Autism

This article is about the classic autistic disorder. For other conditions sometimes called "autism", see Autism spectrum. For the journal, see Autism (journal).

Autism

Repetitively stacking or lining up objects is commonly associated with autism.
Specialty| Psychiatry
Symptoms| Trouble with social interaction, impaired communication, restricted interests, repetitive behavior[1]
Complications| Social isolation, employment problems, family stress, bullying, self-harm, suicide[2][3][4]
Usual onset| By age two or three[5][6]
Duration| Long term[5]
Causes| Genetic and environmental factors[7]
Diagnostic method| Based on behavior and developmental history[5]
Differential diagnosis| Reactive attachment disorder, intellectual disability, schizophrenia[8]
Treatment| Behavioral therapy, speech therapy, psychotropic medication[9][10][11]
Medication| Antipsychotics, antidepressants, stimulants (associated symptoms)[12][13][14]
Prognosis| Frequently poor[15]
Frequency| 24.8 million (2015)[16]

Autism is a developmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior.[6] Parents often notice signs during the first three years of their child's life.[1][6] These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism experience worsening in their communication and social skills after reaching developmental milestones at a normal pace.[17]

Autism is associated with a combination of genetic and environmental factors.[7] Risk factors during pregnancy include certain infections, such as rubella, toxins including valproic acid, alcohol, cocaine, pesticides, lead, and air pollution, fetal growth restriction, and autoimmune diseases.[18][19][20] Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes; for example, the vaccine hypothesis, which has been disproven.[21] Autism affects information processing in the brain and how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; how this occurs is not well understood.[22] The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), combines autism and less severe forms of the condition, including Asperger syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) into the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD).[6][23]

Early behavioral interventions or speech therapy can help children with autism gain self-care, social, and communication skills.[9][10] Although there is no known cure,[9] there have been cases of children who recovered.[24] Some autistic adults are unable to live independently.[15] An autistic culture has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be accepted as a difference to be accommodated instead of cured.[25][26]

Globally, autism is estimated to affect 24.8 million people as of 2015[update].[16] In the 2000s, the number of people affected was estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 people worldwide.[27] In the developed countries, about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with ASD as of 2017[update],[28] from 0.7% in 2000 in the United States.[29] It occurs four-to-five times more often in males than females.[29] The number of people diagnosed has increased dramatically since the 1960s, which may be partly due to changes in diagnostic practice.[27] The question of whether actual rates have increased is unresolved.[27]

## Contents

* 1 Signs and symptom
* 1.1 Social development
* 1.2 Communication
* 1.3 Repetitive behavior
* 1.4 Other symptoms
* 2 Causes
* 3 Mechanism
* 4 Diagnosis
* 4.1 Classification
* 4.1.1 Spectrum
* 5 Screening
* 6 Prevention
* 7 Management
* 7.1 Education
* 7.2 Medication
* 7.3 Alternative medicine
* 8 Prognosis
* 9 Epidemiology
* 10 History
* 10.1 Clinical development and diagnoses
* 10.2 Terminology and distinction from schizophrenia
* 11 Society and culture
* 11.1 Autism rights movement
* 11.2 Employment
* 12 References
* 13 External links

## Signs and symptom[edit | edit source]

Autism is a highly variable, neurodevelopmental disorder[30] whose symptoms first appear during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without remission.[31] People with autism may be severely impaired in some respects but average, or even superior, in others.[32] Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months, become established by age two or three years[33] and tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form.[34] It is distinguished by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction, impairments in communication, and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis.[35] Individual symptoms of autism occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.[36]

### Social development[edit | edit source]

Social deficits distinguish autism and the related autism spectrum disorders (ASD; see Classification) from other developmental disorders.[34] People with autism have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic Temple Grandin described her inability to understand the social communication of neurotypicals, or people with typical neural development, as leaving her feeling "like an anthropologist on Mars".[37]

Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from social norms; for example, they have less eye contact and turn-taking, and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as pointing at things.[38] Three- to five-year-old children with autism are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form attachments to their primary caregivers.[39] Most children with autism display moderately less attachment security than neurotypical children, although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less pronounced autistic traits.[40] Older children and adults with ASD perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition[41] although this may be partly due to a lower ability to define a person's own emotions.[42]

Children with high-functioning autism have more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that children with autism prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply.[43]

There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with intellectual disability, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and meltdowns.[44]

### Communication[edit | edit source]

About a third to a half of individuals with autism do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs.[45] Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of babbling, unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, children with autism have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Children with autism are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words (echolalia)[46][47] or reverse pronouns.[48] Joint attention seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD.[23] For example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed-at object,[38][47] and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience.[23] Children with autism may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language.[46][47]

In a pair of studies, high-functioning children with autism aged 8–15 performed equally well as, and as adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends.[49]

### Repetitive behavior[edit | edit source]

A young boy with autism who has arranged his toys in a row

Autistic individuals can display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) categorizes as follows.[50]

* Stereotyped behaviors: Repetitive movements, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking.
* Compulsive behaviors: Time-consuming behaviors intended to reduce anxiety that an individual feels compelled to perform repeatedly or according to rigid rules, such as placing objects in a specific order, checking things, or hand washing.
* Sameness: Resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted.
* Ritualistic behavior: Unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors.[50]
* Restricted interests: Interests or fixations that are abnormal in theme or intensity of focus, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game.
* Self-injury: Behaviors such as eye-poking, skin-picking, hand-biting and head-banging.[23]

No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors.[51]

### Other symptoms[edit | edit source]

Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family.[35] An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious autistic savants.[52] Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population.[53] Sensory abnormalities are found in over 90% of those with autism, and are considered core features by some,[54] although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders.[55] Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensation seeking (for example, rhythmic movements).[56] An estimated 60–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include poor muscle tone, poor motor planning, and toe walking;[54] deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper.[57] Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur.[58]

There is tentative evidence that autism occurs more frequently in people with gender dysphoria.[59][60]

Gastrointestinal problems are one of the most commonly associated medical disorders in people with autism.[61] These are linked to greater social impairment, irritability, behavior and sleep problems, language impairments and mood changes.[61][62]

Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of stress.[38] Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with Down syndrome in these aspects of the sibling relationship. However, they reported lower levels of closeness and intimacy than siblings of children with Down syndrome; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults.[63]

## Causes[edit | edit source]

Main article: Causes of autism

It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms.[64] However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur.[64][65]

Deletion (1), duplication (2) and inversion (3) are all chromosome abnormalities that have been implicated in autism.[66]

Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants.[67][68] Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and epigenetic factors which do not change DNA sequencing but are heritable and influence gene expression.[34] Many genes have been associated with autism through sequencing the genomes of affected individuals and their parents.[69] Studies of twins suggest that heritability is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD, and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population.[54] However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a Mendelian (single-gene) mutation or to a single chromosome abnormality, and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD.[67] Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene.[67] Most loci individually explain less than 1% of cases of autism.[70] The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous structural variation—such as deletions, duplications or inversions in genetic material during meiosis.[71][72] Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome.[66] Autism may be underdiagnosed in women and girls due to an assumption that it is primarily a male condition,[73] but genetic phenomena such as imprinting and X linkage have the ability to raise the frequency and severity of conditions in males, and theories have been put forward for a genetic reason why males are diagnosed more often, such as the imprinted brain theory and the extreme male brain theory.[74][75][76]

Maternal nutrition and inflammation during preconception and pregnancy influences fetal neurodevelopment. Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with ASD, in both term and preterm infants.[19] Maternal inflammatory and autoimmune diseases may damage fetal tissues, aggravating a genetic problem or damaging the nervous system.[20]

Exposure to air pollution during pregnancy, especially heavy metals and particulates, may increase the risk of autism.[77][78] Environmental factors that have been claimed without evidence to contribute to or exacerbate autism include certain foods, infectious diseases, solvents, PCBs, phthalates and phenols used in plastic products, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, alcohol, smoking, illicit drugs, vaccines,[27] and prenatal stress. Some, such as the MMR vaccine, have been completely disproven.[79][80][81][82]

Parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination. This has led to unsupported theories blaming vaccine "overload", a vaccine preservative, or the MMR vaccine for causing autism.[83] The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been "an elaborate fraud".[84] Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible,[83] parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.[85][86]

## Mechanism[edit | edit source]

Main article: Mechanism of autism

Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the pathophysiology of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the neuropsychological linkages between brain structures and behaviors.[87] The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies.[36]

There is evidence that gut–brain axis abnormalities may be involved.[61][62][88] A 2015 review proposed that immune dysregulation, gastrointestinal inflammation, malfunction of the autonomic nervous system, gut flora alterations, and food metabolites may cause brain neuroinflammation and dysfunction.[62] A 2016 review concludes that enteric nervous system abnormalities might play a role in neurological disorders such as autism. Neural connections and the immune system are a pathway that may allow diseases originated in the intestine to spread to the brain.[88]

Several lines of evidence point to synaptic dysfunction as a cause of autism.[22] Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways, such as those involved with cell adhesion.[89] Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes.[90] All known teratogens (agents that cause birth defects) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from conception, and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, there is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.[91]

## Diagnosis[edit | edit source]

Diagnosis is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism.[36][92] Under the DSM-5, autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in early childhood, typically before age three, and lead to clinically significant functional impairment.[6] Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language, and persistent preoccupation with unusual objects. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by Rett syndrome, intellectual disability or global developmental delay.[6] ICD-10 uses essentially the same definition.[31]

Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS)[93] uses observation and interaction with the child. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children.[38] The Diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders (DISCO) may also be used.[94]

A pediatrician commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated medical conditions.[95] A pediatric neuropsychologist is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions.[96] A differential diagnosis for ASD at this stage might also consider intellectual disability, hearing impairment, and a specific language impairment[95] such as Landau–Kleffner syndrome.[97] The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as depression.[98]

Clinical genetics evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause.[99] Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes,[100] consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and fragile X testing.[99] A genotype-first model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number variations.[101] As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics.[102] Metabolic and neuroimaging tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine.[99]

ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later.[1] In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice.[95] Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits. Girls are often diagnosed later than boys.[103]

Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis are problems in marginal cases, and much of the recent increase in the number of reported ASD cases is likely due to changes in diagnostic practices. The increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has given providers incentives to diagnose ASD, resulting in some overdiagnosis of children with uncertain symptoms. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis.[104] It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the visually impaired, partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or blindisms.[105]

### Classification[edit | edit source]

Autism is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior.[31] These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance.[34]

Of the five PDD forms, Asperger syndrome is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; PDD not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS; also called atypical autism) is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder.[106] Unlike with autism, people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in language development.[107] The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called the autism spectrum disorders (ASD)[9] or sometimes the autistic disorders,[108] whereas autism itself is often called autistic disorder, childhood autism, or infantile autism. In this article, autism refers to the classic autistic disorder; in clinical practice, though, autism, ASD, and PDD are often used interchangeably.[99] ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism phenotype, which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like traits, such as avoiding eye contact.[109]

Autism can also be divided into syndromal and non-syndromal autism; the syndromal autism is associated with severe or profound intellectual disability or a congenital syndrome with physical symptoms, such as tuberous sclerosis.[110] Although individuals with Asperger syndrome tend to perform better cognitively than those with autism, the extent of the overlap between Asperger syndrome, HFA, and non-syndromal autism is unclear.[111]

Some studies have reported diagnoses of autism in children due to a loss of language or social skills, as opposed to a failure to make progress, typically from 15 to 30 months of age. The validity of this distinction remains controversial; it is possible that regressive autism is a specific subtype,[1][17][46][112] or that there is a continuum of behaviors between autism with and without regression.[113]

Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population[114] and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, neurology and pediatrics.[115] Newer technologies such as fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging can help identify biologically relevant phenotypes (observable traits) that can be viewed on brain scans, to help further neurogenetic studies of autism;[116] one example is lowered activity in the fusiform face area of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects.[22] It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior.[117]

#### Spectrum[edit | edit source]

Autism has long been thought to cover a wide spectrum, ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent, developmentally disabled, and prone to frequent repetitive behavior such as hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, pedantic communication.[118] Because the behavior spectrum is continuous, boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary.[54] Sometimes the syndrome is divided into low-, medium- or high-functioning autism (LFA, MFA, and HFA), based on IQ thresholds.[119] Some people have called for an end to the terms "high-functioning" and "low-functioning" due to lack of nuance and the potential for a person's needs or abilities to be overlooked.[120][121]

## Screening[edit | edit source]

About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months.[1] According to an article, failure to meet any of the following milestones "is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome".[35]

* No response to name (or eye-to-eye gaze) by 6 months.[122]
* No babbling by 12 months.
* No gesturing (pointing, waving, etc.) by 12 months.
* No single words by 16 months.
* No two-word (spontaneous, not just echolalic) phrases by 24 months.
* Loss of any language or social skills, at any age.

The United States Preventive Services Task Force in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concerns.[123] The Japanese practice is to screen all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, in the UK, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective.[22] Screening tools include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on M-CHAT and its predecessor, the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT), on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low sensitivity (many false-negatives) but good specificity (few false-positives).[1] It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders.[124] Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture.[125] Although genetic screening for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and dysmorphic features.[126]

## Prevention[edit | edit source]

While infection with rubella during pregnancy causes fewer than 1% of cases of autism,[127] vaccination against rubella can prevent many of those cases.[128]

## Management[edit | edit source]

Main article: Autism therapies

A three-year-old with autism points to fish in an aquarium, as part of an experiment on the effect of intensive shared-attention training on language development.[129]

The main goals when treating children with autism are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes.[130][131] No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs.[9] Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment.[22] Services should be carried out by behavior analysts, special education teachers, speech pathologists, and licensed psychologists. Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy.[132] However, the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced in recent years.[130] Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options.[133] Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, communication, and job skills,[9] and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors;[134] claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated.[135] While medications have not been found to help with core symptoms, they may be used for associated symptoms, such as irritability, inattention, or repetitive behavior patterns.[12]

### Education[edit | edit source]

Educational interventions often used include applied behavior analysis (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy and cognitive behavioral interventions in adults without intellectual disability to reduce depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.[9][136] Among these approaches, interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively, or focalize treatment on a specific area of deficit.[130] The quality of research for early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI)—a treatment procedure incorporating over thirty hours per week of the structured type of ABA that is carried out with very young children—is currently low, and more vigorous research designs with larger sample sizes are needed.[137] Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include structured and naturalistic ABA interventions, and developmental social pragmatic models (DSP).[130] One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model, which teaches parents how to implement various ABA and DSP techniques, allowing for parents to disseminate interventions themselves.[130] Various DSP programs have been developed to explicitly deliver intervention systems through at-home parent implementation. Despite the recent development of parent training models, these interventions have demonstrated effectiveness in numerous studies, being evaluated as a probable efficacious mode of treatment.[130]

Early, intensive ABA therapy has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing communication and adaptive functioning in preschool children;[9][138] it is also well-established for improving the intellectual performance of that age group.[9][134][138] Similarly, a teacher-implemented intervention that utilizes a more naturalistic form of ABA combined with a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be beneficial in improving social-communication skills in young children, although there is less evidence in its treatment of global symptoms.[130] Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided.[96] It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up,[134] and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results.[139] The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers.[140]

### Medication[edit | edit source]

Medications may be used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails.[10] They may also be used for associated health problems, such as ADHD or anxiety.[10] More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics.[13][14] The atypical antipsychotic drugs risperidone and aripiprazole are FDA-approved for treating associated aggressive and self-injurious behaviors.[12][34][141] However, their side effects must be weighed against their potential benefits, and people with autism may respond atypically.[12] Side effects, for example, may include weight gain, tiredness, drooling, and aggression.[12] SSRI antidepressants, such as fluoxetine and fluvoxamine, have been shown to be effective in reducing repetitive and ritualistic behaviors, while the stimulant medication methylphenidate is beneficial for some children with co-morbid inattentiveness or hyperactivity.[9] There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD.[142] No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments.[143] Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function,[90][144] suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism.[89][145]

### Alternative medicine[edit | edit source]

Although many alternative therapies and interventions are available, few are supported by scientific studies.[41][146] Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality-of-life contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance.[43] Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk. The preference that children with autism have for unconventional foods can lead to reduction in bone cortical thickness with this being greater in those on casein-free diets, as a consequence of the low intake of calcium and vitamin D; however, suboptimal bone development in ASD has also been associated with lack of exercise and gastrointestinal disorders.[147] In 2005, botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old child with autism.[148][149] Chelation is not recommended for people with ASD since the associated risks outweigh any potential benefits.[150] Another alternative medicine practice with no evidence is CEASE therapy, a mixture of homeopathy, supplements, and 'vaccine detoxing'.[151][152]

Although popularly used as an alternative treatment for people with autism, as of 2018 there is no good evidence to recommend a gluten- and casein-free diet as a standard treatment.[153][154][155] A 2018 review concluded that it may be a therapeutic option for specific groups of children with autism, such as those with known food intolerances or allergies, or with food intolerance markers. The authors analyzed the prospective trials conducted to date that studied the efficacy of the gluten- and casein-free diet in children with ASD (4 in total). All of them compared gluten- and casein-free diet versus normal diet with a control group (2 double-blind randomized controlled trials, 1 double-blind crossover trial, 1 single-blind trial). In two of the studies, whose duration was 12 and 24 months, a significant improvement in ASD symptoms (efficacy rate 50%) was identified. In the other two studies, whose duration was 3 months, no significant effect was observed.[153] The authors concluded that a longer duration of the diet may be necessary to achieve the improvement of the ASD symptoms.[153] Other problems documented in the trials carried out include transgressions of the diet, small sample size, the heterogeneity of the participants and the possibility of a placebo effect.[155][156] In the subset of people who have gluten sensitivity there is limited evidence that suggests that a gluten-free diet may improve some autistic behaviors.[157][158][159]

Results of a systematic review on interventions to address health outcomes among autistic adults found emerging evidence to support mindfulness-based interventions for improving mental health. This includes decreasing stress, anxiety, ruminating thoughts, anger, and aggression.[136] There is tentative evidence that music therapy may improve social interactions, verbal communication, and non-verbal communication skills.[160] There has been early research looking at hyperbaric treatments in children with autism.[161] Studies on pet therapy have shown positive effects.[162]

## Prognosis[edit | edit source]

There is no known cure.[9][22] The degree of symptoms can decrease, occasionally to the extent that people lose their diagnosis of ASD;[24] this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often recovery happens;[134] reported rates in unselected samples have ranged from 3% to 25%.[24] Most children with autism acquire language by age five or younger, though a few have developed communication skills in later years.[163] Many children with autism lack social support, future employment opportunities or self-determination.[43] Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age.[34]

Few high-quality studies address long-term prognosis. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife.[164] Acquiring language before age six, having an IQ above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; independent living is unlikely with severe autism.[165]

Many individuals with autism face significant obstacles in transitioning to adulthood.[166] Compared to the general population individuals with autism are more likely to be unemployed and to have never had a job. About half of people in their 20s with autism are not employed.[167]

## Epidemiology[edit | edit source]

Main article: Epidemiology of autism

Most recent reviews tend to estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD as of 2007.[27] A 2016 survey in the United States reported a rate of 25 per 1,000 children for ASD.[168] Globally, autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people as of 2015[update], while Asperger syndrome affects a further 37.2 million.[16] In 2012, the NHS estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1%.[169] Rates of PDD-NOS's has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 per 1,000.[170] CDC estimates about 1 out of 59 (1.7%) for 2014, an increase from 1 out of every 68 children (1.5%) for 2010.[171]

Reports of autism cases per 1,000 children grew dramatically in the US from 1996 to 2007. It is unknown how much, if any, growth came from changes in rates of autism.

The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness,[170][172] though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out.[21] The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased;[170] a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics.[173]

Boys are at higher risk for ASD than girls. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without.[27] Several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated, but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed;[174] one theory is that females are underdiagnosed.[175]

Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism, the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent, and with diabetes, bleeding, and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy.[174][176] The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm, and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism.[30] Most professionals believe that race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism.[177]

Several other conditions are common in children with autism.[22] They include:

* Genetic disorders. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable Mendelian (single-gene) condition, chromosome abnormality, or other genetic syndrome,[178] and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders.[179]
* Intellectual disability. The percentage of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing intelligence of individuals on the autism spectrum.[180] In comparison, for PDD-NOS the association with intellectual disability is much weaker,[181] and by definition, the diagnosis of Asperger's excludes intellectual disability.[182]
* Anxiety disorders are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11% to 84%. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard to distinguish from ASD's symptoms.[183]
* Epilepsy, with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of language disorder.[184]
* Several metabolic defects, such as phenylketonuria, are associated with autistic symptoms.[185]
* Minor physical anomalies are significantly increased in the autistic population.[186]
* Preempted diagnoses. Although the DSM-IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette syndrome, and other of these conditions are often present and these comorbid diagnoses are increasingly accepted.[187]
* Sleep problems affect about two-thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of insomnia such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings, and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis.[188]

## History[edit | edit source]

Further information: History of Asperger syndrome

Portrait of Victor of Aveyron, a feral child caught in 1798 who displayed possible symptoms of autism[189]

A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The Table Talk of Martin Luther, compiled by his notetaker, Mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic.[190] Luther reportedly thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh possessed by the devil, and suggested that he be suffocated, although a later critic has cast doubt on the veracity of this report.[191] The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair of Borgue, as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance.[192] The Wild Boy of Aveyron, a feral child caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student Jean Itard treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation.[189]

The New Latin word autismus (English translation autism) was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia. He derived it from the Greek word autós (αὐτός, meaning "self"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance".[193] A Soviet child psychiatrist, Grunya Sukhareva, described a similar syndrome that was published in Russian in 1925, and in German in 1926.[194]

### Clinical development and diagnoses[edit | edit source]

Leo Kanner introduced the label early infantile autism in 1943.

The word autism first took its modern sense in 1938 when Hans Asperger of the Vienna University Hospital adopted Bleuler's terminology autistic psychopaths in a lecture in German about child psychology.[195] Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as Asperger syndrome, though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981.[189] Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first used autism in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label early infantile autism in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities.[48] Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders.[65] It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger.[196]

Donald Triplett was the first person diagnosed with autism.[197] He was diagnosed by Kanner after being first examined in 1938, and was labeled as "case 1".[197] Triplett was noted for his savant abilities, particularly being able to name musical notes played on a piano and to mentally multiply numbers. His father, Oliver, described him as socially withdrawn but interested in number patterns, music notes, letters of the alphabet, and U.S. president pictures. By the age of 2, he had the ability to recite the 23rd Psalm and memorized 25 questions and answers from the Presbyterian catechism. He was also interested in creating musical chords.[198]

Kanner's reuse of autism led to decades of confused terminology like infantile schizophrenia, and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to "refrigerator mothers". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome.[199]

### Terminology and distinction from schizophrenia[edit | edit source]

As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; while in 2007 it was believed to be one of the most heritable psychiatric conditions.[200] Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have affected how ASD is viewed,[189] parents continue to feel social stigma in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively,[201] and many primary care physicians and medical specialists express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research.[202]

It took until 1980 for the DSM-III to differentiate autism from childhood schizophrenia. In 1987, the DSM-III-R provided a checklist for diagnosing autism. In May 2013, the DSM-5 was released, updating the classification for pervasive developmental disorders. The grouping of disorders, including PDD-NOS, autism, Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, and CDD, has been removed and replaced with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorders. The two categories that exist are impaired social communication and/or interaction, and restricted and/or repetitive behaviors.[203]

The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find difficult to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely.[204] Societal and cultural aspects of autism have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that autism is simply another way of being.[25][26][205]

## Society and culture[edit | edit source]

Main article: Societal and cultural aspects of autism

Autism awareness ribbon

An autistic culture has emerged, accompanied by the autistic rights and neurodiversity movements.[206][207][208] Events include World Autism Awareness Day, Autism Sunday, Autistic Pride Day, Autreat, and others.[209][210][211][212] Organizations dedicated to promoting awareness of autism include Autistic Self Advocacy Network, Aspies For Freedom, Autism National Committee, and Autism Society of America. At the same time, some organizations, including Autism Speaks, have been condemned by disability rights organizations for failing to support autistic people.[213] Social-science scholars study those with autism in hopes to learn more about "autism as a culture, transcultural comparisons... and research on social movements."[214] While most autistic individuals do not have savant skills, many have been successful in their fields.[215][216][217]

### Autism rights movement[edit | edit source]

The autism rights movement is a social movement within the context of disability rights that emphasizes the concept of neurodiversity, viewing the autism spectrum as a result of natural variations in the human brain rather than a disorder to be cured.[208] The autism rights movement advocates for including greater acceptance of autistic behaviors; therapies that focus on coping skills rather than on imitating the behaviors of those without autism,[218] and the recognition of the autistic community as a minority group.[218][219] Autism rights or neurodiversity advocates believe that the autism spectrum is genetic and should be accepted as a natural expression of the human genome. This perspective is distinct from two other likewise distinct views: the medical perspective, that autism is caused by a genetic defect and should be addressed by targeting the autism gene(s), and fringe theories that autism is caused by environmental factors such as vaccines.[208] A common criticism against autistic activists is that the majority of them are "high-functioning" or have Asperger syndrome and do not represent the views of "low-functioning" autistic people.[219]

### Employment[edit | edit source]

About half of autistics are unemployed, and one third of those with graduate degrees may be unemployed.[220] Among autistics who find work, most are employed in sheltered settings working for wages below the national minimum.[221] While employers state hiring concerns about productivity and supervision, experienced employers of autistics give positive reports of above average memory and detail orientation as well as a high regard for rules and procedure in autistic employees.[220] A majority of the economic burden of autism is caused by decreased earnings in the job market.[222] Some studies also find decreased earning among parents who care for autistic children.[223][224]

## References[edit | edit source]

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Landa RJ (2008). "Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders in the first 3 years of life". Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 4 (3): 138–147. doi:10.1038/ncpneuro0731. PMID 18253102.
2. ↑ "Autism spectrum disorder - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Archived from the original on 14 July 2019. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
3. ↑ Ruggieri V (2020). "[Autism, depression and risk of suicide]". Medicina. 80 Suppl 2: 12–16. PMID 32150706.
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5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 "NIMH " Autism Spectrum Disorder". nimh.nih.gov. October 2016. Archived from the original on 21 April 2017. Retrieved 20 April 2017.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Autism Spectrum Disorder, 299.00 (F84.0). In: American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Chaste P, Leboyer M (2012). "Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 14 (3): 281–292. PMC 3513682. PMID 23226953.
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9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 Myers SM, Johnson CP (November 2007). "Management of children with autism spectrum disorders". Pediatrics. 120 (5): 1162–1182. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-2362. PMID 17967921. Archived from the original on 2019-03-23. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
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24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Helt M, Kelley E, Kinsbourne M, Pandey J, Boorstein H, Herbert M, Fein D (December 2008). "Can children with autism recover? If so, how?". Neuropsychology Review. 18 (4): 339–366. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.695.2995. doi:10.1007/s11065-008-9075-9. PMID 19009353. S2CID 4317267. Archived from the original on 2019-10-17. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
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36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 London E (2007). "The role of the neurobiologist in redefining the diagnosis of autism". Brain Pathol. 17 (4): 408–411. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00103.x. PMID 17919126.
37. ↑ Sacks O (1995). An Anthropologist on Mars: Seven Paradoxical Tales. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-43785-7. LCCN 94026733. OCLC 34359253.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 Volkmar FR, Paul R, Pelphrey KA, Rogers SJ, eds. (2014). Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders: Volume Two: Assessment, Interventions, and Policy. Vol. 2 (4th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 301\. ISBN 978-1-118-28220-5. LCCN 2013034363. OCLC 946133861. Retrieved 1 March 2019.
39. ↑ Sigman M, Dijamco A, Gratier M, Rozga A (2004). "Early detection of core deficits in autism". Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews. 10 (4): 221–233. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.492.9930. doi:10.1002/mrdd.20046. PMID 15666338.
40. ↑ Rutgers AH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van Ijzendoorn MH, van Berckelaer-Onnes IA (September 2004). "Autism and attachment: a meta-analytic review". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 45 (6): 1123–1134. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.t01-1-00305.x. PMID 15257669.
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Sigman M, Spence SJ, Wang AT (2006). "Autism from developmental and neuropsychological perspectives". Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 2: 327–355. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095210. PMID 17716073.
42. ↑ Bird G, Cook R (July 2013). "Mixed emotions: the contribution of alexithymia to the emotional symptoms of autism". Translational Psychiatry. 3 (7): e285. doi:10.1038/tp.2013.61. PMC 3731793. PMID 23880881.
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44. ↑ Matson JL, Nebel-Schwalm M (November 2007). "Assessing challenging behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorders: A review". Research in Developmental Disabilities. 28 (6): 567–579. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2006.08.001. PMID 16973329.
45. ↑ Noens I, van Berckelaer-Onnes I, Verpoorten R, van Duijn G (2006). "The ComFor: an instrument for the indication of augmentative communication in people with autism and intellectual disability". J Intellect Disabil Res. 50 (9): 621–632. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00807.x. PMID 16901289. Archived from the original on 2017-08-21. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
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47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Tager-Flusberg H, Caronna E (2007). "Language disorders: autism and other pervasive developmental disorders". Pediatr Clin North Am. 54 (3): 469–481. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2007.02.011. PMID 17543905. Archived from the original on 2019-10-17. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Kanner L (1943). "Autistic disturbances of affective contact". Nerv Child. 2 (4): 217–250. PMID 4880460. Reprinted in Kanner L (1968). "Autistic disturbances of affective contact". Acta Paedopsychiatr. 35 (4): 100–136. PMID 4880460.
49. ↑ Williams DL, Goldstein G, Minshew NJ (2006). "Neuropsychologic functioning in children with autism: further evidence for disordered complex information-processing". Child Neuropsychol. 12 (4–5): 279–298. doi:10.1080/09297040600681190. PMC 1803025. PMID 16911973.
50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Lam KS, Aman MG (2007). "The Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised: independent validation in individuals with autism spectrum disorders". J Autism Dev Disord. 37 (5): 855–866. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0213-z. PMID 17048092. S2CID 41034513. Archived from the original on 2019-10-17. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
51. ↑ Bodfish JW, Symons FJ, Parker DE, Lewis MH (2000). "Varieties of repetitive behavior in autism: comparisons to mental retardation". J Autism Dev Disord. 30 (3): 237–243. doi:10.1023/A:1005596502855. PMID 11055459. S2CID 16706630.
52. ↑ Treffert DA (2009). "The savant syndrome: an extraordinary condition. A synopsis: past, present, future". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 364 (1522): 1351–1357. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0326. PMC 2677584. PMID 19528017.
* Lay summary in: Wisconsin Medical Society https://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/professional/savant-syndrome/savant-syndrome-overview/. `{{cite journal}}`: Missing or empty `|title=` (help)
53. ↑ Plaisted Grant K, Davis G (2009). "Perception and apperception in autism: rejecting the inverse assumption". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 364 (1522): 1393–1398. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0001. PMC 2677593. PMID 19528022.
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55. ↑ Rogers SJ, Ozonoff S (2005). "Annotation: what do we know about sensory dysfunction in autism? A critical review of the empirical evidence". J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 46 (12): 1255–1268. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01431.x. PMID 16313426.
56. ↑ Ben-Sasson A, Hen L, Fluss R, Cermak SA, Engel-Yeger B, Gal E (2009). "A meta-analysis of sensory modulation symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorders". J Autism Dev Disord. 39 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0593-3. PMID 18512135. S2CID 5208889.
57. ↑ Fournier KA, Hass CJ, Naik SK, Lodha N, Cauraugh JH (2010). "Motor coordination in autism spectrum disorders: a synthesis and meta-analysis". J Autism Dev Disord. 40 (10): 1227–1240. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0981-3. PMID 20195737. S2CID 3469612.
58. ↑ Dominick KC, Davis NO, Lainhart J, Tager-Flusberg H, Folstein S (2007). "Atypical behaviors in children with autism and children with a history of language impairment". Res Dev Disabil. 28 (2): 145–162. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2006.02.003. PMID 16581226. Archived from the original on 2019-10-17. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
59. ↑ Van Der Miesen AI, Hurley H, De Vries AL (2016). "Gender dysphoria and autism spectrum disorder: A narrative review". International Review of Psychiatry. 28 (1): 70–80. doi:10.3109/09540261.2015.1111199. PMID 26753812. S2CID 20918937.
60. ↑ Glidden D, Bouman WP, Jones BA, Arcelus J (January 2016). "Gender Dysphoria and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review of the Literature". Sexual Medicine Reviews. 4 (1): 3–14. doi:10.1016/j.sxmr.2015.10.003. PMID 27872002. Archived from the original on 2021-08-27. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 Israelyan N, Margolis KG (2018). "Serotonin as a link between the gut-brain-microbiome axis in autism spectrum disorders". Pharmacol Res (Review). 132: 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2018.03.020. PMC 6368356. PMID 29614380.
62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 Wasilewska J, Klukowski M (2015). "Gastrointestinal symptoms and autism spectrum disorder: links and risks - a possible new overlap syndrome". Pediatric Health Med Ther (Review). 6: 153–166. doi:10.2147/PHMT.S85717. PMC 5683266. PMID 29388597.
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152. ↑ "Homeopathy for autism 'certainly not based on science,' B.C. health official says". CBC News. 25 May 2018. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018. Retrieved 13 July 2018.
153. ↑ 153.0 153.1 153.2 Gogou M, Kolios G (2018). "Are therapeutic diets an emerging additional choice in autism spectrum disorder management?". World J Pediatr (Review). 14 (3): 215–223. doi:10.1007/s12519-018-0164-4. PMID 29846886. S2CID 44155118. "Current literature knowledge provides evidence that ketogenic and casein/gluten-free diet may have their own place in our reserve for the therapeutic management of specific subsets of children with autism. (...) More clinical studies about the effect of gluten/caseinfree diet in these patients are available. However, available data arise from studies with small sample size and are still controversial. In general, despite encouraging data, no definite proof still exists. Under this view, the use of therapeutic diets in children with autism should be restricted to specific subgroups, such as children with autism and epilepsy or specific inborn errors of metabolism (ketogenic diet), children with known food intolerance/allergy or even children with food intolerance markers (gluten- and casein-free diet). Their implementation should always be guided by health care practitioners."
154. ↑ Marí-Bauset S, Zazpe I, Mari-Sanchis A, Llopis-González A, Morales-Suárez-Varela M (December 2014). "Evidence of the gluten-free and casein-free diet in autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review". J Child Neurol. 29 (12): 1718–1727. doi:10.1177/0883073814531330. hdl:10171/37087. PMID 24789114. S2CID 19874518.
155. ↑ 155.0 155.1 Millward C, Ferriter M, Calver S, Connell-Jones G (April 2008). Ferriter M (ed.). "Gluten- and casein-free diets for autistic spectrum disorder". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2): CD003498. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003498.pub3. PMC 4164915. PMID 18425890. "Knivsberg 2002 "monitoring of the compliance with diet was not carried out" (...) "several reports of children 'sneaking food' from siblings or classmates""
156. ↑ Hyman SL, Stewart PA, Foley J, Cain U, Peck R, Morris DD, et al. (2016). "The Gluten-Free/Casein-Free Diet: A Double-Blind Challenge Trial in Children with Autism". J Autism Dev Disord. 46 (1): 205–220. doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2564-9. PMID 26343026. S2CID 12884691. "20 natural challenges when parents reported that children by mistake consumed foods containing gluten or casein."
157. ↑ Buie T (2013). "The relationship of autism and gluten". Clin Ther (Review). 35 (5): 578–583. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2013.04.011. PMID 23688532. "At this time, the studies attempting to treat symptoms of autism with diet have not been sufficient to support the general institution of a gluten-free or other diet for all children with autism. There may be a subgroup of patients who might benefit from a gluten-free diet, but the symptom or testing profile of these candidates remains unclear."
158. ↑ Volta U, Caio G, De Giorgio R, Henriksen C, Skodje G, Lundin KE (June 2015). "Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: a work-in-progress entity in the spectrum of wheat-related disorders". Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 29 (3): 477–491. doi:10.1016/j.bpg.2015.04.006. PMID 26060112. "autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have been hypothesized to be associated with NCGS [47,48]. Notably, a gluten- and casein-free diet might have a positive effect in improving hyperactivity and mental confusion in some patients with ASD. This very exciting association between NCGS and ASD deserves further study before conclusions can be firmly drawn"
159. ↑ San Mauro I, Garicano E, Collado L, Ciudad MJ (December 2014). "¿Es el gluten el gran agente etiopatogenico de enfermedad en el siglo XXI?" [Is gluten the great etiopathogenic agent of disease in the XXI century?]. Nutr Hosp (in Spanish). 30 (6): 1203–1210. doi:10.3305/nh.2014.30.6.7866. PMID 25433099.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
160. ↑ Geretsegger M, Elefant C, Mössler KA, Gold C (June 2014). "Music therapy for people with autism spectrum disorder" (PDF). The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (6): CD004381. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004381.pub3. PMC 6956617. PMID 24936966. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-07-28. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
161. ↑ Warren Z, Veenstra-VanderWeele J, Stone W, et al. (April 2011). Therapies for Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders (Report). p. 8\. PMID 21834171. "Hyperbaric therapy, in which oxygen is administered in special chambers that maintain a higher air pressure, has shown possible effects in other chronic neurologic conditions and has also undergone preliminary exploration in ASDs."
162. ↑ Rumayor CB, Thrasher AM (November 2017). "Reflections on Recent Research Into Animal-Assisted Interventions in the Military and Beyond". Current Psychiatry Reports. 19 (12): 110. doi:10.1007/s11920-017-0861-z. PMID 29177710. S2CID 207338873.
163. ↑ Pickett E, Pullara O, O'Grady J, Gordon B (2009). "Speech acquisition in older nonverbal individuals with autism: a review of features, methods, and prognosis". Cogn Behav Neurol. 22 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1097/WNN.0b013e318190d185. PMID 19372766. S2CID 20196166.
164. ↑ Seltzer MM, Shattuck P, Abbeduto L, Greenberg JS (2004). "Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism". Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 10 (4): 234–247. doi:10.1002/mrdd.20038. PMID 15666341.
165. ↑ Tidmarsh L, Volkmar FR (2003). "Diagnosis and epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders". Can J Psychiatry. 48 (8): 517–525. doi:10.1177/070674370304800803. PMID 14574827. S2CID 38070709. Archived from the original on 2019-06-25. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
166. ↑ Hendricks DR, Wehman P (24 March 2009). "Transition From School to Adulthood for Youth With Autism Spectrum Disorders: Review and Recommendations". Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 24 (2): 77–88. doi:10.1177/1088357608329827. S2CID 14636906.
167. ↑ "Employment Outcomes of Young Adults on the Autism Spectrum". webcache.googleusercontent.com. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
168. ↑ "Report: Autism Rate Rises to 1 in 40 Children". WebMD. Archived from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2019.
169. ↑ Brugha T, Cooper SA, McManus S, et al. (31 January 2012). "Estimating the prevalence of autism spectrum conditions in adults: extending the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey" (PDF). The Information Centre for Health and Social Care. National Health Service, UK. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 December 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2014.
170. ↑ 170.0 170.1 170.2 Fombonne E (2009). "Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders". Pediatr Res. 65 (6): 591–598. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7203. PMID 19218885.
171. ↑ "Data and Statistics on Autism Spectrum Disorder | CDC". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 15 November 2018. Archived from the original on 18 April 2014. Retrieved 7 March 2019.
172. ↑ Wing L, Potter D (2002). "The epidemiology of autistic spectrum disorders: is the prevalence rising?". Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 8 (3): 151–161. doi:10.1002/mrdd.10029. PMID 12216059.
173. ↑ Szpir M (2006). "Tracing the origins of autism: a spectrum of new studies". Environ Health Perspect. 114 (7): A412–18. doi:10.1289/ehp.114-a412. PMC 1513312. PMID 16835042.
174. ↑ 174.0 174.1 Chaste P, Leboyer M (2012). "Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions". Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 14 (3): 281–292. PMC 3513682. PMID 23226953.
175. ↑ Schaafsma SM, Pfaf DW (August 2014). "Etiologies underlying sex differences in Autism Spectrum Disorders". Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 35 (3): 255–271. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.03.006. PMID 24705124. S2CID 7636860.
176. ↑ Gardener H, Spiegelman D, Buka SL (2009). "Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis". Br J Psychiatry. 195 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051672. PMC 3712619. PMID 19567888.
177. ↑ Bertoglio K, Hendren RL (2009). "New developments in autism". Psychiatr Clin North Am. 32 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2008.10.004. PMID 19248913.
178. ↑ Folstein SE, Rosen-Sheidley B (2001). "Genetics of autism: complex aetiology for a heterogeneous disorder". Nature Reviews Genetics. 2 (12): 943–955. doi:10.1038/35103559. PMID 11733747. S2CID 9331084.
179. ↑ Zafeiriou DI, Ververi A, Vargiami E (2007). "Childhood autism and associated comorbidities". Brain Dev. 29 (5): 257–272. doi:10.1016/j.braindev.2006.09.003. PMID 17084999. S2CID 16386209.
180. ↑ Dawson M, Mottron L, Gernsbacher MA (2008). "Learning in autism". In Byrne JH, Roediger HL (eds.). Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference (PDF). Vol. 2\. Elsevier. pp. 759–772. doi:10.1016/B978-012370509-9.00152-2. ISBN 978-0-12-370504-4. OCLC 775005136. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2008.
181. ↑ Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E (2001). "Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children". JAMA. 285 (24): 3093–3099. doi:10.1001/jama.285.24.3093. PMID 11427137.
182. ↑ DSM-IV-TR Diagnostical and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fourth edition text revision. American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC; 2000. p. 80.
183. ↑ White SW, Oswald D, Ollendick T, Scahill L (2009). "Anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders". Clin Psychol Rev. 29 (3): 216–229. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.01.003. PMC 2692135. PMID 19223098.
184. ↑ Spence SJ, Schneider MT (2009). "The role of epilepsy and epileptiform EEGs in autism spectrum disorders". Pediatr Res. 65 (6): 599–606. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7168. PMC 2692092. PMID 19454962.
185. ↑ Manzi B, Loizzo AL, Giana G, Curatolo P (2008). "Autism and metabolic diseases". J Child Neurol. 23 (3): 307–314. doi:10.1177/0883073807308698. PMID 18079313. S2CID 30809774.
186. ↑ Ozgen HM, Hop JW, Hox JJ, Beemer FA, van Engeland H (2010). "Minor physical anomalies in autism: a meta-analysis". Mol Psychiatry. 15 (3): 300–307. doi:10.1038/mp.2008.75. PMID 18626481.
187. ↑ Steyaert JG, De la Marche W (2008). "What's new in autism?". Eur J Pediatr. 167 (10): 1091–1101. doi:10.1007/s00431-008-0764-4. PMID 18597114. S2CID 11831418. Archived from the original on 2019-10-17. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
188. ↑ Richdale AL, Schreck KA (2009). "Sleep problems in autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, nature, & possible biopsychosocial aetiologies". Sleep Med Rev. 13 (6): 403–411. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2009.02.003. PMID 19398354.
189. ↑ 189.0 189.1 189.2 189.3 Wolff S (2004). "The history of autism". Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 13 (4): 201–208. doi:10.1007/s00787-004-0363-5. PMID 15365889. S2CID 6106042.
190. ↑ Wing L (1997). "The history of ideas on autism: legends, myths and reality". Autism. 1 (1): 13–23. doi:10.1177/1362361397011004. S2CID 145210370.
191. ↑ Miles M (2005). "Martin Luther and childhood disability in 16th century Germany: what did he write? what did he say?". Independent Living Institute. Archived from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
192. ↑ Houston RA, Frith U (2000). Autism in History: The Case of Hugh Blair of Borgue. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-631-22089-3. LCCN 00036033. OCLC 231866075.
193. ↑ Kuhn R (2004). "Eugen Bleuler's concepts of psychopathology". Hist Psychiatry. 15 (3): 361–366. doi:10.1177/0957154X04044603. PMID 15386868. S2CID 5317716. The quote is a translation of Bleuler's 1910 original.
194. ↑ Manouilenko I, Bejerot S (2015). "Sukhareva—Prior to Asperger and Kanner". Nordic Journal of Psychiatry (Report) (published 31 March 2015). 69 (6): 1761–1764. doi:10.3109/08039488.2015.1005022. ISSN 1502-4725. PMID 25826582. S2CID 207473133. Archived from the original on 27 August 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
195. ↑ Asperger H (1938). "Das psychisch abnormale Kind" [The psychically abnormal child]. Wien Klin Wochenschr (in German). 51: 1314–1317.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
196. ↑ Lyons V, Fitzgerald M (2007). "Asperger (1906–1980) and Kanner (1894–1981), the two pioneers of autism". J Autism Dev Disord. 37 (10): 2022–2023. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0383-3. PMID 17922179. S2CID 38130758.
197. ↑ 197.0 197.1 Pallardy, Richard. "Donald Triplett". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2017.
198. ↑ Donvan, John; Zucker, Caren. "Autism's First Child". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 1 October 2017. Retrieved 19 March 2017.
199. ↑ Fombonne E (2003). "Modern views of autism". Can J Psychiatry. 48 (8): 503–505. doi:10.1177/070674370304800801. PMID 14574825. S2CID 8868418. Archived from the original on 2019-06-23. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
200. ↑ Genetic epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders. In: Volkmar FR. Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press; 2007. ISBN 978-0-521-54957-8. p. 157–178.
201. ↑ Chambres P, Auxiette C, Vansingle C, Gil S (2008). "Adult attitudes toward behaviors of a six-year-old boy with autism". J Autism Dev Disord. 38 (7): 1320–1327. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0519-5. PMID 18297387. S2CID 19769173. Archived from the original on 2019-10-17. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
202. ↑ Heidgerken AD, Geffken G, Modi A, Frakey L (2005). "A survey of autism knowledge in a health care setting". J Autism Dev Disord. 35 (3): 323–330. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-3298-x. PMID 16119473. S2CID 2015723.
203. ↑ Baker JP (September 2013). "Autism at 70--redrawing the boundaries". The New England Journal of Medicine. 369 (12): 1089–1091. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1306380. PMID 24047057.
204. ↑ Biever C (2007). "Web removes social barriers for those with autism". New Scientist (2610): 26–27. Archived from the original on 20 October 2012.
205. ↑ Harmon A (20 December 2004). "How about not 'curing' us, some autistics are pleading". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013.
206. ↑ Shapiro, Joseph (26 June 2006). "Autism Movement Seeks Acceptance, Not Cures". NPR. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
207. ↑ Trivedi, Bijal. "Autistic and proud of it". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 23 April 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
208. ↑ 208.0 208.1 208.2 Solomon, Andrew (25 May 2008). "The autism rights movement". New York. Archived from the original on 27 May 2008. Retrieved 27 May 2008.
209. ↑ "World Autism Awareness Day, 2 April". United Nations. Archived from the original on 31 March 2018. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
210. ↑ Bascom, Julia (18 June 2015). "Autistic Pride Day 2015: A Message to the Autistic Community". Archived from the original on 19 November 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2015.
211. ↑ "Autism Sunday – Home". Autism Sunday. 2010. Archived from the original on 3 March 2010. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
212. ↑ "About Autreat". Autreat.com. 2013. Archived from the original on 1 December 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
213. ↑ Network, Autistic Self Advocacy. "Disability Community Condemns Autism Speaks". Autistic Self Advocacy Network. Archived from the original on 23 August 2018. Retrieved 15 June 2019.
214. ↑ Silverman, Chloe (2008). "Fieldwork on Another Planet: Social Science Perspectives on the Autism Spectrum". BioSocieties. 3 (3): 325–341. doi:10.1017/S1745855208006236. ISSN 1745-8552. S2CID 145379758.
215. ↑ "American RadioWorks: Fast Food and Animal Rights – Kill Them With Kindness". American Public Media. p. 1\. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
216. ↑ Page, Tim (20 August 2007). "Parallel Play". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
217. ↑ "Famous People With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Autistic Celebrities (List)". Mental Health Daily. 19 September 2015. Archived from the original on 19 November 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2015.
218. ↑ 218.0 218.1 Ratner, Paul (10 July 2016). "Should Autism Be Cured or Is "Curing" Offensive?". Big Think. Archived from the original on 16 June 2019. Retrieved 16 June 2019.
219. ↑ 219.0 219.1 Jaarsma P, Welin S (March 2012). "Autism as a natural human variation: reflections on the claims of the neurodiversity movement". Health Care Analysis. 20 (1): 20–30. doi:10.1007/s10728-011-0169-9. PMID 21311979. S2CID 18618887. Archived from the original on 2019-12-17. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
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## External links[edit | edit source]

Library resources about
Autism

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Find out more on
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Classification|

* ICD-10: F84.0
* ICD-9-CM: 299.00
* OMIM: 209850
* MeSH: D001321
* DiseasesDB: 1142

|

External resources|

* MedlinePlus: 001526
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Pervasive developmental disorders and autism spectrum (ICD-10 Chapter V: Mental and behavioural disorders, F84, 299)

Main|

* Causes
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* Epidemiology
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* Medical model
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Diagnoses|

* Autism spectrum (High-functioning autism
* Classic autism
* Asperger syndrome
* Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified
* Childhood disintegrative disorder
* Rett syndrome)

Related conditions|

* Alexithymia
* Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
* Anxiety disorder (obsessive–compulsive disorder)
* Late talker
* Epilepsy
* Fragile X syndrome
* Hyperlexia
* Savant syndrome
* Sensory processing disorder
* Intellectual disability
* Developmental coordination disorder
* Multiple complex developmental disorder

Controversies|

* Autism rights movement
* Autistic enterocolitis
* Facilitated communication
* MMR vaccine
* Rapid prompting method
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Diagnostic scales|

* Gilliam Asperger's disorder scale
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Mental and behavioral disorders

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Other|

* Factitious disorder
* Munchausen syndrome
* Gender dysphoria
* Intermittent explosive disorder
* Dermatillomania
* Kleptomania
* Pyromania
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* Personality disorder

Childhood and learning

| Emotional and behavioral|

* ADHD
* Conduct disorder
* ODD
* Emotional and behavioral disorders
* Separation anxiety disorder
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* Stereotypic
* Social functioning
* DAD
* RAD
* Selective mutism
* Speech
* Cluttering
* Stuttering
* Tic disorder
* Tourette syndrome

|

Intellectual disability|

* X-linked intellectual disability
* Lujan–Fryns syndrome

Psychological development
(developmental disabilities)|

* Pervasive
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Mood (affective)

* Bipolar
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* Major depressive disorder
* Melancholic depression
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Neurological and symptomatic

| Autism spectrum|

* Autism
* Asperger syndrome
* High-functioning autism
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|

Dementia|

* AIDS dementia complex
* Alzheimer's disease
* Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
* Frontotemporal dementia
* Huntington's disease
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* Sundowning
* Vascular dementia
* Wandering

Other|

* Delirium
* Organic brain syndrome
* Post-concussion syndrome

Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform

| Adjustment|

* Adjustment disorder with depressed mood

|

Anxiety|

| Phobia|

* Agoraphobia
* Social anxiety
* Social phobia
* Anthropophobia
* Specific social phobia
* Specific phobia
* Claustrophobia

|

Other|

* Generalized anxiety disorder
* OCD
* Panic attack
* Panic disorder
* Stress
* Acute stress disorder
* PTSD

Dissociative|

* Depersonalization-derealization disorder
* Dissociative identity disorder
* Fugue state
* Psychogenic amnesia

Somatic symptom|

* Body dysmorphic disorder
* Conversion disorder
* Ganser syndrome
* Globus pharyngis
* Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures
* False pregnancy
* Hypochondriasis
* Mass psychogenic illness
* Nosophobia
* Psychogenic pain
* Somatization disorder

Physiological and physical behavior

| Eating|

* Anorexia nervosa
* Bulimia nervosa
* Rumination syndrome
* Other specified feeding or eating disorder

|

Nonorganic sleep|

* Hypersomnia
* Insomnia
* Parasomnia
* Night terror
* Nightmare
* REM sleep behavior disorder

Postnatal|

* Postpartum depression
* Postpartum psychosis

Sexual dysfunction|

| Arousal|

* Erectile dysfunction
* Female sexual arousal disorder

|

Desire|

* Hypersexuality
* Hypoactive sexual desire disorder

Orgasm|

* Anorgasmia
* Delayed ejaculation
* Premature ejaculation
* Sexual anhedonia

Pain|

* Nonorganic dyspareunia
* Nonorganic vaginismus

Psychoactive substances, substance abuse and substance-related

* Drug overdose
* Intoxication
* Physical dependence
* Rebound effect
* Stimulant psychosis
* Substance dependence
* Withdrawal

Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional

| Delusional|

* Delusional disorder
* Folie à deux

|

Psychosis and
schizophrenia-like|

* Brief reactive psychosis
* Schizoaffective disorder
* Schizophreniform disorder

Schizophrenia|

* Childhood schizophrenia
* Disorganized (hebephrenic) schizophrenia
* Paranoid schizophrenia
* Pseudoneurotic schizophrenia
* Simple-type schizophrenia

Other|

* Catatonia

Symptoms and uncategorized

* Impulse-control disorder
* Klüver–Bucy syndrome
* Psychomotor agitation
* Stereotypy

* v
* t
* e

Autism resources

* Autism
* outline
* spectrum

Awareness|

* Autism friendly
* Autism Sunday
* Communication Shutdown
* World Autism Awareness Day

Culture|

* Autistic art
* Autism spectrum disorders in the media
* Fictional characters
* Films about autism
* Circle of Friends
* Neurodiversity
* Medical model of autism
* Societal and cultural aspects of autism

Therapies

| Psychotropic medication (antipsychotics)|

* Aripiprazole
* Risperidone

|

Applied behavior analysis (ABA)|

* Cognitive behavior therapy
* social skills training
* Discrete trial training (Lovaas)
* Early start denver model
* Pivotal response treatment
* Schoolwide positive behavior support

Developmental|

* Floortime (The PLAY Project)

Controversial|

* Auditory integration training
* Aversive therapy/Electric shocks (Judge Rotenberg Educational Center)
* Chelation of mercury
* Ethical challenges to autism treatment
* Facilitated communication
* Gluten-free casein-free diet
* Hug machine
* Hyperbaric oxygen therapy
* Holding therapy
* Relationship development intervention
* Secretin
* Sensory integration therapy
* Son-Rise
* Vitamin B12

Related|

* Occupational therapy
* Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)
* Social Stories
* Speech therapy
* SSRI antidepressants
* Structured teaching (TEACCH)

Centers

| Research|

| United States|

* Association for Science in Autism Treatment
* Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative
* Autism Research Institute
* Autism Science Foundation
* National Alliance for Autism Research
* Yale Child Study Center

|

United Kingdom|

* Autism Research Centre (UK)

other / see also|

* Conditions and research areas
* Researchers

Therapy|

| United States|

* Center for Autism and Related Disorders (CARD)
* MIND Institute

|

Schools|

* ESPA College (UK)
* Exceptional Minds (USA)
* Pathlight School (Singapore)
* Sunfield Children's Home (UK)
* TreeHouse School (UK)
* Western Autistic School (Australia)
* List of schools

Organizations

| Americas|

| United States|

* Autism National Committee
* Autism Network International
* Autism Science Foundation
* Autistic Self Advocacy Network
* Autism Society of America
* Autism Speaks
* Centro Ponceño de Autismo
* Daniel Jordan Fiddle Foundation
* Generation Rescue
* Interactive Autism Network
* Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee
* LENA Foundation
* National Alliance for Autism Research
* National Council on Severe Autism
* Talk About Curing Autism

|

other|

* Centro Ann Sullivan (Peru)
* Domus Instituto de Autismo (Mexico)
* Filipino-Canadian Autism Parent Support Group (Canada)
* Geneva Centre for Autism (Canada)

Asia|

* Action for Autism (India)
* Autism Resource Centre (Singapore)

Caribbean|

* Autistic Society (Trinidad and Tobago)
* Maia Chung Autism and Disabilities Foundation (Jamaica)

Europe|

| UK|

* Autism Anglia
* The Autism Directory
* Autism Awareness Campaign UK
* Autism Cymru
* Autism Plus
* Autistica
* National Autistic Society
* Sacar

|

other|

* Specialisterne (Denmark)
* Aspies For Freedom
* Alliance Autiste

Oceania|

* Luke Priddis Foundation (Australia)

International|

* Autism rights movement
* Wrong Planet

Literature

| Non-fiction|

* The Accidental Teacher: Life Lessons from My Silent Son
* Animals in Translation
* Aspergirls: Empowering Females with Asperger's Syndrome
* Autism's False Prophets
* Extreme Love: Autism
* Fall Down 7 Times Get Up 8
* Freaks, Geeks, and Asperger Syndrome: A User Guide to Adolescence
* In a Different Key
* Life Animated
* Like Colour to the Blind
* Look Me in the Eye
* Mother Warriors
* My Autobiography
* Neurotribes
* Nobody Nowhere
* Overcoming Autism
* The Reason I Jump
* Somebody Somewhere
* Son-Rise: The Miracle Continues
* Strange Son
* Switched On
* Unstrange Minds

|

Fiction|

* The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time
* Dear John
* House Rules
* Mockingbird
* Saving Max
* Speed of Dark
* The Winter Journey
* With the Light

For younger people|

* Everybody Is Different: A Book for Young People Who Have Brothers or Sisters With Autism
* Ian's Walk: A Story about Autism
* Marcelo in the Real World
* Rage: A Love Story
* Rules

Journals|

* Autism
* Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
* Molecular Autism
* Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders

* v
* t
* e

Autism-related films

Documentary|

* Autism Every Day
* Autism Is a World
* Autism: The Musical
* Best Kept Secret
* Children of the Stars
* Dad's in Heaven with Nixon
* The Horse Boy
* How to Dance in Ohio
* Life, Animated
* Normal People Scare Me
* Recovered: Journeys Through the Autism Spectrum and Back
* Refrigerator Mothers
* Too Sane for This World
* The Wall or psychoanalysis put to the test for autism

Docudrama and biopic|

* After Thomas
* Cries from the Heart
* Marathon
* Miracle Run
* Son-Rise: A Miracle of Love
* Temple Grandin
* Wretches & Jabberers

Educational|

* The Transporters

Fictional|

* The Accountant
* Adam
* Backstreet Dreams
* Barfi!
* Ben X
* The Black Balloon
* Bless the Child
* The Boy Who Could Fly
* Breaking and Entering
* Burning Bright
* Carne
* Change of Habit
* A Child Is Waiting
* Chocolate
* Cube
* Dark Floors
* David's Mother
* Dear John
* Dr. Pomerantz
* Elling
* Eeshwar
* Extremely Loud & Incredibly Close
* Family Pictures
* Float
* Fly Away
* God's Ears
* Haridas
* Henry & Verlin
* House of Cards
* I Am Sam
* Imagination
* Jack of the Red Hearts
* Jane Wants a Boyfriend
* Jimmy
* Joyful Noise
* Killer Diller
* Koi... Mil Gaya
* Loop
* Mabul
* Mario
* Mary and Max
* Mercury Rising
* Midwinter Night's Dream
* Molly
* Mozart and the Whale
* My Name Is Khan
* Nell
* Nightworld: Lost Souls
* Ocean Heaven
* The Other Sister
* Please Stand By
* The Predator
* Quantum Apocalypse
* Raam
* Rain Man
* Relative Fear
* Run Wild, Run Free
* Salmon Fishing in the Yemen
* Season of Miracles
* Silent Fall
* Simple Simon
* Snow Cake
* Split
* The Story of Luke
* Swati Mutyam
* Swathi Muthu
* Touch
* Under the Piano
* When the Bough Breaks
* White Frog
* Zig Zag

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