Peled, Tomer; Sineo, Luca; Falsone, Gioacchino; van Dommelen, Peter et al. (23 April 2025). "Punic people were genetically diverse with almost no Levantine ancestors". Nature 643 (8070): 139–147. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08913-3. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 40269169. Bibcode: 2025Natur.643..139R.
90. ↑ Braudel, Fernand (2001). Memory and Mediterranean. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 112–113.
91. ↑ Rhodes, Christine P. (23 September 2014). Encyclopedia of Beer. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-1-4668-8195-2.
92. ↑ Johannes Heinrich, August Ebrard (1887). Apologetics, Or, The Scientific Vindication of Christianity (2 ed.). Harvard University. p. 401.
93. ↑ Cunliffe 2008, pp. 241–242.
94. ↑ Stager, L. E. (2003). "Phoenician shipwrecks in the deep sea". Sea routes: From Sidon to Huelva: Interconnections in the Mediterranean, 16th–6th c. BC. Museum of Cycladic Art. pp. 233–248. ISBN 978-960-7064-40-0.
95. ↑ A. B. Freijeiro, R. Corzo Sánchez, Der neue anthropoide Sarkophag von Cadiz. In: Madrider Mitteilungen 22, 1981.
96. ↑ Lapuente, P.; Rodà, I.; Gutiérrez Garcia-M, A.; Brilli, M. (June 2021). "Addressing the controversial origin of the marble source used in the Phoenician anthropoid sarcophagi of Gadir (Cadiz, Spain)". Archaeometry 63 (3): 467–480. doi:10.1111/arcm.12623. Bibcode: 2021Archa..63..467L. http://zaguan.unizar.es/record/108415.
97. ↑ Markoe 2000, p. 103.
98. ↑ Hawkes, Christopher (1977). "Britain and Julius Caesar". Proceedings of the British Academy (63): 124–192.
99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 99.2 99.3 99.4 Markoe, Glenn; McGovern, Patrick E. (March 1990). "A Nation of Artisans". Archaeology 43 (2): 32–33.
100. ↑ Herm 1975, p. 80.
101. ↑ Moore, Karl; Lewis, David (1999). Birth of the Multinational. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School Press. p. 85.
102. ↑ St. Clair, Kassia (2016). The Secret Lives of Colour. London: John Murray. pp. 162–164.
103. ↑ History, Captivating (2019). The Phoenicians: A Captivating Guide to the History of Phoenicia and the Impact Made by One of the Greatest Trading Civilizations of the Ancient World. Captivating History. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-64748-205-3.
104. ↑ Rawlinson 1889, p. 313.
105. ↑ Rawlinson 1889, p. 314.
106. ↑ Rawlinson 1889, pp. 317–318.
107. ↑ 107.0 107.1 107.2 107.3 "2,600-year-old wine 'factory' unearthed in Lebanon" (in en). 2020-09-14. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/09/2600-year-old-wine-factory-unearthed-lebanon/.
108. ↑ Woolmer 2021, p. 163.
109. ↑ Sechrist, Robert. Planet of the Grapes: A Geography of Wine. pp. 6–7.
110. ↑ Aubet 2001, p. 174.
111. ↑ McGrail 2001, p. 134.
112. ↑ Pomey 2010, p. 134.
113. ↑ Mark 2005, p. 35.
114. ↑ Bass 1989, p. 27.
115. ↑ Bass et al. 1967, pp. 50–51.
116. ↑ Bass 2012, p. 300.
117. ↑ Sleeswyk 1980, p. 244.
118. ↑ Bass 2006, p. 14.
119. ↑ Sleeswyk 1980, pp. 243–244.
120. ↑ Cato 1934, Chapter XVIII, 9.
121. ↑ Braudel 2011, p. 150.
122. ↑ Papalas 1997, p. 259.
123. ↑ Morrison, Coates & Rankov 2000, p. 34.
124. ↑ Morrison, Coates & Rankov 2000, p. 36.
125. ↑ van den Eijnde 2019, p. 52.
126. ↑ Haggi, Arad (2010). "Report on Underwater Excavation at the Phoenician Harbour, Atlit, Israel". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (39): 283.
127. ↑ Wachsmann, Shelley (1998). Seagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant. College Station, TX: Texas A & M University Press. pp. 300, 51, 323–325, 332.
128. ↑ Woolmer 2021, p. 84.
129. ↑ Gambin, Timmy (October 2017). ﻿Between east and west – The Phoenician shipwreck off Gozo﻿ (Report). University of Malta. https://honorfrostfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/GAMBIN-Report-2017_frost.pdf. Retrieved 6 November 2020.
130. ↑ Klein, Christopher. "2,700-Year-Old Phoenician Shipwreck Discovered" (in en). https://www.history.com/news/2700-year-old-phoenician-shipwreck-discovered.
131. ↑ Lorenzi, Rossella (28 August 2014). "2,700-Year-Old Phoenician Shipwreck Discovered". Seeker. https://www.seeker.com/2700-year-old-phoenician-shipwreck-discovered-1769022411.html.
132. ↑ Hansen, Mogens Herman (2000). "Conclusion: The Impact of City-State Cultures on World History". A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 601–602. ISBN 978-87-7876-177-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=8qvY8pxVxcwC. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
133. ↑ Eric H. Cline; Mark W. Graham (27 June 2011). Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-521-88911-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=1eRb5h7ATbsC. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
134. ↑ David Sacks; Oswyn Murray; Lisa R. Brody (1 January 2009). Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Infobase Publishing. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-4381-1020-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=yyrao0dadqAC. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
135. ↑ Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). Encyclopedia of European Peoples. Infobase Publishing. p. 586. ISBN 978-1-4381-2918-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC. Retrieved 23 February 2013.
136. ↑ Smith, Richard L. (31 July 2008). Premodern Trade in World History. Routledge. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-203-89352-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=986da1QR_wkC. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
137. ↑ Naylor, Phillip Chiviges (1 July 2009). North Africa: A History from Antiquity to the Present. University of Texas Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-292-77878-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=a1jfzkJTAZgC. Retrieved 23 February 2013.
138. ↑ Swartz, B. K.; Dumett, Raymond E. (1 January 1980). West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives. Walter de Gruyter. p. 236. ISBN 978-3-11-080068-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=8_Z5N0gmNlsC. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
139. ↑ Garnsey, P. D. A.; Whittaker, C. R. (15 February 2007). Imperialism in the Ancient World: The Cambridge University Research Seminar in Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-521-03390-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=01c6sUSS24oC. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
140. ↑ P. Roberts (1 October 2004). HSC Ancient History. Pascal Press. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-74125-179-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=Krh7n9AyS40C. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
141. ↑ "All at sea: The maritime lives of the ancient Phoenicians". https://press.princeton.edu/ideas/all-at-sea-the-maritime-lives-of-the-ancient-phoenicians.
142. ↑ Crawley Quinn, Josephine (2018). "A New Phoenician World". In Search of the Phoenicians. Princeton University Press. pp. 153–175. doi:10.2307/j.ctvc77kkd.13. ISBN 978-0-691-19596-4.
143. ↑ Pritchard, James B.; Edey, Maitland A. (1974). Introduction to The Sea Traders. New York: Time-Life Books. p. 7.
144. ↑ Fischer 2004, p. 101.
145. ↑ Cross, Frank Moore (1980). "Newly Found Inscriptions in Old Canaanite and Early Phoenician Scripts". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The American Schools of Oriental Research) 238 (238 (Spring, 1980)): 1–20. doi:10.2307/1356511.
146. ↑ Millard, A. R. (1986). "The Infancy of the Alphabet". World Archaeology 17 (3): 390–398. doi:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979978.
147. ↑ Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 978-0-395-87274-1. https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck.
148. ↑ Moscati 1965.
149. ↑ Pierattini 2022, p. 66.
150. ↑ Jeffery, L. H. (1976). The Archaic Greece: The Greek city-states 700–500 BC. Ernest Benn Ltd & Tonnbridge.
151. ↑ Frankfort 1954, p. 188.
152. ↑ 152.0 152.1 Markoe, Glenn E. (August 1990). "The Emergence of Phoenician Art". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (279): 13–26. doi:10.2307/1357205.
153. ↑ "The Phoenicians (1500–300 B.C.)". October 2004. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/phoe/hd_phoe.htm.
154. ↑ Woolmer 2021, p. 145.
155. ↑ Cunliffe 2017, p. 305.
156. ↑ "Furniture plaque carved in high relief with two Egyptianizing figures flanking a volute tree, c. 9th–8th century B.C.". https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/325564.
157. ↑ Holst 2011, p. 31.
158. ↑ Holst 2011, p. 44.
159. ↑ Moscati 1957, e.g., p. 40 & 113.
160. ↑ Smith 1956, pp. 1–15.
161. ↑ Gaster 1965, pp. 113–143, 114–5.
162. ↑ Harden 1962, pp. 83–4.
163. ↑ Brandon 1970, pp. 512–513.
164. ↑ Brandon 1970, p. 448.
165. ↑ Brandon 1970, p. 173.
166. ↑ "Asher". https://www.britannica.com/topic/Asher-Hebrew-tribe.
167. ↑ Nisan, Mordechai (2015). "Identities and Peoples in History: Speculating on Ancient Mediterranean Mysteries". The Levantine Review 4 (2). https://ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/levantine/article/view/9158/8253.
168. ↑ Stern, E. (1990). "New Evidence from Dor for the First Appearance of the Phoenicians along the Northern Coast of Israel". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (279): 27–34. doi:10.2307/1357206.
169. ↑ Brandon 1970, p. 258 ("El").
170. ↑ Brandon 1970, pp. 315, 28, 124.
171. ↑ Moscati 1957, pp. 113–4.
172. ↑ Brandon 1970, pp. 29–30.
173. ↑ Brandon 1970, p. 124.
174. ↑ Brandon 1970, pp. 173, 501.
175. ↑ Carlyon, Richard (1981). A Guide to the Gods. New York: Quill Books. pp. 311–333.
176. ↑ Markoe 2000, p. 120.
177. ↑ Warmington 1960, p. 148.
178. ↑ Smith 1956, pp. 33–43.
179. ↑ 179.0 179.1 "Long-lost Phoenician figurines could reveal secrets to ancient cult". 8 September 2020. https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/figurines-forgotten-in-haifa-for-decades-tell-tale-of-phoenician-cult-641482.
180. ↑ Steiner, Margreet L.; Killebrew, Ann E. (2014). The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: C. 8000-332 BCE. OUP Oxford. pp. 465–. ISBN 978-0-19-921297-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=5H4fAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT465.
181. ↑ Khalil & Oggiano 2021, p. 332.
182. ↑ Gibson, John Clark Love (1982). Textbook of Syrian Semitic inscriptions. 3. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-19-813199-1.
183. ↑ Dever 2008, p. 97.

### Sources

* Aubet, Maria Eugenia (2001). The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79543-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=B7SLWT2vpNcC.
* Aubet, María Eugenia (2008). "Political and economic implications of the new Phoenician chronologies". in Sagona, Claudia. Beyond the Homeland: Markers in Phoenician Chronology. Peeters. ISBN 978-90-429-2014-9. https://www.upf.edu/documents/163262092/164235373/AubtCrono.pdf.
* Bass, George F.; Throckmorton, Peter; Taylor, Joan Du Plat; Hennessy, J. B.; Shulman, Alan R.; Buchholz, Hans-Günter (1967). "Cape Gelidonya: A Bronze Age Shipwreck". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 57 (8): 1–177. doi:10.2307/1005978. ISSN 0065-9746.
* Bass, George F. (1989). "The Construction of a Seagoing Vessel of the Late Bronze Age" (in en). Tropis I: Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Piraeus, 1985.. https://www.academia.edu/34516140.
* Bass, George F. (2006). "New Techniques of Archaeology and Greek Shipwrecks of the Sixth and Fifth Centuries BC". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 150 (1): 1–14. ISSN 0003-049X.
* Bass, George F. (2012). "Cape Gelidonya shipwreck". in Cline, Eric H. (in en). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-987360-9. https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199873609-e-59.
* Bondi, S. F. 1988. "The Course of History". In The Phoenicians, edited by Sabatino Moscati, 38–45. Milan: Gruppo Editoriale Fabbri.
* Braudel, Fernand (2011). Memory and the Mediterranean. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-77336-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=qy68XjqFQwUC.
* Brandon, S.G.F., ed (1970). Dictionary of Comparative Religion. New York City: Charles Scribner's Son. ISBN 978-0-684-31009-1. https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofcomp00bran/page/n5.
* Boyes, Philip J. (February 2012). "The King of the Sidonians: Phoenician Ideologies and the Myth of the Kingdom of Tyre-Sidon". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 365: 33–44. doi:10.5615/bullamerschoorie.365.0033.
* Bresciani, Edda (1997). "Foreigners". in Donadoni, Sergio. The Egyptians. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-15555-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=c2xMevXgotsC.
* Bryan, Betsy M. (2000). "The Egyptian Perspective on Mittani". in Cohen, Raymond; Westbrook, Raymond. Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6199-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=hTOB-u4jplUC.
* Bunnens, Guy (2022). "Phoenicia in the Later Iron Age: Tenth Century BCE to the Assyrian and Babylonian Periods". in López-Ruiz, Carolina; Doak, Brian R.. The Oxford Handbook of the Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-765442-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=GOXgEAAAQBAJ.
* Cato, Marcus (1934). "XVIII" (in la). De agri cultura. https://www.loebclassics.com/view/cato-agriculture/1934/pb_LCL283.35.xml. Retrieved 2021-04-27.
* Charles-Picard, Gilbert; Picard, Colette (1968). (Original French ed.: Vie et mort de Carthage Paris: Hatchette 1968). New York City: Taplinger.Vie+et+mort+de+Carthage''+Paris:+Hatchette+1968)&rft.aulast=Charles-Picard&rft.aufirst=Gilbert&rft.au=Charles-Picard, Gilbert&rft.au=Picard, Colette&rft.date=1968&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Taplinger&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:History:Phoenicia">
* Cohen, Raymond (2000). "Intelligence in the Armana Letters". in Cohen, Raymond; Westbrook, Raymond. Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6199-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=hTOB-u4jplUC.
* Coulmas, Florian (1996). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-21481-6.
* Cunliffe, Barry (2008). Europe Between the Oceans; 9000 BC-AD 1000. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
* Cunliffe, Barry (2017). On the Ocean: The Mediterranean and the Atlantic from prehistory to AD 1500. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-107534-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=H583DwAAQBAJ.
* Dever, William G. (2008). Did God Have a Wife?: Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-6394-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=IGR7-OSz7bUC.
* Dixon, Helen (2022). "Reexamining Nebuchadnezzar II's 'Thirteen-Year' Siege of Tyre in Phoenician Historiography". Journal of Ancient History 10 (2): 165–199. doi:10.1515/jah-2022-0007. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/jah-2022-0007/pdf.
* Elayi, Josette (2018). The History of Phoenicia. Lockwood Press. ISBN 978-1-937040-82-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=MDFbDwAAQBAJ.
* Faust, Avraham (2021). The Neo-Assyrian Empire in the Southwest: Imperial Domination and its Consequences. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-257872-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=7PUTEAAAQBAJ.
* Fischer, Steven Roger (2004). A History of Writing. Reaktion Books.
* Frankfort, Henri (1954). The Art And Architecture Of The Ancient Orient. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.463104/page/n215/mode/2up.
* Gaster, Theodor H. (1965). "The Religion of the Canaanites". in Ferm, Vergilius. (Original ed.: Philosophical Library 1950). New York City: Citadel Pres.
* Gates, Charles (2011). Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-83057-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=nT70dCn-I9kC.
* Harden, Donald (1962). The Phoenicians. New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger. https://archive.org/details/phoenicians00hard.
* Herm, Gerhard (1975). The Phoenicians. New York: William Morrow. p. 80.
* Hodos, Tamar (2011). "A Phoenician Past and Present". Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies 13: 25. https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/publications/a-phoenician-past-and-present.
* Holst, Sanford (2011). Phoenician Secrets: Exploring the Ancient Mediterranean. Santorini Books. ISBN 978-0-9833279-0-5.
* Hoover, Oliver D. (2007). "A Revised Chronology for the Late Seleucids at Antioch (121/0-64 BC)". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 56 (3): 298. doi:10.25162/historia-2007-0021. ISSN 0018-2311.
* Jigoulov, Vadim S. (2021). The Phoenicians: Lost Civilizations. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-789-14478-9.
* Khalil, Wissam; Oggiano, Ida (2021). "معبد الخرايب من الحقبتين الفينيقيّة والهلنستيّة في الرّيف المتاخم لمدينة صور (لبنان)" (in ar). مجلة الإتحاد العام للآثاريين العرب 22 (2): 331–344. doi:10.21608/jguaa.2021.71462.1181. ISSN 2536-9822. https://jguaa.journals.ekb.eg/article_176371.html.
* Killebrew, Ann E. (2022). "Canaanite Roots, Proto-Phoenicia, and the Early Phoenician Period: ca. 1300–1000 BCE". in López-Ruiz, Carolina; Doak, Brian R.. The Oxford Handbook of the Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-765442-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=GOXgEAAAQBAJ.
* Krahmalkov, Charles R. (2001). A Phoenician-Punic Grammar. Brill. https://archive.org/details/charles-r.-krahmalkov-a-phoenician-punic-grammar/mode/2up.
* Lancel, Serge (1995). (Original ed. in French: Carthage. Paris: Librairie Artheme Fayard 1992). Oxford: Blackwell.
* Lehmann, Gunnar (2024). Koch, Ido; Lipschits, Oded; Sergi, Omer. eds. From Nomadism to Monarchy?: Revisiting the Early Iron Age Southern Levant. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-1-64602-269-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vvwUEQAAQBAJ.
* McGrail, Sean (2001) (in en). Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to Medieval Times. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814468-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=rLkRDAAAQBAJ.
* Mark, Samuel (2005) (in en). Homeric Seafaring. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-60344-594-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=mDQwngvaIvMC&q=Homeric+Seafaring.
* Markoe, Glenn E. (2000). Peoples of the Past: Phoenicians. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22614-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=smPZ-ou74EwC&pg=PA13.
* Millar, Fergus (2006). "The Phoenician Cities". The Phoenician Cities: A Case-Study of Hellenisation. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 32–50. doi:10.5149/9780807876657_millar.8. ISBN 978-0-8078-3030-7. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807876657_millar.8.
* Morrison, J. S.; Coates, J. F.; Rankov, N. B. (2000). The Athenian Trireme: The History and Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Warship. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56456-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=wVT71_6zLygC&pg=PA36.
* Moscati, Sabatino (1957). Ancient Semitic Civilizations. London, England: Elek Books. https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.6873.
* Moscati, Sabatino (1965). The World of the Phoenicians. New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger.
* Murnane, William J. (2000). "Imperial Egypt and the Limits of Power". in Cohen, Raymond; Westbrook, Raymond. Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6199-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=hTOB-u4jplUC.
* Na'aman, Nadav (April 2019). "Hiram of Tyre in the Book of Kings and in the Tyrian Records". Journal of Near Eastern Studies 78 (1): 75. doi:10.1086/701707.
* Niemeyer, Hans Georg (2004). "The Phoenicians and the Birth of a Multinational Mediterranean Society". in Schnegg, Kordula. Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World: Means of Transmission and Cultural Interaction: Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Symposium of the Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project, Held in Innsbruck, Austria, October 3rd-8th 2002. Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 245–254. ISBN 978-3-515-08379-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=GNYAd5SE_44C&pg=PA245.
* Papalas, Anthony J. (January 1997). "The Development of the Trireme". The Mariner's Mirror 83 (3): 259–271. doi:10.1080/00253359.1997.10656646.
* Pierattini, Alessandro (2022). The Origins of Greek Temple Architecture. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-60297-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=fdCIEAAAQBAJ.
* Pomey, Patrice (2010). "Introduction 3" (in fr). Transferts technologiques en architecture navale méditerranéenne de l'Antiquité aux temps modernes: identité technique et identité culturelle. Actes de la Table Ronde d'Istanbul 19–22 mai 2007. 20. Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes. 131–136. https://www.persee.fr/doc/anatv_1013-9559_2010_act_20_1_1140.
* Quinn, Josephine Crawley (2017). In Search of the Phoenicians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-8911-2.
* Rawlinson, George (1889). The History of Phoenicia. https://archive.org/details/historyofphoenic00rawl/mode/2up.
* Röllig, W. (1995), Phoenician and the Phoenicians in the context of the Ancient Near East, in S. Moscati (ed.), I Fenici ieri oggi domani : ricerche, scoperte, progetti, Roma, p. 203–214
* Sleeswyk, A. W. (1980-08-01). "Phoenician joints, coagmenta punicana". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 9 (3): 243–244. doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1980.tb01303.x. ISSN 1057-2414. Bibcode: 1980IJNAr...9..243S. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1095-9270.1980.tb01303.x.
* Smith, W. Robertson (1956). Lectures on the Religion of the Semites. New York: Meridian Library.
* Stieglitz, Robert R. (August 1990). "The Geopolitics of the Phoenician Littoral in the Early Iron Age". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 279 (279): 9–12. doi:10.2307/1357204.
* Tubb, Johnathan N. (1998). Canaanites. British Museum People of the Past. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3108-5. https://archive.org/details/canaanites00tubb.
* van den Eijnde, Floris (2019). "The First Athenian Empire? Athenian Overseas Interests in the Archaic Period". Empires of the Sea: Maritime Power Networks in World History. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-40767-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=2AP1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52.
* Warmington, Brian H. (1960). Carthage. Praeger. https://archive.org/details/carthage0000warm/.
* Woolmer, Mark (2021). A Short History of the Phoenicians: Revised Edition. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-15394-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=srU-EAAAQBAJ.
* Wright, Nicholas L. (2011). "The Last days of a Seleucid city: Jebel Khalid on the Euphrates and its Temple". in Erickson, Kyle; Ramsey, Gillian. Selucid Dissolution: The Sinking of the Anchor. https://www.academia.edu/download/5643821/Seleucid_dissolution.pdf.

## Further reading

* Carayon, Nicolas (17 May 2008). Les ports phéniciens et puniques. Géomorphologie et infrastructures [Phoenician and Punic ports. Geomorphology and infrastructures] (Ph.D. thesis) (in français). Strasbourg: Marc Bloch University.
* Cioffi, Robert (3 January 2019). "A Palm Tree, a Colour and a Mythical Bird (review of In Search of the Phoenicians by Josephine Quinn)" (in en). London Review of Books 41 (1): 15–16. ISSN 0260-9592. https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v41/n01/robert-l.-cioffi/a-palm-tree-a-colour-and-a-mythical-bird.
* Cross, Frank Moore (1973). Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-09175-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=-eOycxXAoHMC.
* Krings, Véronique (ed.) (1995). La civilisation phénicienne et punique. Manuel de recherche [The Phoenician and Punic Civilisations: A Research Guide]. Handbook of Oriental Studies, vol. 1,20. Leiden: Brill, ISBN 90-04-10068-7.
* Thiollet, Jean-Pierre (2005). Je m'appelle Byblos. Collection Histoire & découvertes. Milon-la-Chapelle: Éd. H&D. ISBN 978-2-914266-04-8.
* Todd, Malcolm; Fleming, Andrew (1987). The South West to AD 1000. A Regional history of England. London; New York: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-49273-8, for a critical examination of the evidence of Phoenician trade with the South West of the U.K.
* da Silva, Diógenes Henrique Carvalho Veras (14 October 2016). La literatura sobre fenicios en el territorio brasileño: orígenes y razones [Literature on Phoenicians in Brazilian territory: origins and reasons] (Ph.D. thesis) (in español). Universidad Complutense de Madrid. hdl:20.500.14352/21232.
* Soren, David; Ben Khader, Aicha Ben Abed; Slim, Hédi (1990). Carthage: Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-66902-7. https://archive.org/details/carthageuncoveri00sore.

## External links

Library resources about
Phoenicia

* * *

* Online books
* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* BBC Radio4 – In Our Time: The Phoenicians (audio archive)
* The quest for the Phoenicians in South Lebanon (archived 10 January 2009)
* Phoenician Alphabet
* Sam Haselby, ed. "Phoenicia: An imaginary friend to nations in need of ancestors". Josephine Quinn, associate professor in ancient history at Worcester College, University of Oxford. Aeon. https://aeon.co/essays/phoenicia-an-imaginary-friend-to-nations-in-need-of-ancestors.

Template:Ancient states and regions of the Levant Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia Template:Phoenician cities and colonies

* v
* t
* e

Ancient seafaring

Vessels

| Types|

* Balangay
* Bangka
* Beden
* Coracle
* Dhow
* Dragon boat
* Dugout canoe
* Fire ship
* Galley
* Penteconter
* Kunlun ship
* Liburna
* Longship
* Multihull
* Navis lusoria
* Obelisk ship
* Outriggers
* Sakman
* Single-outrigger
* Catamaran
* Trimaran
* Polyremes
* Bireme
* Oared warships
* Trireme
* Quadrireme
* Quinquereme
* Hexareme
* Tessarakonteres
* Raft
* Reed boat
* Sailing ship
* Solar ship
* Tomol
* Tākitimu
* Uru

|

by region|

* Austronesia
* Egypt
* Persia
* Rome

Propulsion|

* Paddling
* Sailing
* Towing
* Poling

Components|

* Anchor
* Bow
* Cabin
* Deck
* Figurehead
* Hull
* Planking
* Keel
* Mast
* Oar
* Paddle
* Rope
* Rudder
* Steering oar
* Sail
* Sail components
* Stem
* Sternpost
* Strake
* Tiller

Construction|

* Boat building
* Careening
* Carvel built
* Clinker built
* Dugout
* Framing
* Frame-first
* Shell-first
* Joinery
* Lashed-lug
* Mortise and tenon
* Phoenician joint
* Scarf joint
* Sewn-plank
* Shipbuilding
* By region:
* Egypt

Rigging|

* Crab claw
* Fore-and-aft
* Lateen
* Settee
* Tanja
* Triangular sail
* Junk
* Mast-aft
* Spritsail
* Square

Armaments|

* Ballista
* Catapult
* Corvus
* Dolphin
* Fire ship
* Harpax
* Ram
* Sambuca

Wrecks
and relics|

| Earliest|

* Pesse canoe
* Dufuna canoe
* Abydos
* Moor Sand
* Dokos
* Khufu ship
* Ferriby Boats
* Dover Bronze Age Boat
* Uluburun
* Canaanite
* Cape Gelidonya
* Zambratija
* Rochelongue

|

Austronesia|

* Pontian boat
* Butuan boats

Black Sea‎|

* Sinop D

Greek|

* Kyrenia
* Leontophoros
* Syracusia
* Ashkelon
* Antikythera

Canaanite
and Phoenician|

* Bajo de la Campana
* Canaanite shipwreck
* Gozo
* Ma'agan Michael
* Mazarrón

Punic|

* Marsala Punic shipwreck

Roman|

* Alkedo
* Arles Rhône 3
* Blackfriars I
* Caligula's Giant Ship
* De Meern ships
* Isis
* Madrague de Giens
* Nemi ships
* Marausa
* Yassi Ada

Nordic|

* Hjortspring boat
* Nydam boat

Lists|

* Oldest surviving
* Museum ships
* Surviving ancient ships

File:Galley - Layard - Ninive page 324 detail.png

Navigation, and ports and harbors

| Navigation|

* Celestial
* Charts
* Coastal
* Lighthouses
* History
* Ocean swell
* Stick chart
* Periplus
* Piloting
* Pilot boat
* Maritime pilot
* By region:
* Inuit
* Micronesian
* Polynesia

|

Ports and
harbors|

* Actium
* Aden
* Adulis
* Alexandria
* Apollonia
* Aradus
* Arikamedu
* Arsinoe
* Avalites
* Barbarikon
* Barygaza
* Basra
* Berenice Troglodytica
* Bosphorus
* Byblos
* Caesarea Maritima
* Canopus
* Carthage
* Centumcellae
* Charmutha
* Chittagong
* Delos
* Essina
* Giao Chỉ
* Godavaya
* Guangzhou
* Jambukola
* Jeddah
* Kaveri Poompattinam
* Kedah
* Korkai
* Leptis Magna
* Lothal
* Manthai
* Madurai
* Malao
* Mersa Gawasis
* Myos Hormos
* Martaban
* Mueang Phra Rot
* Muscat
* Muziris
* Narbonne
* Nesis
* Óc Eo (Cattigara)
* Opone
* Ostia Antica
* Palembang
* Piraeus
* Portus Augusti
* Portus Pisanus
* Prosphorion
* Ptolemais Theron
* Puteoli
* Qal'at al-Bahrain
* Qandala
* Quilon
* Rhacotis
* Sarapion
* Satingpra
* Sidon
* Socotra
* Sounagoura
* Thapsus
* Trincomalee
* Tulum
* Tyndis
* Tyre
* Wadi al-Jarf
* Zanzibar

File:Galley - Layard - Ninive page 324 detail.png

History

| Prehistory|

* Timeline
* Britain
* Oceania
* Remote
* Near
* Ubaid period
* Indus Valley

|

Civilizations|

* Ancient Egypt
* Old Kingdom
* Austronesia
* Sa Huỳnh
* Lapita
* Micronesia
* Langkasuka
* Kedah
* Champa
* Kutai
* Tarumanagara
* Kalingga
* Srivijaya
* Sunda
* Polynesia
* Minoan
* Indus Valley
* Tamilakam
* Chola
* Chera
* Pandya
* Somalia
* Dilmun
* Maya
* Nuragic
* Mycenaean
* Phoenicia
* Olmecs
* Carthage
* Greece
* Archaic
* Classical
* Rome
* Achaemenid
* Nabatea
* Aksum

Migration and
exploration|

* Peopling of Australia
* Peopling of Micronesia
* Austronesian Expansion
* Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul
* Ocean exploration
* Phoenician maritime expansion
* Sardinia
* Circumnavigation of Africa
* Pytheas's voyage to Britain
* Roman circumnavigation of Britain
* Timeline

Mariners and
explorers|

* Henenu
* Euthymenes
* Hanno the Navigator
* Himilco
* Sataspes
* Androsthenes of Thasos
* Archias of Pella
* Alexander the Great
* Nearchus
* Pytheas
* Megasthenes
* Xu Fu
* Hippalus
* Julius Caesar
* Eudoxus of Cyzicus
* Maes Titianus

Military|

| Navies|

* Egyptian
* Achaemenid
* Greek
* Roman

|

Battles|

* Mediterranean: Alashiya
* Nile Delta
* Salamis
* Artemisium
* Eurymedon
* Naupactus
* Olpae
* Syracuse
* Cynossema
* Arginusae
* Mytilene
* Hellespont
* Echinades
* Salamis II
* Mylae
* Cape Hermaeum
* Ecnomus
* Drepana
* Aegates
* Lake Trasimene
* Chios
* Myonessus
* Nile
* Naulochus
* Mycale
* Actium

Tactics|

* Boarding
* Grappling
* Incendiaries
* Oared vessels
* Sailing ships
* Greek navy
* Ramming

By region|

* China
* India
* Odisha
* Japan
* Rome
* South America
* Rafts

File:Galley - Layard - Ninive page 324 detail.png

Economy and trade

* Whaling
* Fishing
* Egypt
* Land of Punt
* Indo–Mesopotamia relations
* Meluhha
* Tin
* Spice trade
* Austronesian network
* Sa Huynh-Kalanay
* Incense trade
* Maritime Silk Road
* Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
* Maya
* Greece
* Greco–Indian
* shipping
* Rome
* Indo–Roman

File:Galley - Layard - Ninive page 324 detail.png

Piracy

* History
* Mediterranean piracy
* Ameinias the Phocian
* Cilician pirates
* Jewish pirates
* Kidnapping of Julius Caesar
* Pompey's campaign against the pirates

File:Galley - Layard - Ninive page 324 detail.png

Research and education

| Scholars|

| Historians|

* David Blackman
* Lionel Casson
* Fik Meijer
* John Sinclair Morrison
* William L. Rodgers
* Chester G. Starr

|

Archaeologists|

* George Bass
* Jean-Yves Empereur
* Boris Rankov
* J. Richard Steffy
* Peter Throckmorton
* Shelley Wachsmann

Topics
and theories|

* Coastal defence and fortification
* Grave goods
* Lighthouses
* Alexandria
* Marine art
* Marine navigation
* Maritime archaeology
* Naval warfare
* Maritime temples
* Temple of Isthmia
* Temple of Poseidon, Sounion
* Samothrace temple complex
* Nusantao network
* Phoenician discovery of America
* Pre-Columbian theories
* Sea Peoples
* Shipbuilding
* Shell middens
* Ship burial
* Tacking
* Thalassocracy
* Underwater archaeology
* Underwater exploration

Sites|

* H3
* Qal'at al-Bahrain

Experimental
archaeology|

* Ship replica
* Heyerdahl expeditions
* Kon-Tiki
* Ra and Ra II
* Austronesian replicas
* Hōkūleʻa
* Sarimanok
* Te Au o Tonga
* Hawaiʻiloa canoe
* Samudra Raksa
* Alingano Maisu
* Saina
* Balangay Voyage
* Faʻafaite
* Gaualofa
* Marumaru Atua
* Mediterranean
* Olympias
* Regina
* Phoenician Ship Expedition
* Viking replicas
* Viking
* Others
* Vital Alsar
* Ivlia
* Abora
* Viracocha
* Tangaroa
* Oakleaf
* Morgawr

Institutes and
conferences|

* Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology
* Archaeological Institute of America
* European Association of Archaeologists
* Institute of Nautical Archaeology
* International Congress of Maritime Museums
* Nautical Archaeology Society
* RPM Nautical Foundation
* Sea Research Society
* Society for American Archaeology

Museums and
memorials|

* Boat Museum, Kolkata
* Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology
* Giza Solar boat museum
* Grand Egyptian Museum
* Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle
* Museum of Ancient Seafaring
* Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa
* National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology
* Viking ship museums:
* Oslo
* Roskilde

File:Galley - Layard - Ninive page 324 detail.png

Legend and literature

| Legend|

* Ark of bulrushes
* Flood myths
* Genesis
* Gilgamesh
* Greek

|

Literature|

* Odyssey
* Histories (Herodotus)
* On the Ocean
* Argonautica
* Histories (Polybius)
* Metamorphoses
* Geography
* Aeneid

File:Galley - Layard - Ninive page 324 detail.png

Template:Empires

Find out more on Wikipedia's
Sister projects|

* Media
from Commons
* Definitions
from Wiktionary
* Source texts
from Wikisource

|

[ ⚑ ]  34°07′25″N 35°39′04″E﻿ / ﻿34.12361°N 35.65111°E﻿ / 34.12361; 35.65111

0.00

(0 votes)

Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia. Read more

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=History:Phoenicia&oldid=4310635"
*[c.]: circa
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template