Appalachia (Mesozoic)

Short description: A Mesozoic land mass separated from Laramidia to the west by the Western Interior Seaway

Appalachia, circa 100 mya

During most of the Late Cretaceous (100.5 to 66 million years ago) the eastern half of North America formed Appalachia (named for the Appalachian Mountains), an island land mass separated from Laramidia to the west by the Western Interior Seaway. This seaway had split North America into two massive landmasses due to a multitude of factors such as tectonism and sea-level fluctuations for nearly 40 million years.[1][2] seaway eventually exapanded, divided across the Dakotas, and by the end of the Cretaceous,[3] it retreated towards the Gulf of Mexico and the Hudson Bay. This left the island masses joined in the continent of North America as the Rocky Mountains rose.[4] From the Cenomanian to the end of the Campanian ages of the Late Cretaceous, Appalachia was separated from the rest of North America. As the Western Interior Seaway retreated in the Maastrichtian, Laramidia and Appalachia eventually connected.[5] Because of this, its fauna was isolated, and developed very differently from the tyrannosaur, ceratopsian, hadrosaurid, pachycephalosaur and ankylosaurid dominated fauna of the western part of North America, known as "Laramidia".[6]

Due to the fact that Appalachia was largely flat and had less erosion compared to Laramidia, no terrestrially formed deposits have survived, with most dinosaur remains originating from seaborne carcasses that were transported into marine environments. Some sediments have been removed by glacial erosion during the last ice age,[7] but it is difficult to ascertain how much sediment has been removed, or whether these sediments would have been any more productive than those that remain. Thus relatively little is known about Appalachia in comparison to Laramidia, with exception of plant life, marine life and the insects trapped in amber from New Jersey. In addition, due to a lack of interest in Appalachia, many fossils that have been found in Appalachia lie unstudied and remain in the inaccurate genera to which they were assigned in the days of E. D. Cope and O. C. Marsh. Only a few fossils of the terrestrial creatures that were found in this region have given us a brief glimpse into what life was like here during the Cretaceous period. However, the area has seen a bit of a resurgence of interest due to several discoveries made in the past few years.[8][9][10][11][12][13] As mentioned earlier, not much is known about Appalachia, but some fossil sites, such as the Woodbine Formation, Navesink Formation,[14] Ellisdale Fossil Site,[15] Mooreville Chalk Formation, Demopolis Chalk Formation, Black Creek Group and the Niobrara Formation,[16] together with ongoing research in the area,[17] have given us a better look into this forgotten world of paleontology.

## Contents

* 1 Geography
* 2 Range
* 3 Fauna
* 3.1 Dinosaurs
* 3.2 Non-dinosaur herpetofauna
* 3.3 Mammals
* 3.4 Marine life
* 4 Flora
* 5 See also
* 6 References

## Geography

Appalachia stretched from Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador all the way down to the Eastern United States and west to the Midwestern United States. Fossils found in these regions indicate that the area was covered in coastal plains and coastal lowlands during the Cretaceous period.[18] Some scientists have proposed the idea that an archipelago of islands had formed during the time that the Western Interior Seaway had divided Laramidia and Appalachia apart until the near end of the Cretaceous. This would allow dinosaurs to migrate into the Gulf Coast and why it would possibly explain why there are some noticeable distinctions with the fauna in the two assemblages of Appalachia. For instance, the southeastern assemblage (which consists of the Carolinas and the Gulf Coast sites) has some tyrannosauroids such as Appalachiosaurus, some hadrosauroids such as Eotrachodon and Lophorhothon, nodosaurs, dromaeosaurs, and new leptoceratopsian while the northern assemblage (which consists of New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland) has some tyrannosauroids such as Dryptosaurus, hadrosauroids such as Hadrosaurus, smaller theropods, and a possible lambeosaur in the area.[19]

## Range

Vertebrate fossils have been found along the Atlantic Seaboard as well as other states like Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Mississippi, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, and Minnesota. Parts of Canada that were a part of Appalachia during the Cretaceous include, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Nunavut, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Nova Scotia.[20][21][22]

## Fauna

### Dinosaurs

From the Cenomanian to the Maastrichtian, Appalachia was inhabited by various groups of dinosaurs including, hadrosauroids, hadrosaurs, nodosaurs, leptoceratopsians, indeterminate ornithopods, tyrannosauroids, dromaeosaurs, ornithomimids, and indeterminate maniraptors lived in the area. There is also fossil evidence of possible chasmosaurs, lambeosaurs, sauropods, allosaurs, caenagnathids, and troodontids that might have inhabited the area.[23][24][6][25][26]

In Late Cretaceous North America, the dominant predators were the tyrannosaurs, huge predatory theropods with proportionately massive heads built for ripping flesh from their prey. Tyrannosaurs were the dominant predators in Appalachia too, but rather than the massive Tyrannosauridae, like Gorgosaurus, Albertosaurus and Lythronax,[27] which evolved around the same time that the Western Interior Seaway had fully separated Laramida from Appalachia, the smaller dryptosaurs were the top predators of Appalachia. Rather than developing the huge heads and massive bodies of their kin, dryptosaurs had more in common with the basal tyrannosaurs like Dilong and Eotyrannus, having long arms with three fingers,[28] and were not as large as the largest tyrannosaurids, though fossils from the Potomac Formation in New Jersey show that some of them did evolve some of the large-bodied features that can be found on other tyrannosaurs.[29] Three genera of valid Appalachian tyrannosaurs are known, Dryptosaurus, Appalachiosaurus, and the recently discovered Teihivenator while other indeterminate fossils lie scattered throughout most of the southern United States like Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Fossil foot bones from Appalachian deposits indicate another, unnamed tyrannosauroid measuring 9 m (30 ft), indicating that diversity in these basal tyrannosauroids remained high during the latest cretaceous.[30] These fossilized teeth possibly belong to a species of Appalachiosaurus or an undescribed species of a new tyrannosaur.[31][32] There is also the possibility of a fourth tyrannosaur known from Applachia known as Diplotomodon, but this is highly unlikely seeing how the genus is considered to be dubious. Fossils from New Jersey and Delaware, most notably in the Mt. Laurel Formation and Merchantville Formation respectively, have revealed that the primitive tyrannosauroids were much more diverse than expected, and some of them grew to lengths of 8 to 9 meters long, making them around the same size as some of the more advanced tyrannosaurs found in Laramidia.[30][33] Fossils in Cenomanian deposits further indicate tyrannosauroids had been a constant presence in Appalachia since the middle cretaceous.[34]

The dryptosaurs weren't the only predatory dinosaurs in Appalachia. Indeterminate dromaeosaur fossils, possibly belonging to Velociraptorinae and Saurornitholestinae, and teeth, most closely matching those of Saurornitholestes,[35] have also been unearthed in Appalachia as well; mostly in the southern states like Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi and Georgia.[36] Finds from the Campanian Tar Heel Formation in North Carolina indicate that there may have been dromaeosaurids of considerable size; intermediate between genera such as Saurornitholestes and Dakotaraptor. Though known only from teeth, the discovery indicates large dromaeosaurids were part of Appalachia's fauna.[37] Along with the dromaeosauridae remains, tyrannosauroidea and possible ornithomimid remains have been unearthed in Missouri as well.[38] It should also be noted that dromaeosaur remains are more commonoly found in the southern region of Appalachia when compared to the northern region, with their sizes ranging from smaller forms to gigantic forms.[39] Recent fossils unearthed in New Jersey show that maniraptors were present in Appalachia as well.[40]

Various ornithomimid bones, such as Coelosaurus, have also been reported from Appalachia from Missouri, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia and as far north in states like Maryland, New Jersey, and Delaware, but it is now believed that some of these are the bones of juvenile dryptosaurs while others belong to various undescribed species of ornithomimids. As of 2019, no distinct species of ornithomimosaurs have been identified yet, mostly due to the fact that no complete skeleton has been unearthed yet. However, it can be assumed that most of them were around the same size of their Laramidian relatives, though there is one specimen that could have reached a large size similar Gallimimus or Beishanlong.[41][42][38][43]

Fossils from the Woodbine Formation, which is one of the few fossil sites which is one of Appalachia's more well preserved fossils, in Texas reveal that other theropods might have roamed Appalachia around the time when the Western Interior Seaway first formed, they include possible specimens of allosauroids, troodontids, caenagnathids, dromeosaurs, and tyrannosaurs.[23][24]

Another common group, arguably the most wide spread species in the area,[44] of Appalachian dinosaurs were the Hadrosauromorpha, Hadrosauroidea, and the Hadrosauridae [45] which is now considered to be their "ancestral homeland"; eventually making their way to Laramidia, Asia,[46][47][48][49][50] Europe,[51][52] South America[53] and Antarctica[54] where they diversified into the lambeosaurine and saurolophine dinosaurs, though some of the primitive hadrosaurs[55] were still present until the end of the Mesozoic.[56][57][58][59] While the fossil record shows a staggering variety of hadrosaur forms in Laramidia, hadrosaur remains for Appalachia show less diversity due to the relative uncommon number of fossil beds. However, a decent number of hadrosaurs are known from Appalachia with Protohadros, Claosaurus, and Lophorhothon representing Hadrosauromorpha, Hypsibema crassicauda and Hypsibema missouriensis representing Hadrosauroidea, and Hadrosaurus and Eotrachodon representing Hadrosauridae. These hadrosaurs from Appalachia seem to be closely related to the crestless hadrosaurs of Laramidia like Gryposaurus and Edmontosaurus, despite the fact that they are not considered to be saurolophines. Claosaurus is known from a specimen which floated into the Interior Seaway and was found in Kansas, might also be from Appalachia, since it was found closer to the Appalachia side of the seaway and is unknown from Western North America. Hadrosaur remains have even been found in Iowa, though in fragmentary remains,[60] Tennessee , most notably from the Coon Creek Formation.[61][62] Hypsibema crassicauda,[63] over fifty feet long, was one of the largest eastern hadrosaurs, outgrowing some of more derived western hadrosaurs like Lambeosaurus and Saurolophus. The genus likely took the environmental niche occupied by large sauropods in other areas, possibly grown to colossal sizes to that of Magnapaulia[64] and Shantungosaurus.[65] Hypsibema missouriensis, was another large species of hadrosaur, but it grew up to 45 to 49 feet, which wasn't as large as Hypsibema crassicauda. When it was first discovered in 1945, it was mistaken for a species of sauropod.[66] Hypsibema missouriensis, possibly even all of the other hadrosaurs living on Appalachia, had serrated teeth for chewing the vegetation in the area.[67] Hadrosaur fossils from the Kanguk Formation in Axel Heiberg Island in Nunavut, Canada show that hadrosaurs were rather widespread through out Appalach. The fossils found in the Kanguk Formation also revealed the dietary preferences of hadrosaurs, which revealed that they had a diet of conifers, stems, twigs, and various deciduous plants.[68]

Indeterminate lambeosaurinae remains, mostly similar to Corythosaurus, have been reported from New Jersey's Navesink Formation, Bylot Island and Nova Scotia, Canada. It cannot yet be explained how lambeosaurines might have reached Appalachia though some have theorized that a land bridge must have formed sometime during the Campanian.[69]

The nodosaurids, a group of large, herbivorous armored dinosaurs resembling armadillos, are another testament to Appalachia's difference from Laramidia. During the early Cretaceous, the nodosaurids prospered and were one of the most widespread dinosaurs throughout North America. However, by the latest Cretaceous, nodosaurids were scarce in western North America,[70] limited to forms like Edmontonia, Denversaurus and Panoplosaurus; perhaps due to competition from the ankylosauridae; though they did thrive in isolation, most notably in Appalachia, as mentioned earlier and in the case of Struthiosaurus,[71] Europe as well. Nodosaurid scutes have been commonly found in eastern North America, while fossil specimens are very rare. Often the findings are not diagnostic enough to identify the species, but the remains attest to a greater number of these armored dinosaurs in Appalachia. Multiple specimens have been unearthed in Kansas [72] in the Niobrara Formation, Alabama in Ripley Formation,[73] Mississippi, Delaware, Maryland and New Jersey, possibly belonging to a multitude of different species.[74] Five possible and best-known examples of Appalachian nodosaurids, from both the early and late Cretaceous period, include Priconodon, Propanoplosaurus, Niobrarasaurus,[75][76] Silvisaurus[77] and possibly Hierosaurus,[78] though its validity is disputed. Just like the Claosaurus specimen, it is possible that the specimens of Niobrarasaurus, Silvisaurus and Hierosaurus floated into the Interior Seaway from the east, since these two species of nodosaurids were discovered in the famous chalk formations[79] of Kansas and are not known from any location from Western North America. Kansas was also a part of Appalachia when the other parts were covered by oceans, which were a part of the Western Interior Seaway.

While remains of the advanced ceratopsians, most notably the centrosaurines and chasmosaurines[80] which were very common in Laramidia during this time period, where not found in Appalachia, the leptoceratopsids somehow managed to inhabit that location.[81] A Campanian-era leptoceratopsid ceratopsian has been found in the Tar Heel Formation, marking the first discovery of a ceratopsian dinosaur in the Appalachian zone. This specimen bears a uniquely long, slender and downcurved upper jaw, suggesting that it was an animal with a specialized feeding strategy, yet another example of speciation on an island environment.[82] Recently, a ceratopsian teeth were unearthed in Mississippi's Owl Creek Formation,[83] which have been dated to be 67 million years old.[84] The owner of this one particular tooth was probably a chasmosaurine since by the end of the Cretaceous, the centrosaurines had completely vanished from North America, though they were thriving in Asia as in the case of Sinoceratops. While leptoceratopsid remains, the few that have been discovered in recent years, have been unearthed in the southern part of Appalachia, they appear to be completely absent from the northern part of Appalachia, states like New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland. Suggesting the idea, proposed by paleontologist David R. Schwimmer, that there was a possible providence during the Late Cretaceous.[85] It is not completely understood how the leptoceratopsians were able to reach Appalachia, however, the most commonly accepted theory was that they island hopped during the time that the Western Interior Seaway split the North American continent into two different land masses in a way that some species of leptoceratopsids, most notably Ajkaceratops, were able to reach Europe.[86][87] It should also be noted that there is a distanct difference with how the leptoceratopsians evolved in Appalachia and Laramida. The Appalachian leptoceratopsian that was unearthed in the Tar Heel Formation, which grew to the size of a large dog, had a more slender jaw that teeth that curved downward and outward in its beak. This would imply a specialized feeding strategy for feeding on the foliage that was native to Appalachia during the Campanian.[88]

Several bird remains are known from Appalachian sites, most of them sea birds like Hesperornithes, Ichthyornis, Enantiornithes like Halimornis and Ornithuraes like Apatornis and Iaceornis, possibly indicating that Appalachia might have had a diverse variety of birds that were endemic to the region. Of particular interest are possible lithornithid remains in New Jersey, arguably one of the best records[89] for Cretaceous birds[90] as some specimens were preserved in the greensands[91] in the area,[92][93] which would represent a clear example of palaeognath Neornithes in the Late Cretaceous. However, this issue is still under debate. Examples of birds that were endemic to Appalachia include a few groups such as the Charadriiformes, which consisted of Graculavus and Telmatornis, Anseriformes as represented by Anatalavis, Procellariiformes, with Tytthostonyx being one such example, and Palaeotringa and Laornis belonging to a currently unknown group of birds.[89] Hesperornithid fossils have also been unearthed in Arkansas.[94] Some birds found in Canada such as Tingmiatornis and Canadaga were found in areas that were a part of Appalachia.[95][96]

### Non-dinosaur herpetofauna

Through the Ellisdale Fossil Site, a good picture of Appalachia's non-dinosaurian fauna is present. Amidst lissamphibians, there is evidence for sirenids (including the large Habrosaurus), the batrachosauroidid salamander Parrisia, hylids, possible representatives of Eopelobates and Discoglossus, showing close similarities to European faunas, but aside from Habrosaurus (which is also found on Laramidia) there is a high degree of endemism, suggesting no interchanges with other landmasses throughout the Late Cretaceous.[97]

There is also a high degree of endemism in regards for its reptilian fauna: among squamates, the teiid Prototeius is exclusive to the landmass, and native representatives of Iguanidae, Helodermatidae, and Necrosauridae.

Amidst turtles, which are rather common finds in Appalachia, Adocus, Apalone, and Bothremys are well represented, the latter in particular more common in Appalachian sites than Laramidian ones.

Crocodiles were rather abundant in Appalachia with nine local crocodilian genera belonging to several confirmed families, with the possibility of much more undiscovered crocodiles waiting to be unearthed. Goniopholididae is represented by Woodbinesuchus,[98] Alligatoridae is represented by Bottosaurus,[99] Neosuchia is represented by Scolomastax and Deltasuchus,[100] Alligatoroidea are presented Deinosuchus and Leidyosuchus, Gavialoidea are represented by Thoracosaurus,[101] Eothoracosaurus,[102] and Crocodilia is presented by Borealosuchus,[103] are well established in Laramidia as well, probably indicative of their ocean crossing capacities. Deinosuchus,[104] being one of the largest crocodilians of the fossil record,[105] was an apex predator that did prey on the dinosaurs[106] in the area, the same case applies for Laramidia as well,[107][108] despite the fact that the majority of its diet consisted of turtles[109][110] and sea turtles.[111] However, crocodiles still preyed on the endemic dinosaurs whenever they got the chance to do so; there is evidence of crocodile bite marks on the femur of large ornithomimosaur that indicates the predatory behavior of native crocodiles.[112]

Dyrosauridae, most notably Dyrosaurus and Hyposaurus fossils, are also known form Appalachia, particularly in New Jersey, Alabama, and South Carolina.[113]

Only one species of Pholidosauridae is known to have lived in Appalachia; Terminonaris whose remains have been unearthed in Texas and Kansas.[114][115]

Pterosaur fossils, mostly similar to Pteranodon and Nyctosaurus, have been unearthed in Georgia,[116] Alabama[117] and Delaware.[118] On a similar note, azhdrachid remains, which belong to Arambourgiania,[119] have been unearthed in Tennessee.[120] There have been a number of specimens of pterosaurs unearthed in areas that were apart of Appalachia during the time that the Western Interior Seaway had divided North America into two landmasses. Fossils of Appalachian pterosaurs have also been unearthed in Kansas and Texas .[121][122][123][124] Pteranodontidae seem the most common groups of pterosaurs in Appalachia and represented by five species: Pteranodon, Nyctosaurus, Geosternbergia, Dawndraco, and Alamodactylus.[125][126] Members of the Ornithocheiridae and Anhangueridae are represented by Aetodactylus and Cimoliopterus respectively.[127][125]

No fossilized remains of snakes have been discovered in Appalachia during the Cretaceous period, only being found in Laramidia.[128]

### Mammals

Several types of mammals[129] are also present on Ellisdale and in the both of the Carolinas.[130] The most common are ptilodontoidean multituberculates, such as Mesodma, Cimolodon and a massively-sized species. The sheer diversity of species on the landmass, as well as the earlier appearance compared to other Late Cretaceous locales, suggests that ptilodontoideans evolved in Appalachia.[131][132] Metatherians are also known, including an alphadontid,[132] a stagodontid,[133] and a herpetotheriid.[134] Unlike ptilodontoideans, metatherians show a lesser degree of endemism, implying a degree of interchange with Laramidia and Europe. Research in this area has revealed that theTaeniolabidoidea mammals can trace their origins here and that there were several species of multituberculates endemic to Appalachia.[135] Eutheria fossils, most notably molars, have also been unearthed in Mississippi. It is possible that they belong to a creature rather reminiscent to Protungulatum.[136] The genus Alphadon as well as other members of the Allotheria family have had their remains unearthed in New Jersey.[137]

### Marine life

While not much was known about Appalachia's land-based fauna was known about until recently, the marine life that in the area, as well as the life that lived in the nearby Western Interior Seaway, has been well studied by paleontologists for years. Such examples of fossil sites that have preserved the remains of marine life from that period include the Niobrara Formation, the Demopolis Chalk Formation, and the Mooreville Chalk Formation are just a few examples of the fossil sites that have successfully preserved the skeletal remains of various marine creatures from the Cretaceous.[138][139][140][141][142][143][144][145] Examples of the marine fauna that lived near Appalachia include Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Chelonioidea, Plesiosaurs, and Mosasaurs, which the predators of their environment at the time.[146][147]

Mosasaur remains have even been unearthed in Missouri.[148]

Fish fossils are rather common throughout Appalachia, especially in locations abundant in marl, shale, and limestone.[149][150] Fish fossils, as well as a lot of Cretaceous era marine fauna, are rather abundant in regions like the Niobrara Formation in Kansas, which is made up of shale, sandstone and limestone, as well as the Woodbury Formation in New Jersey.[151][152]

## Flora

While the fossil sites from the southern part in Appalachia, places like Alabama and the Carolinas, have a very scant amount of Cretaceous plant fossils with the exception of Georgia, the northern parts of Appalachia, such as New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware have a much better record in terms of plant species being unearthed there, especially with fossils sites like the Ellisdale Fossil Site, and have given us a better glimpse into a forgotten world. In the Ellisdae Fossil Site, excavations have revealed that plants like Picea, Metasequoia, Liriodendron, and possibly Rhizophora inhabited the region during the late Cretaceous period, implying that the environment during that time period was a coastal forest with a few types of marine environments as well including estuarine, lagoonal, marine, and terrestrial. Plant fossils found in neighboring states such as Delaware and Maryland have revealed that ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms did indeed inhabit the area.[153] Angiosperm fossils were unearthed in the Dakota Formation in Nebraska.[154] As mentioned earlier, Georgia has a rich fossil record of plant life dating back to the Cretaceous. Some of the examples of flora that was present in that area include Salicaceae, Lauraceae, Sequoioideae, Moraceae, Pinophyta, Malpighiales, Monocotyledon, Ericaceae, Cinnamomum, Ranunculales, Salicaceae, Torreya, Cupressaceae, Magnoliaceae and Rhamnaceae.[155] Plant fossils of Minnesota have revealed that cycads, evergreens, Equisetum, laurels, ferns, willows, redwoods, poplars, tulip trees, and pomegranates were present in the area during the Creataceous.[156] There is also a huge concentration of Normapolles unearthed in the southeastern United States, suggesting that there was a distinct phytogeography through the area during the Cretaceous.[157]

Fossils unearthed near from the Redmond Formation in Labrador have revealed that many of the modern-day angiosperms first appeared in Appalachia.[158] Plant fossils found in Crawford County, Georgia show a wide variety of plant diversity such as sporophytes, gametophytes, Detrusandra, Hamamelidaceae, Actinidiaceae, and a multitude of 63 species of plants have been unearthed in this region.[159] Angiosperm plants have been found in the Woodbine Formation.[160] Pinaceae and Lauraceae fossils have been unearthed in Mississippi and North Carolina respectively.[161][162]

Plant fossils found in Massachusetts and Rhode Island indicate that the climate here was sub-humid and paratropical too, indicating that some of Appalachia's habitats largely consisted of coastal plains and deciduous forests.[163] Plants of Pinaceae, Taxodioideae, Araucariaceae, Taxaceae, Cycas and Thallophyte have been found in Georgia and South Carolina.[164]

## See also

## References

1. ↑ Nielsen, Karsten Schjødt; Schröder-Adams, Claudia J.; Leckie, Dale A.; Haggart, James W.; Elberdak, Khalifa (December 2008). "Turonian to Santonian paleoenvironmental changes in the Cretaceous Western Interior Sea: The Carlile and Niobrara formations in southern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan, Canada". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 270 (1–2): 64–91. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.08.018. Bibcode: 2008PPP...270...64N.
2. ↑ Bertog, Janet (2010). "Stratigraphy of the Lower Pierre Shale (Campanian): Implications for the Tectonic and Eustatic Controls on Facies Distributions". Journal of Geological Research 2010: 1–15. doi:10.1155/2010/910243.
3. ↑ Erickson, J. Mark (December 1999). "The Dakota Isthmus – Closing the Late Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway". North Dakota Academy of Science Proceedings 53: 124–129. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233416409. Retrieved 15 June 2019.
4. ↑ Weishampel, David B.; Young, Luther (1996). Dinosaurs of the East Coast. Baltimore, MD.: Johns Hopkins University Press. https://archive.org/details/dinosaursofeastc00weis.
5. ↑ Stanley, Steven M. (1999). Earth System History. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 487–489. ISBN 978-0-7167-2882-5.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Brownstein, Chase D. (February 2018). "The biogeography and ecology of the Cretaceous non-avian dinosaurs of Appalachia". Palaeontologia Electronica 21 (1.5A): 1–56. doi:10.26879/801.
7. ↑ Braun, Duane D. (September 1989). "Glacial and periglacial erosion of the Appalachians" (in en). Geomorphology 2 (1–3): 233–256. doi:10.1016/0169-555X(89)90014-7. Bibcode: 1989Geomo...2..233B.
8. ↑ Uren, Adam. "Dinosaurs in Minnesota: Fossil claw found in Iron Range has scientists excited". http://bringmethenews.com/2015/10/10/dinosaurs-in-minnesota-fossil-claw-found-in-iron-range-has-scientists-excited/. Retrieved 10 October 2015.
9. ↑ Sawyer, Liz. "Fossil adds to evidence of dinosaurs in Minnesota". Star Tribune. http://www.startribune.com/fossil-adds-to-evidence-of-dinosaurs-in-minnesota/331496711/. Retrieved 8 October 2015.
10. ↑ "Fossil finds behind N.J. strip mall causing excitement". http://www.cbsnews.com/news/drexel-university-fossil-finds-behind-new-jersey-strip-mall-causing-excitment/. Retrieved 16 November 2014.
11. ↑ Anonymous. "Rare fossil of a horned dinosaur found from 'lost continent'". University of Bath. http://www.bath.ac.uk/news/2015/11/30/dinosaur-evolution/. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
12. ↑ Anderson, Natali. "Eotrachodon orientalis: New Duck-Billed Dinosaur Species Discovered". Science News. http://www.sci-news.com/paleontology/eotrachodon-orientalis-new-duck-billed-dinosaur-species-03591.html. Retrieved 26 January 2016.
13. ↑ Griffiths, Sarah (2016-08-02). "Dinosaurs suffered from arthritis too! 70 million-year-old hadrosaur fossil shows its joints were covered in bony growths". http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3720034/Dinosaurs-suffered-arthritis-70-million-year-old-hadrosaur-fossil-shows-joints-covered-bony-growths.html. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
14. ↑ Kennedy, William J.; Landman, Neil H.; Cobban, William Aubrey; Johnson, R.O. (13 December 2000). "Additions to the ammonite fauna of the Upper Cretaceous Navesink Formation of New Jersey. American Museum Novitates". American Museum Novitates: 31.
15. ↑ Gallagher, W.B. (1997). When Dinosaurs Roamed New Jersey. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. https://archive.org/details/whendinosaursroa00gall.
16. ↑ "Oceans of Kansas". http://oceansofkansas.com/.
17. ↑ Brownstein, Chase (17 January 2018). "The biogeography and ecology of the Cretaceous non-avian dinosaurs of Appalachia". Palaeontologia Electronica 21 (1.5a): 1–56. doi:10.26879/801.
18. ↑ Brownstein, Chase D. (February 2018). "The biogeography and ecology of the Cretaceous non-avian dinosaurs of Appalachia". Society for Vertebrate Paleontology 21 (1): 1–56. doi:10.26879/801.
19. ↑ Schwimmer, David R. (1 April 2016). "Was There a Southeastern Dinosaur Province in the Late Cretaceous?". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 48 (3): 22–3. doi:10.1130/abs/2016SE-271634.
20. ↑ King Jr., David T.. "Late Cretaceous Dinosaurs of the Southeastern United States". Auburn University. http://www.auburn.edu/~kingdat/dinosaur_webpage.htm. Retrieved 9 January 2019.
21. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}". http://webhome.auburn.edu/~kingdat/dino_fig_1.jpg.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft_id=http://webhome.auburn.edu/~kingdat/dino_fig_1.jpg&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Appalachia_(Mesozoic)">
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25. ↑ Brownstein, Chase D. (November 2017). "A Tyrannosauroid Metatarsus from the Merchantville Formation of New Jersey increases the diversity of nonTyrannosaurid Tyrannosauroids on Appalachia". PeerJ 5 (e4123): e4123. doi:10.7717/peerj.4123. PMID 29204326.
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117. ↑ Westfall, Aundrea. "Pterosaurs". http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3664. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
118. ↑ Bairid, Donald; Galton, Peter M. (1981). "Pterosaur Bones from the Upper Cretaceous of Delaware". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 1 (1): 67–71. doi:10.1080/02724634.1981.10011880.
119. ↑ Harrell Jr., T. Lynn; Gibson, Michael A.; Langston Jr., Wann (1 December 2016). "A cervical vertebra of Arambourgiania philadelphiae (Pterosauria, Azhdarchidae) from the late Campanian micaceous facies of the Coon Creek Formation in McNairy County, Tennessee, USA". Bull. Alabama Mus. Nat. Hist. 33: 94–103.
120. ↑ Gibson, Michael A.. "Review of Vertebrate Diversity n the Coon Creek Formation Lagerstätte (Late Cretaceous) of Western Tennessee". Geological Society of America. https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2008SC/finalprogram/abstract_136826.htm. Retrieved 31 March 2008.
121. ↑ S. Bennett, Christopher (February 1992). "Sexual dimorphism of Pteranodon and other pterosaurs, with comments on cranial crests". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 12 (4): 422–434. doi:10.1080/02724634.1992.10011472.
122. ↑ Carpenter, Kenneth (2008). "Vertebrate Biostratigraphy of the Smoky Hill Chalk (Niobrara Formation) and the Sharon Springs Member (Pierre Shale)". High-Resolution Approaches in Stratigraphic Paleontology. Topics in Geobiology. 21. pp. 421–437. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9053-0_11. ISBN 978-1-4020-1443-7.
123. ↑ Andres, Brian; Myers, Timothy S. (23 September 2013). "Lone Star Pterosaurs". Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 103 (3–4): 383–398. doi:10.1017/S1755691013000303.
124. ↑ S. Meyers, Timothy (November 2010). "Earliest occurrence of the Pteranodontidae (Archosauria: Pterosauria) in North America: new material from the Austin Group of Texas". Journal of Paleontology 84 (6): 1071–1081. doi:10.1666/09-082.1.
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126. ↑ Myers, T.S., 2010, "Earliest occurrence of the Pteranodontidae (Archosauria: Pterosauria) in North America: New material from the Austin Group of Texas", Journal of Paleontology 84(6): 1071–1081
127. ↑ Myers, Timothy S. (2010). "A new ornithocheirid pterosaur from the Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian–Turonian) Eagle Ford Group of Texas". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 30 (1): 280–287. doi:10.1080/02724630903413099. http://pdfserve.informaworld.com/929241__918962831.pdf.
128. ↑ Holman, J. Alan (22 May 2000). Fossil Snakes of North America: Origin, Evolution, Distribution, Paleoecology. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 376.
129. ↑ Baird, D.; Krause, D.W. (1 May 1979). "Late Cretaceous mammals east of the North American Western Interior Seaway". Journal of Paleontology 53 (3). http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/53/3/562. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
130. ↑ Denton Jr., Robert K.. "Late Cretaceous Mammals of the Carolinas". The Geological Society of America. https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2016SE/webprogram/Paper273384.html. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
131. ↑ Late Cretaceous Multituberculates of the Carolinas: My...What Big Teeth You Have!
132. ↑ 132.0 132.1 Grandstaff, B. S.; Parris, D. C.; Denton Jr, R. K.; Gallagher, W. B. (1992). "Alphadon (Marsupialia) and Multituberculata (Allotheria) in the Cretaceous of eastern North America". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 12 (2): 217–222. doi:10.1080/02724634.1992.10011450.
133. ↑ Denton, R. K. Jr., & O’Neill, R. C., 2010, A New Stagodontid Metatherian from the Campanian of New Jersey and its implications for a lack of east-west dispersal routes in the Late Cretaceous of North America. Jour. Vert. Paleo. 30(3) supp.
134. ↑ Martin, JE; Case, JA; Jagt, JWM; Schulp, AS; Mulder, EWA (2005). "A new European marsupial indicates a Late Cretaceous high latitude dispersal route". Mammal. Evol. 12 (3–4): 495–511. doi:10.1007/s10914-005-7330-x.
135. ↑ Krause, David W.; Baird, Donald (May 1979). "Late Cretaceous Mammals East of the North American Western Interior Seaway". Journal of Paleontology 53 (3): 562–565.
136. ↑ Emry, Robert J.; Archibald, J. David; Smith, Charles C. (September 1982). "A Mammalian Molar from the Late Cretaceous of Northern Mississippi". Journal of Paleontology 55 (5): 953–956.
137. ↑ Grandstaff, Barbara S.; Parris, David C.; Denton Jr., Robert K.; Gallagher, William B. (10 June 1992). "Alphadon (Marsupialia) and Multituberculata (Allotheria) in the Cretaceous of Eastern North America". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 12 (2): 217–222. doi:10.1080/02724634.1992.10011450.
138. ↑ "OCEANS OF KANSAS PALEONTOLOGY Fossils from the Late Cretaceous Western Interior Sea". http://oceansofkansas.com/. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
139. ↑ Everhart, Mike. "A Field Guide to Fossils of the Smoky Hill Chalk Part 2: Sharks and Bony Fish". http://oceansofkansas.com/FieldGuide2.html. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
140. ↑ Everhart, Mike. "A Field Guide to the Smoky Hill Chalk Part 1: Invertebrates". http://oceansofkansas.com/FieldGuide1.html. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
141. ↑ Everhart, Mike. "A Field Guide to Fossils of the Smoky Hill Chalk Part 3: Marine Reptiles". http://oceansofkansas.com/FieldGuide3.html. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
142. ↑ Everhart, Mike. "A Field Guide to Fossils of the Smoky Hill Chalk Part 4: Pteranodons, Birds, and Dinosaurs". http://oceansofkansas.com/FieldGuide4.html. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
143. ↑ Everhart, Mike. "A Field Guide to Fossils of the Smoky Hill Chalk Part 5: Coprolites, pearls, fossilized wood and other remains.". http://oceansofkansas.com/FieldGuide5.html. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
144. ↑ Everhart, Mike. "M. J. EVERHART'S MARINE REPTILE REFERENCES: MOSASAURS, PLESIOSAURS, TURTLES AND OTHER VERTEBRATE FAUNA". http://oceansofkansas.com/rep-refs.html. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
145. ↑ Everhart, Mike. "Other references about fossils from the Late Cretaceous Western Interior Sea, including: Invertebrates, sharks and fish". http://oceansofkansas.com/fish-ref.html. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
146. ↑ Kiernan, Caitlin R. Kiernan (2002). "Stratigraphic distribution and habitat segregation of mosasaurs in the Upper Cretaceous of western and central Alabama, with an historical review of alabama mosasaur discoveries". 2017 Impact Factor 2.190 Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 22 (1): 91–103. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2002)022[0091:SDAHSO2.0.CO;2].
147. ↑ KIERNAN, CAITLIN R. (2002). "Stratigraphic distribution and habitat segregation of mosasaurs in the Upper Cretaceous of western and central Alabama, with an historical review of alabama mosasaur discoveries". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 22 (1): 91–103. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2002)022[0091:SDAHSO2.0.CO;2].
148. ↑ Gallagher, William B.; Campbell, Carl E.; Jagt, John W. M.; Mulder, Eric W. A. (2005). "Mosasaur (Reptilia, Squamata) Material from the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary Interval in Missouri". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 25 (2): 473–475. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0473:MRSMFT2.0.CO;2].
149. ↑ Rapp, William F. (1946). "Check List of the Fossil Fishes of New Jersey". Journal of Paleontology 20 (5): 510–513.
150. ↑ Case, Gerald R.; Schwimmer, David R. (March 1988). "Late Cretaceous fish from the Blufftown Formation (Campanian) in western Georgia". Journal of Paleontology 62 (2): 290–301. doi:10.1017/S0022336000029942. https://semanticscholar.org/paper/da4b9e475f333e3008df74493039fcf5c45694c2.
151. ↑ Cockerell, T. D. A.; Stanton, T. W. (1915). "SOME AMERICAN CRETACEOUS FISH SCALES, WITH NOTES ON THE CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF -CRETACEOUS FISHES". United States Geological Survey Bulliten 603: 34–57. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0120i/report.pdf. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
152. ↑ Stringer, Gary L.; Oman, Luke D.; Badger, Robert F. (28 November 2016). "Woodbury Formation (Campanian) in New Jersey yields largest known Cretaceous otolith assemblage of teleostean fishes in North America". Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 165 (1): 15–36. doi:10.1635/053.165.0101.
153. ↑ Lauginiger, Edward M. (September 1988). "Cretaceous Fossils from the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal". Delaware Geological Survey: 61. https://www.dgs.udel.edu/sites/default/files/publications/SP18.pdf.
154. ↑ Lidgard, Scott; Crane, Peter R. (Winter 1990). "Angiosperm Diversification and Cretaceous Floristic Trends: A Comparison of Palynofloras and Leaf Macrofloras". Paleobiology 16 (1): 77–93. doi:10.1017/S009483730000974X.
155. ↑ "22A; Veatch & Stephenson 1911 Cretaceous Material". https://www.georgiasfossils.com/22a-1911-cretaceous-fossil-locations.html. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
156. ↑ Murray (1974). Minnesota. pp. 162–163.
157. ↑ Sims, Hallie J.; Herendeen, Patrick S.; Lupia, Richard; Christopher, Raymond A.; Crane, Peter R. (August 1999). "Fossil flowers with Normapolles pollen from the Upper Cretaceous of southeastern North America". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 106 (3–4): 131–151. doi:10.1016/s0034-6667(99)00008-1.
158. ↑ V. Demers‐Potvin, Alexandre; C. E. Larsson, Hans (2 August 2019). "Palaeoclimatic reconstruction for a Cenomanian‐aged angiosperm flora near Schefferville, Labrador". Palaeontology 62 (6): 1027–1048. doi:10.1111/pala.12444.
159. ↑ Herendeen, Patrick S.; Magallon-Puebla, Susana; Lupia, Richard; R. Crane, Peter; Kobylinska, Jolanta (1999). "A Preliminary Conspectus of the Allon Flora from the Late Cretaceous (Late Santonian) of Central Georgia, U.S.A.". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 86 (2): 407–471. doi:10.2307/2666182.
160. ↑ Crane, Peter R.; Dilcher, David L. (1984). "Lesqueria: An Early Angiosperm Fruiting Axis From the Mid-Cretaceous". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 71 (2): 384–402. doi:10.2307/2399031.
161. ↑ Blackwell, W. H. (January 1984). "Fossil Ponderosa-like Pine Wood from the Upper Cretaceous of North-east Mississippi". Annals of Botany 53 (1): 133–136. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a086664.
162. ↑ Mickell, James E. (Spring 1996). "Grexlupus carolinensis, A NEW PROBABLE LAURACEOUS FRUIT FROM THE LATE CRETACEOUS OF NORTH CAROLINA". Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 112 (1): 1–6.
163. ↑ Frederiksen, Norman O. (January 1989). "Late Cretaceous and Tertiary Floras, Vegetation, and Paleoclimates of New England". Rhodora 91 (865): 25–48.
164. ↑ Berry, Edward Wilbur (1914). "The Upper Cretaceous and Eocene floras of South Carolina and Georgia". US Government Printing Office 84.

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