Gastroenterology

Gastroenterology (from the Greek gastḗr- "belly", -énteron "intestine", and -logía "study of") is the branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders.[1] The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract, sometimes referred to as the GI tract, which includes the esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine as well as the accessory organs of digestion which include the pancreas, gallbladder, and liver.[2][3]

The digestive system functions to move material through the GI tract via peristalsis, break down that material via digestion, absorb nutrients for use throughout the body, and remove waste from the body via defecation.[3] Physicians who specialize in the medical specialty of gastroenterology are called gastroenterologists or sometimes GI doctors.

Some of the most common conditions managed by gastroenterologists include gastroesophageal reflux disease, gastrointestinal bleeding, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) which includes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, peptic ulcer disease, gallbladder and biliary tract disease, hepatitis, pancreatitis, colitis, colon polyps and cancer, nutritional problems, and many more.[4]

## Contents

* 1 History
* 1.1 18th century
* 1.2 19th century
* 1.3 20th century
* 1.4 21st century
* 2 Disease classification
* 3 Procedures
* 3.1 Colonoscopy
* 3.2 Sigmoidoscopy
* 3.3 Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD)
* 3.4 Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)
* 3.5 Ultrasound and Bowel Ultrasound
* 4 Disorders
* 4.1 Esophagus
* 4.1.1 Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
* 4.1.2 Barrett's esophagus
* 5 Education and training
* 5.1 United States
* 6 Scope of practice
* 6.1 Subspecialties
* 7 Professional organizations
* 8 Academic journals
* 9 References

## History

Drawings of Bozzini's "Lichtleiter", an early endoscope

Citing from Egyptian papyri, John F. Nunn identified significant knowledge of gastrointestinal diseases among practicing physicians during the periods of the pharaohs. Irynakhty, of the tenth dynasty, c. 2125 B.C., was a court physician specializing in gastroenterology, sleeping, and proctology.[5]

Ancient Greeks attributed digestion to 'concoction,' theorizing that it was the result of the heat of the body acting upon food in the stomach, causing it to mature and ripen.[6]

Galen's concept of the stomach having four faculties was widely accepted up to modernity in the seventeenth century.[7]

### 18th century

* Italian Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–99) was among the early physicians to disregard Galen's theories, and in 1780 he gave experimental proof on the action of gastric juice on foodstuffs.
* In 1767, German Johann von Zimmermann wrote an important work on dysentery.
* In 1777, Maximilian Stoll of Vienna described cancer of the gallbladder.[8][9]

### 19th century

* In 1805, Philipp Bozzini made the first attempt to observe inside the living human body using a tube he named Lichtleiter (light-guiding instrument) to examine the urinary tract, the rectum, and the pharynx. This is the earliest description of endoscopy.[10][11]
* Charles Emile Troisier described the enlargement of lymph nodes in abdominal cancer.[12]
* In 1823, William Prout discovered that stomach juices contain hydrochloric acid.[13]
* In 1833, William Beaumont published Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of Digestion following years of experimenting on test subject Alexis St. Martin.
* In 1868, Adolf Kussmaul, a well-known German physician, developed the gastroscope. He perfected the technique on a sword swallower.
* In 1871, at the society of physicians in Vienna, Carl Stoerk demonstrated an esophagoscope made of two telescopic metal tubes, initially devised by Waldenburg in 1870.
* In 1876, Karl Wilhelm von Kupffer described the properties of some liver cells now called Kupffer cells.
* In 1883, Hugo Kronecker and Samuel James Meltzer studied oesophageal manometry in humans.

McClendon's pH-probe

### 20th century

* In 1915, Jesse McClendon tested the acidity of the human stomach in situ.[14]
* In 1921–22, Walter Alvarez did the first electrogastrography research.[15]
* Rudolf Schindler described many important diseases involving the human digestive system during World War I in his illustrated textbook and is portrayed by some as the "father of gastroscopy". He and Georg Wolf developed a semiflexible gastroscope in 1932.
* In 1932, Burrill Bernard Crohn described Crohn's disease.
* In 1957, Basil Hirschowitz introduced the first prototype of a fibreoptic gastroscope.

### 21st century

* In 2005, Barry Marshall and Robin Warren of Australia were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of Helicobacter pylori (1982/1983) and its role in peptic ulcer disease. James Leavitt assisted in their research, but the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously so he was not included in the award.

## Disease classification

1\. International Classification of Diseases (ICD 2007)/WHO classification:

* Chapter XI, Diseases of the digestive system,(K00-K93)

2\. MeSH subject Heading:

* Gastroenterology (G02.403.776.409.405)
* Gastroenterological diseases(C06.405)

3\. National Library of Medicine Catalogue (NLM classification 2006):

* Digestive system(W1)

## Procedures

### Colonoscopy

Diagram of a colonoscopy procedure

A procedure using a long thin tube with a camera passed through the anus to visualize the rectum and the entire length of the colon. It is performed to screen for colon polyps and colorectal cancer, or to evaluate symptoms such as rectal bleeding, dark stools, changes in bowel habits, abdominal pain, and unexplained weight loss. During the procedure, the patient is usually sedated and the colon is examined for polyps, bleeding, or abnormal tissue; a biopsy or polyp removal may be performed. The procedure typically takes 30–60 minutes, followed by a brief observation period. Complications can include bloating, cramping, reaction to anesthesia, bleeding, and perforation of the colon.[16]

### Sigmoidoscopy

Sigmoidoscopy

A procedure similar to a colonoscopy using a long thin tube with a camera (scope) passed through the anus but only intended to visualize the rectum and the last part of the colon closest to the rectum. All aspects of the procedure are the same as for a colonoscopy with the exception that this procedure only lasts ten to twenty minutes and is done without sedation. This usually allows for the patient to return to normal activities immediately after the procedure is finished.[17]

### Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD)

File:Endoscopy start.jpgEndoscopy

A flexible endoscope is passed through the mouth to examine the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. EGD is used to evaluate symptoms such as persistent heartburn, difficulty swallowing, upper-GI bleeding (e.g., vomiting blood or black stools), unexplained anemia or weight loss, and abnormal imaging or lab results. The procedure allows direct visualization, biopsy for histology, and therapies including banding of esophageal varices and dilation of strictures. Most examinations take about 15–30 minutes. Common transient effects are bloating and a sore throat; uncommon risks include reactions to sedation, bleeding, and perforation of the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum.[18]

### Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)

ERCP

A procedure using a long thin tube with a camera passed into the first part of the small intestine to locate, diagnose, and treat disorders of the bile and pancreatic ducts. These ducts can be narrowed or blocked by gallstones, infection, inflammation, pancreatic pseudocysts, or tumors, causing symptoms such as back pain or jaundice and laboratory findings such as elevated bilirubin. Under fluoroscopic guidance, contrast is injected into the ducts to visualize the anatomy; treatments can include sphincterotomy, stone extraction, dilation of strictures, stent placement, and tissue biopsy. Complications may include pancreatitis, infection (e.g., Ascending cholangitis), bleeding, reaction to anesthesia, and perforation of the duodenum or ducts.[19]

### Ultrasound and Bowel Ultrasound

Ultrasound has become a standard tool in many medical settings. Its widespread availability, affordability, safety, and lack of radiation have established it as a common initial diagnostic method. In gastroenterology, ultrasound is highly accurate in diagnosing various conditions (e.g., Appendicitis, Diverticulitis). Furthermore, bowel ultrasound is crucial for identifying and managing Inflammatory bowel disease and their complications, including the early detection of Crohn's disease recurrence after surgery, as highlighted in the ECCO–ESGAR guidelines.[20] Modern ultrasound techniques like contrast-enhanced ultrasound offer real-time functional and vascular information, improving diagnostic capabilities. Additionally, operative abdominal ultrasound is increasingly important in minimally invasive interventions, including guided biopsies, drainage, and thermal ablation of liver lesions. Nevertheless, the accuracy of ultrasound is operator-dependent, and inadequate training can lead to diagnostic errors.[21] The European Federation of Societies for Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology (EFSUMB) has established guidelines to define professional standards and the minimum training needed for ultrasound examinations. These guidelines outline three levels of expertise based on anatomical knowledge, the ability to assess diseases using ultrasound, and the volume of exams performed (at least 300 per year for level 1).[22] A recent study indicated that the majority of young Italian gastroenterologists (<40 y.o.) (58.9%) acquired their ultrasound skills during their gastroenterology training. Throughout their training, participants performed a median of 320 abdominal ultrasound examinations and 240 bowel ultrasound examinations.[23]

## Disorders

### Esophagus

#### Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)

See also: Gastroesophageal reflux disease

Gastroesophageal reflux

A condition that is a result of stomach contents consistently coming back up into the esophagus causing troublesome symptoms or complications.[24] Symptoms are considered troublesome based on how disruptive they are to a patient's daily life and well-being. This definition was standardized by the Montreal Consensus in 2006.[25] Symptoms include a painful feeling in the middle of the chest and feeling stomach contents coming back up into the mouth. Other symptoms include chest pain, nausea, difficulty swallowing, painful swallowing, coughing, and hoarseness.[26] Risk factors include obesity, pregnancy, smoking, hiatal hernia, certain medications, and certain foods. Diagnosis is usually based on symptoms and medical history, with further testing only after treatment has been ineffective. Further diagnosis can be achieved by measuring how much acid enters the esophagus or looking into the esophagus with a scope. Treatment and management options[24] include lifestyle modifications, medications, and surgery if there is no improvement with other interventions. Lifestyle modifications include not lying down for three hours after eating, lying down on the left side, elevating head while laying by elevating head of the bed or using extra pillows, losing weight, stopping smoking, and avoiding coffee, mint, alcohol, chocolate, fatty foods, acidic foods, and spicy foods. Medications include antacids, proton pump inhibitors, H2 receptor blockers. Surgery is usually a Nissen fundoplication and is performed by a surgeon. Complications of longstanding GERD can include inflammation of the esophagus that may cause bleeding or ulcer formation, narrowing of the esophagus leading to swallowing issues, a change in the lining of the esophagus that can increase the chances of developing cancer (Barrett's esophagus), chronic cough, asthma, inflammation of the larynx leading to hoarseness, and wearing away of tooth enamel leading to dental issues.[24][26]

#### Barrett's esophagus

A condition in which the lining of the esophagus changes to look more like the lining of the intestine and increases the risk of developing esophageal cancer.[27] There are no specific symptoms although symptoms of GERD may be present for years prior as it is associated with a 10–15% risk of Barrett's esophagus.[27] Risk factors include chronic GERD for more than 5 years, being age 50 or older, being non-Hispanic white, being male, having a family history of this disorder, belly fat, and a history of smoking.[28] Diagnosis can be made by looking into the esophagus with a scope and possibly taking a biopsy of the lining of the esophagus. Treatment includes managing GERD, destroying abnormal parts of the esophagus, removing abnormal tissue in the esophagus, and removing part of the esophagus as performed by a general surgeon.[27] Further management could include periodic surveillance with repeat scopes at certain intervals determined by the physician, likely not more frequently than every three to five years.[28] Complications from this disorder can result in a type of cancer called esophageal adenocarcinoma.[29]

## Education and training

### United States

Gastroenterology is a subspecialty of internal medicine and therefore requires three years of internal medicine residency training followed by three additional years in a dedicated gastroenterology fellowship.[1] This training is certified by the American Board of Internal Medicine (ABIM) and the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine (AOBIM) and must be completed at a program accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME).[30][31][32] Other national societies that oversee training include the American College of Gastroenterology (ACG), the American Gastroenterological Association (AGA), and the American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE).[33][34][35]

## Scope of practice

Gastroenterologists see patients both in the clinic and the hospital setting. They can order diagnostic tests, prescribe medications, and perform a number of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures including colonoscopy, esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD), endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), endoscopic ultrasound (EUS), and liver biopsy.[36]

In gastroenterology, as in other specialties, telehealth has led to a reshaping of healthcare systems by introducing new ways of providing care, facilitating access to services throughout the entire countries.[37][38]

### Subspecialties

Some gastroenterology trainees will complete a "fourth-year" (although this is often their seventh year of graduate medical education) in transplant hepatology, advanced interventional endoscopy, inflammatory bowel disease, motility, or other topics.

Advanced endoscopy, sometimes called interventional or surgical endoscopy, is a sub-specialty of gastroenterology that focuses on advanced endoscopic techniques for the treatment of pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastrointestinal disease. Interventional gastroenterologists typically undergo an additional year of rigorous training in advanced endoscopic techniques including endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, endoscopic ultrasound-guided diagnostic and interventional procedures, and advanced resection techniques including endoscopic mucosal resection and endoscopic submucosal dissection. Additionally, the performance of endoscopic bariatric procedures is also performed by some advanced endoscopists.

Hepatology, or hepatobiliary medicine, encompasses the study of the liver, pancreas, and biliary tree, and is traditionally considered a sub-specialty of gastroenterology, while proctology encompasses disorders of the anus, rectum, and colon and is considered a sub-specialty of general surgery.

## Professional organizations

* American College of Gastroenterology (ACG)[39] \- was founded in 1932 by a group of 10 gastroenterologists in New York City and now consists of over 16,000 gastroenterologists from 86 countries. The ACG sponsors conferences regionally and nationally, publishes several journals including The American Journal of Gastroenterology, Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology, and ACG Case Reports Journal, hosts continuing medical education (CME) programs, supports initiatives for fellows-in-training, develops and promotes evidence-based guidelines, supports advocacy and public policy, and provides clinical research funding consisting of $27 million in research grants and career development awards ($2.2 million in 2022).[40]
* American Gastroenterological Association (AGA)[41] \- was founded in 1897 and now includes over 16,000 members worldwide. Their mission statement reads "Empowering clinicians and researchers to improve digestive health." The AGA publishes two journals monthly titled Gastroenterology and Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, sponsors an annual meeting called Digestive Disease Week (DDW), provides more than $3 million each year in research grants to over 50 investigators through the AGA Research Foundation Awards Program ($2.56 million to 61 investigators in 2022), develops and promotes evidence-based guidelines, influences public policy through AGA's Congressional Advocates Program and the AGA political action committee (PAC), and supports a variety of educational opportunities including those that qualify for continuing medical education (CME) and maintenance of certification (MOC) credits.
* American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE)[35] \- was founded in 1941 and now includes around 15,000 members worldwide. Their mission statement reads "The American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy is the global leader in advancing digestive care through education, advocacy and promotion of excellence and innovation in endoscopy." The ASGE publishes a monthly journal titled Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (GIE), develops and promotes evidence-based guidelines, offers educational resources for its members, and provides advocacy resources for influencing public policy.
* World Gastroenterology Organisation (WGO)[42] \- was founded in 1958 and consists of 119 Member Societies and 4 regional affiliated associations from around the world which represents a combined 60,000 individuals. The WGO mission statement reads "To promote, to the general public and healthcare professional alike, an awareness of the worldwide prevalence and optimal care of gastrointestinal and liver disorders, and to improve care of these disorders, through the provision of high quality, accessible and independent education and training." The WGO publishes a newsletter titled the electronic World Gastroenterology News (e-WGN), develops global guidelines, engages in advocacy through World Digestive Health Day (WDHD) held yearly on 29 May, and provides educational resources including 23 training centers around the world and a Train the Trainers (TTT) program.
* British Society of Gastroenterology
* United European Gastroenterology The United European Gastroenterology (UEG) was formally established in 1992. Over the years, UEG has grown significantly, establishing itself as a leading and prestigious medical specialty organization worldwide. UEG's mission is to advance the field of digestive diseases through prevention, research, diagnosis, treatment, and increased awareness. It unites over 50,000 professionals, including members from national and specialist societies, individual experts, and scientists in digestive health. UEG organizes the annual UEG Week, a major international gastroenterology congress. It also focuses on education, research support, and advocating for clinical standards and public health policies related to digestive diseases in Europe. UEG publishes the UEG Journal and the UEG White Book, which analyzes the burden and economic impact of digestive diseases in Europe.

## Academic journals

* The American Journal of Gastroenterology
* Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology
* Endoscopy
* Gastroenterology
* Gastrointestinal Endoscopy
* Gut
* Inflammatory Bowel Diseases
* Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology
* Journal of Crohn's and Colitis
* Neurogastroenterology & Motility
* World Journal of Gastroenterology

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "What is a Gastroenterologist?" (in en-US). https://gi.org/patients/gi-health-and-disease/what-is-a-gastroenterologist/.
2. ↑ "Gastrointestinal Tract MeSH Descriptor Data". https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D041981.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Digestive System MeSH Descriptor Data". https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004064.
4. ↑ "Chapter 1: All Digestive Diseases | NIDDK" (in en-US). https://www.niddk.nih.gov/about-niddk/strategic-plans-reports/burden-of-digestive-diseases-in-united-states/all-digestive-diseases.
5. ↑ Nunn JF. Ancient Egyptian Medicine. 2002. ISBN 0-8061-3504-2.
6. ↑ Stephen Toulmin; June Goodfield (1982), The Architecture of Matter, University of Chicago Press, p. 87, ISBN 978-0226808406, https://archive.org/details/architectureofma00toul_0/page/87
7. ↑ van den Tweel, Jan G.; Taylor, Clive R. (April 2013). "The rise and fall of the autopsy" (in en). Virchows Archiv 462 (4): 371–380. doi:10.1007/s00428-013-1387-3. ISSN 0945-6317. PMID 23468067. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00428-013-1387-3.
8. ↑ Edgardo Rivera, MD James L. Abbruzzese, MD; Pancreatic, Hepatic, and Biliary Carcinomas, Medical Oncology: A Comprehensive Review [1]
9. ↑ DeStoll M: Rationis Mendendi, in Nosocomio Practico vendobonensi. Part 1 LugduniBatavarum, Haak et Socios et A et J Honkoop 1788, OCLC 23625746
10. ↑ Gilger, MA (October 2001). "Gastroenterologic endoscopy in children: past, present, and future". Current Opinion in Pediatrics 13 (5): 429–34. doi:10.1097/00008480-200110000-00008. PMID 11801888.
11. ↑ The Origin of Endoscopes, Olympus history
12. ↑ Anton Sebastian, A Dictionary of the History of Medicine, ISBN 1-85070-021-4
13. ↑ Prout, W. On the nature of the acid and saline matters usually existing in the stomachs of animals. – Philos. Transactions, 1824, 1, 45.
14. ↑ McClendon J. F. New hydrogen electrodes and rapid methods of determining hydrogen ion concentrations. – Amer. J. Physoil., 1915, 38, 2, 180.
15. ↑ "The electrogastrogram and what it shows". JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) 78 (15): 1116. 1922. doi:10.1001/jama.1922.02640680020008. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/229618. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
16. ↑ "Colonoscopy | NIDDK" (in en-US). https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diagnostic-tests/colonoscopy.
17. ↑ "Flexible Sigmoidoscopy | NIDDK" (in en-US). https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diagnostic-tests/flexible-sigmoidoscopy.
18. ↑ "Upper GI Endoscopy | NIDDK" (in en-US). https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diagnostic-tests/upper-gi-endoscopy.
19. ↑ "Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) | NIDDK" (in en-US). https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diagnostic-tests/endoscopic-retrograde-cholangiopancreatography.
20. ↑ Maaser, C.; Sturm, A.; Vavricka, S.R.; Kucharzik, T.; Fiorino, G.; Annese, V.; Calabrese, E.; Baumgart, D.C.; Bettenworth, D.; Borralho Nunes, P.; et al. ECCO-ESGAR Guideline for Diagnostic Assessment in IBD Part 1: Initial diagnosis, monitoring of known IBD, detection of complications. J. Crohn’s Colitis 2019, 13, 144–164.
21. ↑ Wüstner, M.; Radzina, M.; Calliada, F.; Cantisani, V.; Havre, R.F.; Jenderka, K.V.; Kabaalioğlu, A.; Kocian, M.; Kollmann, C.; Künzel, J.; et al. Professional Standards in Medical Ultrasound—EFSUMB Position Paper (Short Version)—General Aspects. Ultraschall Med. 2022, 43, 456–463.
22. ↑ Wüstner, M.; Radzina, M.; Calliada, F.; Cantisani, V.; Havre, R.F.; Jenderka, K.V.; Kabaalioğlu, A.; Kocian, M.; Kollmann, C.; Künzel, J.; et al. Professional Standards in Medical Ultrasound—EFSUMB Position Paper (Short Version)—General Aspects. Ultraschall Med. 2022, 43, 456–463
23. ↑ Cortellini F, Fichera A, Guarino AD, Laterza L, Alemanni LV, Lopetuso L, Marasco G, Costantino A. Abdominal and Bowel Ultrasound Knowledge Among Young Gastroenterologists: Results of an Italian Survey. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2025; 14(8):2693. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14082693
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Kahrilas, Peter J.; Shaheen, Nicholas J.; Vaezi, Michael F. (October 2008). "American Gastroenterological Association Institute Technical Review on the Management of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease" (in English). Gastroenterology 135 (4): 1392–1413.e5. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2008.08.044. ISSN 0016-5085. PMID 18801365. https://www.gastrojournal.org/article/S0016-5085(08)01605-3/abstract.
25. ↑ Vakil, Nimish; van Zanten, Sander V.; Kahrilas, Peter; Dent, John; Jones, Roger; Global Consensus Group (August 2006). "The Montreal definition and classification of gastroesophageal reflux disease: a global evidence-based consensus". The American Journal of Gastroenterology 101 (8): 1900–1920; quiz 1943. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.00630.x. ISSN 0002-9270. PMID 16928254.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 "Definition & Facts for GER & GERD | NIDDK" (in en-US). https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/acid-reflux-ger-gerd-adults/definition-facts.
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Shaheen, Nicholas J.; Falk, Gary W.; Iyer, Prasad G.; Gerson, Lauren B.; American College of Gastroenterology (January 2016). "ACG Clinical Guideline: Diagnosis and Management of Barrett's Esophagus". The American Journal of Gastroenterology 111 (1): 30–50; quiz 51. doi:10.1038/ajg.2015.322. ISSN 1572-0241. PMID 26526079.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Muthusamy, V. Raman; Wani, Sachin; Gyawali, C. Prakash; Komanduri, Srinadh; Bergman, Jacques; Canto, Marcia I.; Chak, Amitabh; Corley, Douglas et al. (2022-12-01). "AGA Clinical Practice Update on New Technology and Innovation for Surveillance and Screening in Barrett's Esophagus: Expert Review" (in English). Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 20 (12): 2696–2706.e1. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2022.06.003. ISSN 1542-3565. PMID 35788412. PMC 10203866. https://www.cghjournal.org/article/S1542-3565(22)00599-7/abstract.
29. ↑ "Definition & Facts for Barrett's Esophagus | NIDDK" (in en-US). https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/barretts-esophagus/definition-facts.
30. ↑ "Mission | ABIM.org". https://www.abim.org/about/mission/.
31. ↑ "Board Policies" (in en-US). https://certification.osteopathic.org/internal-medicine/board-policies/.
32. ↑ "The ACGME for Residents and Fellows" (in en). https://www.acgme.org/residents-and-fellows/the-acgme-for-residents-and-fellows/.
33. ↑ "Program Director Resources" (in en-US). https://gi.org/trainees/program-director-resources/.
34. ↑ "About Us" (in en-US). https://gastro.org/about-aga/about-us/.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "About ASGE" (in en). https://www.asge.org/home/about-asge.
36. ↑ "Gastroenterology". American Medical Association. https://www.ama-assn.org/specialty/gastroenterology.
37. ↑ Gellad, Z. F.; Diamond, S.; Crockett, S. D.; Cross, R. K. (2023). "AGA Clinical Practice Update on Telemedicine in Gastroenterology: Commentary". Gastroenterology 164 (4): 690–695. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2022.12.043. PMID 36775722.
38. ↑ Costantino, A.; Bortoluzzi, F.; Giuffrè, M.; Vassallo, R.; Montalbano, L. M.; Monica, F.; Canova, D.; Checchin, D. et al. (2021). "Correct use of telemedicine in gastroenterology, hepatology, and endoscopy during and after the COVID-19 pandemic: Recommendations from the Italian association of hospital gastroenterologists and endoscopists (AIGO)". Digestive and Liver Disease 53 (10): 1221–1227. doi:10.1016/j.dld.2021.06.032. PMID 34312103.
39. ↑ "About ACG" (in en-US). https://gi.org/about/.
40. ↑ "ACG at 90 Booklet". The American College of Gastroenterology. https://webfiles.gi.org/links/about/ACG_at_90_Booklet.pdf.
41. ↑ "American Gastroenterological Association" (in en-US). https://gastro.org/.
42. ↑ "World Gastroenterology Organisation (WGO)" (in en). https://www.worldgastroenterology.org/.

* v
* t
* e

Diseases of the digestive system (primarily K20–K93, 530–579)

Upper GI tract|

| Esophagus|

* Esophagitis
* Candidal
* Eosinophilic
* Herpetiform
* Rupture
* Boerhaave syndrome
* Mallory–Weiss syndrome
* UES
* Zenker's diverticulum
* LES
* Barrett's esophagus
* Esophageal motility disorder
* Nutcracker esophagus
* Achalasia
* Diffuse esophageal spasm
* Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
* Laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR)
* Esophageal stricture
* Megaesophagus

|

Stomach|

* Gastritis
* Atrophic
* Ménétrier's disease
* Gastroenteritis
* Peptic (gastric) ulcer
* Cushing ulcer
* Dieulafoy's lesion
* Dyspepsia
* Pyloric stenosis
* Achlorhydria
* Gastroparesis
* Gastroptosis
* Portal hypertensive gastropathy
* Gastric antral vascular ectasia
* Gastric dumping syndrome
* Gastric volvulus
* Buried bumper syndrome

Lower GI tract:
Intestinal/
Enteropathy|

| Small intestine
(Duodenum/Jejunum/Ileum)|

* Enteritis
* Duodenitis
* Jejunitis
* Ileitis
* Peptic (duodenal) ulcer
* Curling's ulcer
* Malabsorption: Coeliac
* Tropical sprue
* Blind loop syndrome
* Small bowel bacterial overgrowth syndrome
* Whipple's
* Short bowel syndrome
* Steatorrhea
* Milroy disease
* Bile acid malabsorption

|

Large intestine
(Appendix/Colon)|

* Appendicitis
* Colitis
* Pseudomembranous
* Ulcerative
* Ischemic
* Microscopic
* Collagenous
* Lymphocytic
* Functional colonic disease
* IBS
* Intestinal pseudoobstruction / Ogilvie syndrome
* Megacolon / Toxic megacolon
* Diverticulitis/Diverticulosis

Large and/or small|

* Enterocolitis
* Necrotizing
* Gastroenterocolitis
* IBD
* Crohn's disease
* Vascular: Abdominal angina
* Mesenteric ischemia
* Angiodysplasia
* Bowel obstruction: Ileus
* Intussusception
* Volvulus
* Fecal impaction
* Constipation
* Diarrhea
* Infectious
* Intestinal adhesions

Rectum|

* Proctitis
* Radiation proctitis
* Proctalgia fugax
* Rectal prolapse
* Anismus

Anal canal|

* Anal fissure/Anal fistula
* Anal abscess
* Hemorrhoid
* Anal dysplasia
* Pruritus ani

GI bleeding/BIS|

* Upper
* Hematemesis
* Melena
* Lower
* Hematochezia

Accessory|

| Liver|

* Hepatitis
* Viral hepatitis
* Autoimmune hepatitis
* Alcoholic hepatitis
* Cirrhosis
* PBC
* Fatty liver
* NASH
* Vascular
* Budd–Chiari syndrome
* Hepatic veno-occlusive disease
* Portal hypertension
* Nutmeg liver
* Alcoholic liver disease
* Liver failure
* Hepatic encephalopathy
* Acute liver failure
* Liver abscess
* Pyogenic
* Amoebic
* Hepatorenal syndrome
* Peliosis hepatis
* Metabolic disorders
* Wilson's disease
* Hemochromatosis

|

Gallbladder|

* Cholecystitis
* Gallstones/Cholecystolithiasis
* Cholesterolosis
* Adenomyomatosis
* Postcholecystectomy syndrome
* Porcelain gallbladder

Bile duct/
Other biliary tree|

* Cholangitis
* Primary sclerosing cholangitis
* Secondary sclerosing cholangitis
* Ascending
* Cholestasis/Mirizzi's syndrome
* Biliary fistula
* Haemobilia
* Gallstones/Cholelithiasis

* Common bile duct
* Choledocholithiasis
* Biliary dyskinesia
* Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction

Pancreatic|

* Pancreatitis
* Acute
* Chronic
* Hereditary
* Pancreatic abscess
* Pancreatic pseudocyst
* Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
* Pancreatic fistula

Abdominopelvic|

| Hernia|

* Diaphragmatic
* Congenital
* Hiatus

* Inguinal
* Indirect
* Direct
* Umbilical
* Femoral
* Obturator
* Spigelian

* Lumbar
* Petit's
* Grynfeltt-Lesshaft

* Undefined location
* Incisional
* Internal hernia
* Richter's

|

Peritoneal|

* Peritonitis
* Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
* Hemoperitoneum
* Pneumoperitoneum

* v
* t
* e

Symptoms and signs: digestive system and abdomen (R10–R19, 787,789)

Upper|

* Nausea
* Vomiting
* Heartburn
* Aerophagia
* Dysphagia
* oropharyngeal
* esophageal
* Odynophagia
* Halitosis
* Xerostomia
* Hypersalivation
* Burping
* Wet burp

Defecation|

* Flatulence
* Fecal incontinence
* Encopresis
* Blood: Fecal occult blood
* Rectal tenesmus
* Constipation
* Obstructed defecation
* Diarrhea
* Rectal discharge

* Psoas sign
* Obturator sign
* Rovsing's sign
* Hamburger sign
* Heel tap sign
* Aure-Rozanova's sign
* Dunphy sign
* Alder's sign
* Lockwood's sign
* Rosenstein's sign

Abdomen|

* Abdominal pain
* Acute abdomen
* Colic
* Baby colic
* Abdominal guarding
* Rebound tenderness
* Abdominal distension
* Bloating
* Ascites
* Tympanites
* Shifting dullness
* Bulging flanks
* Fluid wave test
* Abdominal mass
* Hepatosplenomegaly
* Hepatomegaly
* Splenomegaly
* Jaundice
* Mallet-Guy sign
* Puddle sign

* v
* t
* e

Surgical procedures involving the digestive system (ICD-9-CM V3 42–54, ICD-10-PCS 0D)

Digestive tract|

| Upper GI tract|

| SGs / Esophagus|

* Esophagectomy
* Heller myotomy
* Sialography
* Impedance–pH monitoring
* Esophageal pH monitoring
* Esophageal motility study

|

Stomach|

* Bariatric surgery
* Adjustable gastric band
* Endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty
* Gastric bypass surgery
* Sleeve gastrectomy
* Vertical banded gastroplasty surgery
* Collis gastroplasty
* Gastrectomy
* Billroth I
* Billroth II
* Roux-en-Y
* Gastroenterostomy
* Gastropexy
* Gastrostomy
* Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy
* Esophagogastric dissociation
* Hill repair
* Nissen fundoplication
* Pyloromyotomy

Medical imaging|

* Endoscopy: Esophagogastroduodenoscopy
* Barium swallow
* Upper gastrointestinal series

Lower GI tract|

| Small bowel|

* Bariatric surgery
* Duodenal switch
* Jejunoileal bypass
* Bowel resection
* Ileostomy
* Intestine transplantation
* Jejunostomy
* Partial ileal bypass surgery
* Strictureplasty

|

Large bowel|

* Appendicectomy
* Colectomy
* Colonic polypectomy
* Colostomy
* Hartmann's operation

Rectum|

* Abdominoperineal resection / Miles operation
* Lower anterior resection
* Total mesorectal excision

Anal canal|

* Anal sphincterotomy
* Anorectal manometry
* Lateral internal sphincterotomy
* Rubber band ligation
* Transanal hemorrhoidal dearterialization

Medical imaging|

* Endoscopy: Colonoscopy
* Anoscopy
* Capsule endoscopy
* Enteroscopy
* Proctoscopy
* Sigmoidoscopy

* Abdominal ultrasonography
* Defecography
* Double-contrast barium enema
* Endoanal ultrasound
* Enteroclysis
* Lower gastrointestinal series
* Small-bowel follow-through
* Transrectal ultrasonography
* Virtual colonoscopy

Stool tests|

* Fecal fat test
* Fecal pH test
* Stool guaiac test

Accessory|

| Liver|

* Artificial extracorporeal liver support
* Bioartificial liver devices
* Liver dialysis
* Hepatectomy
* Liver biopsy
* Liver transplantation
* Portal hypertension
* Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt [TIPS]
* Distal splenorenal shunt procedure

|

Gallbladder, bile duct|

* Cholecystectomy
* Cholecystostomy
* ERCP
* Hepatoportoenterostomy

* Medical imaging: Cholangiography
* IV
* MRCP
* PTC
* Cholecystography
* Cholescintigraphy

Pancreas|

* Frey's procedure
* Pancreas transplantation
* Pancreatectomy
* Pancreaticoduodenectomy
* Puestow procedure

Abdominopelvic|

| Peritoneum|

* Diagnostic peritoneal lavage
* Intraperitoneal injection
* Laparoscopy
* Omentopexy
* Paracentesis
* Peritoneal dialysis

|

Hernia|

* Hernia repair: Inguinal hernia surgery
* Femoral hernia repair

Other|

* Laparotomy
* Exploratory laparotomy
* Rapid urease test / Urea breath test

CPRs|

* MELD
* PELD
* UKELD
* Child–Pugh score
* Ranson criteria
* Milan criteria

* v
* t
* e

Medicine

Specialties
and
subspecialties|

Surgery

* Cardiac surgery
* Cardiothoracic surgery
* Colorectal surgery
* Eye surgery
* General surgery
* Neurosurgery
* Oral and maxillofacial surgery
* [[[Medicine:Orthopedic surgery|Orthopedic surgery]]
* Hand surgery
* Otolaryngology
* ENT
* Pediatric surgery
* Plastic surgery
* Reproductive surgery
* Surgical oncology
* Thoracic surgery
* Transplant surgery
* Trauma surgery
* Urology
* Andrology
* Vascular surgery

Internal medicine

* Allergy / Immunology
* Angiology
* Cardiology
* Endocrinology
* Gastroenterology
* Hepatology
* Geriatrics
* Hematology
* Hospital medicine|
* Infectious disease
* Nephrology
* Oncology
* Pulmonology
* Rheumatology

Obstetrics and gynaecology

* Gynaecology
* Gynecologic oncology
* Maternal–fetal medicine
* Obstetrics
* Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
* Urogynecology

Diagnostic

* Radiology
* Interventional radiology
* Nuclear medicine
* Pathology
* Anatomical
* Clinical pathology
* Clinical chemistry
* Clinical immunology
* Cytopathology
* Medical microbiology
* Transfusion medicine

Other specialties

* Addiction medicine
* Adolescent medicine
* Anesthesiology
* Dermatology
* Disaster medicine
* Diving medicine
* Emergency medicine
* Mass gathering medicine
* Family medicine
* General practice
* Hospital medicine
* Intensive care medicine
* Medical genetics
* Narcology
* Neurology
* Clinical neurophysiology
* Occupational medicine
* Ophthalmology
* Oral medicine
* Pain management
* Palliative care
* Pediatrics
* Neonatology
* Physical medicine and rehabilitation
* PM&R
* Preventive medicine
* Psychiatry
* Addiction psychiatry
* Radiation oncology
* Reproductive medicine
* Sexual medicine
* Sleep medicine
* Sports medicine
* Transplantation medicine
* Tropical medicine
* Travel medicine
* Venereology

Medical education|

* Medical school
* Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
* Bachelor of Medical Sciences
* Master of Medicine
* Master of Surgery
* Doctor of Medicine
* Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
* MD–PhD

Related topics|

* Alternative medicine
* Allied health
* Dentistry
* Podiatry
* Physiotherapy
* Molecular oncology
* Nanomedicine
* Personalized medicine
* Public health
* Traditional medicine
* Veterinary medicine
* Physician
* Chief physician
* History of medicine

* Book
* Category
* Commons
* Wikiproject
* Portal
* Outline

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