Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2

This article is about the virus that causes COVID-19. For the virus that causes SARS, see Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 1. For the species to which both viruses belong, see Severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2

Colourised transmission electron micrograph of SARS-CoV-2 virions with visible coronae
Atomic model of the external structure of the SARS-CoV-2 virion. Each "ball" is an atom.[1]| ● Blue:| envelope

|

● Turquoise:  | spike glycoprotein (S)
● Red:| envelope proteins (E)
● Green:| membrane proteins (M)
● Orange:| glycan
Virus classification
(unranked):  | Virus
Realm:  | Riboviria
Kingdom:  | Orthornavirae
Phylum:  | Pisuviricota
Class:  | Pisoniviricetes
Order:  | Nidovirales
Family:  | Coronaviridae
Genus:  | Betacoronavirus
Subgenus:  | Sarbecovirus
Species:  |

Severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus

Virus:  |

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2

Notable variants

* Alpha (B.1.1.7)
* Beta (B.1.351)
* Gamma (P.1)
* Delta (B.1.617.2)
* Omicron (B.1.1.529)
* Full list

Synonyms

* 2019-nCoV

Part of a series on the

COVID-19 pandemic

* COVID-19 (disease)
* SARS-CoV-2 (virus)

* Cases
* Deaths

Timeline

2019

2020

* January
* responses
* February
* responses
* March
* responses
* April
* responses
* May
* responses
* June
* responses
* July
* responses
* August
* responses
* September
* responses
* October
* responses
* November
* responses
* December
* responses

2021

* January
* responses
* February
* responses
* March
* responses
* April
* responses
* May
* responses
* June
* responses
* July
* responses
* August
* responses
* September
* responses
* October
* responses
* November
* responses
* December
* responses

2022

* January
* responses
* February
* responses
* March
* responses
* April
* responses
* May
* responses
* June
* responses
* July
* responses
* August
* responses
* September
* responses
* October
* responses
* November
* December

2023

2024

Locations

By country and territory

* Africa
* Antarctica
* Asia
* Europe
* North America
* Oceania
* South America

By conveyance

* Cruise ships
* Naval ships

International response

* Endemic phase
* Evacuations
* Face masks
* International aid
* Origin
* Lockdowns
* by country
* Misinformation
* by governments
* Fake treatments
* Social distancing
* Software
* Travel
* United Nations
* World Health Organization
* WTO IP waiver
* Undercounting of deaths
* COVID-19 apps
* Zero-COVID

National responses

* Africa
* China
* European Union
* Germany
* Ghana
* India
* Ireland
* Netherlands
* New Zealand
* Nigeria
* Philippines
* Russia
* Sweden
* UK
* government
* US
* federal government
* Vietnam

Medical response

* Disease testing
* Breathalyzer
* Development
* Drug development
* Drug repurposing
* Public health mitigation

Vaccines

* History
* Research
* VITT
* Deployment
* Authorizations
* Operation Warp Speed
* Misinformation and hesitancy
* US
* Vaccine card
* Vaccine passports

Current vaccines

* CoronaVac
* Covaxin
* Convidecia
* Janssen
* Medigen
* Moderna
* Novavax
* Oxford–AstraZeneca
* Pfizer–BioNTech
* Sinopharm BIBP
* Sputnik V

Variants

Variants of concern

* Alpha
* Beta
* Gamma
* Delta
* Omicron

Other variants

* Epsilon
* Zeta
* Eta
* Theta
* Iota
* Kappa
* Lambda
* Mu
* Cluster 5
* Lineage B.1.617

Economic impact and recession

* Arts and culture
* Aviation
* Cannabis
* Cinema
* films
* Disney
* Fashion
* Financial markets
* Food industry
* Food security
* Journalism
* Music
* Performing arts
* Retail
* Shipping
* Television
* US
* sportscasting
* programs
* Tourism
* Video games

By country

* Canada
* India
* Ireland
* Malaysia
* New Zealand
* Russia
* UK
* US

By sport

* Association football
* Baseball
* Basketball
* Combat sports
* Cricket
* Disc golf
* Gaelic games
* Gridiron football
* Ice hockey
* Motorsport
* Rugby league

Impacts

* Animals
* Alzheimer's disease patients
* Black people
* Crime
* Death rates by country
* Disability
* Domestic violence
* Emergency evacuations
* Education
* Female
* Environment
* Hospitals
* Language
* LGBT community
* Long-term care
* Media coverage
* Mental health
* symptoms
* Migration
* Military
* Notable deaths
* Other health issues
* Politics
* diplomacy
* Popular culture
* Protests
* Pregnancy
* Prisons
* Religion
* Catholic Church
* Hajj
* Science and technology
* Social media
* Strikes
* Suicides
* Telehealth
* Xenophobia and racism

Society

* Ireland
* Malaysia
* New Zealand
* Russia
* UK
* US

* v
* t
* e

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2)[2] is a strain of coronavirus that causes COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019), the respiratory illness responsible for the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.[3] The virus previously had a provisional name, 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV),[4][5][6][7] and has also been called human coronavirus 2019 (HCoV-19 or hCoV-19).[8][9][10][11] First identified in the city of Wuhan, Hubei, China, the World Health Organization declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern on 30 January 2020, and a pandemic on 11 March 2020.[12][13] SARS‑CoV‑2 is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus[14] that is contagious in humans.[15] As described by the US National Institutes of Health, it is the successor to SARS-CoV-1, the virus that caused the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak.[16]

SARS‑CoV‑2 is a virus of the species severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus (SARSr-CoV).[2] It is of zoonotic origins and has close genetic similarity to bat coronaviruses, suggesting it emerged from a bat-borne virus.[9][17] Research is ongoing as to whether SARS‑CoV‑2 came directly from bats or indirectly through any intermediate hosts.[18] The virus shows little genetic diversity, indicating that the spillover event introducing SARS‑CoV‑2 to humans is likely to have occurred in late 2019.[19]

Epidemiological studies estimate that, in the December 2019 – September 2020 period, each infection resulted in an average of 2.4 to 3.4 new ones when no members of the community are immune and no preventive measures are taken.[20] However, some subsequent variants have become more infectious.[21] The virus primarily spreads between people through close contact and via aerosols and respiratory droplets that are exhaled when talking, breathing, or otherwise exhaling, as well as those produced from coughs or sneezes.[22][23] It enters human cells by binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), a membrane protein that regulates the renin–angiotensin system.[24][25]

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Transmission
* 2.1 Asymptomatic transmission
* 2.2 Reinfection
* 3 Reservoir and origin
* 4 Phylogenetics and taxonomy
* 4.1 Variants
* 5 Virology
* 5.1 Structure
* 5.2 Genome
* 5.3 Replication cycle
* 6 Treatment and drug development
* 7 Epidemiology
* 8 See also
* 9 References
* 10 Further reading
* 11 External links

## Etymology[edit | edit source]

During the initial outbreak in Wuhan, China, various names were used for the virus; some names used by different sources included "the coronavirus" or "Wuhan coronavirus".[26][27] In January 2020, the World Health Organization recommended "2019 novel coronavirus" (2019-nCov)[5][28] as the provisional name for the virus. This was in accordance with WHO's 2015 guidance[29] against using geographical locations, animal species, or groups of people in disease and virus names.[30][31]

On 11 February 2020, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses adopted the official name "severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2" (SARS‑CoV‑2).[32] To avoid confusion with the disease SARS, the WHO sometimes refers to SARS‑CoV‑2 as "the COVID-19 virus" in public health communications[33][34] and the name HCoV-19 was included in some research articles.[8][9][10] Referring to COVID-19 as the "Wuhan virus" has been described as dangerous by WHO officials, and as xenophobic by University of California at Berkeley Asian American studies lecturer Harvey Dong.[35][36][37]

## Transmission[edit | edit source]

Some infectious diseases can be spread via respiratory droplets expelled from the mouth and nose

Human-to-human transmission of SARS‑CoV‑2 was confirmed on 20 January 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic.[15][38][39][40] Transmission was initially assumed to occur primarily via respiratory droplets from coughs and sneezes within a range of about 1.8 metres (6 ft).[41][42] Laser light scattering experiments suggest that speaking is an additional mode of transmission[43][44] and a far-reaching[45] and under-researched[46] one, indoors, with little air flow.[47][48] Other studies have suggested that the virus may be airborne as well, with aerosols potentially being able to transmit the virus.[49][50][51] During human-to-human transmission, between 200 and 800 infectious SARS‑CoV‑2 virions are thought to initiate a new infection.[52][53][54] If confirmed, aerosol transmission has biosafety implications because a major concern associated with the risk of working with emerging viruses in the laboratory is the generation of aerosols from various laboratory activities which are not immediately recognizable and may affect other scientific personnel.[55] Indirect contact via contaminated surfaces is another possible cause of infection.[56] Preliminary research indicates that the virus may remain viable on plastic (polypropylene) and stainless steel (AISI 304) for up to three days, but it does not survive on cardboard for more than one day or on copper for more than four hours.[10] The virus is inactivated by soap, which destabilizes its lipid bilayer.[57][58] Viral RNA has also been found in stool samples and semen from infected individuals.[59][60]

The degree to which the virus is infectious during the incubation period is uncertain, but research has indicated that the pharynx reaches peak viral load approximately four days after infection[61][62] or in the first week of symptoms and declines thereafter.[63] The duration of SARS-CoV-2 RNA shedding is generally between 3 and 46 days after symptom onset.[64]

A study by a team of researchers from the University of North Carolina found that the nasal cavity is seemingly the dominant initial site of infection, with subsequent aspiration-mediated virus-seeding into the lungs in SARS‑CoV‑2 pathogenesis.[65] They found that there was an infection gradient from high in proximal towards low in distal pulmonary epithelial cultures, with a focal infection in ciliated cells and type 2 pneumocytes in the airway and alveolar regions respectively.[65]

Studies have identified a range of animals—such as cats, ferrets, hamsters, non-human primates, minks, tree shrews, raccoon dogs, fruit bats, and rabbits—that are susceptible and permissive to SARS-CoV-2 infection.[66][67][68] Some institutions have advised that those infected with SARS‑CoV‑2 restrict their contact with animals.[69][70]

### Asymptomatic transmission[edit | edit source]

On 1 February 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) indicated that "transmission from asymptomatic cases is likely not a major driver of transmission".[71] One meta-analysis found that 17% of infections are asymptomatic, and asymptomatic individuals were 42% less likely to transmit the virus.[72]

However, an epidemiological model of the beginning of the outbreak in China suggested that "pre-symptomatic shedding may be typical among documented infections" and that subclinical infections may have been the source of a majority of infections.[73] That may explain how out of 217 on board a cruise liner that docked at Montevideo, only 24 of 128 who tested positive for viral RNA showed symptoms.[74] Similarly, a study of ninety-four patients hospitalized in January and February 2020 estimated patients shed the most virus two to three days before symptoms appear and that "a substantial proportion of transmission probably occurred before first symptoms in the index case".[75]

### Reinfection[edit | edit source]

There is uncertainty about reinfection and long-term immunity.[76] It is not known how common reinfection is, but reports have indicated that it is occurring with variable severity.[76]

The first reported case of reinfection was a 33-year-old man from Hong Kong who first tested positive on 26 March 2020, was discharged on 15 April 2020 after two negative tests, and tested positive again on 15 August 2020 (142 days later), which was confirmed by whole-genome sequencing showing that the viral genomes between the episodes belong to different clades.[77] The findings had the implications that herd immunity may not eliminate the virus if reinfection is not an uncommon occurrence and that vaccines may not be able to provide lifelong protection against the virus.[77]

Another case study described a 25-year-old man from Nevada who tested positive for SARS‑CoV‑2 on 18 April 2020 and on 5 June 2020 (separated by two negative tests). Since genomic analyses showed significant genetic differences between the SARS‑CoV‑2 variant sampled on those two dates, the case study authors determined this was a reinfection.[78] The man's second infection was symptomatically more severe than the first infection, but the mechanisms that could account for this are not known.[78]

## Reservoir and origin[edit | edit source]

Further information: Investigations into the origin of COVID-19

Transmission of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS‑CoV‑2 from mammals as biological carriers to humans

The first known infections from SARS‑CoV‑2 were discovered in Wuhan, China.[17] The original source of viral transmission to humans remains unclear, as does whether the virus became pathogenic before or after the spillover event.[9][19][79] Because many of the early infectees were workers at the Huanan Seafood Market,[80][81] it has been suggested that the virus might have originated from the market.[9][82] However, other research indicates that visitors may have introduced the virus to the market, which then facilitated rapid expansion of the infections.[19][83] A March 2021 WHO-convened report stated that human spillover via an intermediate animal host was the most likely explanation, with direct spillover from bats next most likely. Introduction through the food supply chain and the Huanan Seafood Market was considered another possible, but less likely, explanation.[84] An analysis in November 2021, however, said that the earliest-known case had been misidentified and that the preponderance of early cases linked to the Huanan Market argued for it being the source.[85]

For a virus recently acquired through a cross-species transmission, rapid evolution is expected.[86] The mutation rate estimated from early cases of SARS-CoV-2 was of 6.54×10−4 per site per year.[84] Coronaviruses in general have high genetic plasticity,[87] but SARS-CoV-2's viral evolution is slowed by the RNA proofreading capability of its replication machinery.[88] For comparison, the viral mutation rate in vivo of SARS-CoV-2 has been found to be lower than that of influenza.[89]

Research into the natural reservoir of the virus that caused the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak has resulted in the discovery of many SARS-like bat coronaviruses, most originating in horseshoe bats. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that samples taken from Rhinolophus sinicus show a resemblance of 80% to SARS‑CoV‑2.[90][91][92] Phylogenetic analysis also indicates that a virus from Rhinolophus affinis, collected in Yunnan province and designated RaTG13, has a 96.1% resemblance to SARS‑CoV‑2.[17][93] This sequence was the closest known to SARS-CoV-2 at the time of its identification,[84] but it is not its direct ancestor.[94] Other closely-related sequences were also identified in samples from local bat populations.[95]

Samples taken from Rhinolophus sinicus, a species of horseshoe bats, show an 80% resemblance to SARS‑CoV‑2.

Bats are considered the most likely natural reservoir of SARS‑CoV‑2.[84][96] Differences between the bat coronavirus and SARS‑CoV‑2 suggest that humans may have been infected via an intermediate host;[82] although the source of introduction into humans remains unknown.[97][98]

Although the role of pangolins as an intermediate host was initially posited (a study published in July 2020 suggested that pangolins are an intermediate host of SARS‑CoV‑2-like coronaviruses[99][100]), subsequent studies have not substantiated their contribution to the spillover.[84] Evidence against this hypothesis includes the fact that pangolin virus samples are too distant to SARS-CoV-2: isolates obtained from pangolins seized in Guangdong were only 92% identical in sequence to the SARS‑CoV‑2 genome (matches above 90 percent may sound high, but in genomic terms it is a wide evolutionary gap[101]). In addition, despite similarities in a few critical amino acids,[102] pangolin virus samples exhibit poor binding to the human ACE2 receptor.[103]

## Phylogenetics and taxonomy[edit | edit source]

Transmission electron micrograph of SARS‑CoV‑2 virions (red) isolated from a patient during the COVID-19 pandemic

SARS‑CoV‑2 belongs to the broad family of viruses known as coronaviruses.[27] It is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) virus, with a single linear RNA segment. Coronaviruses infect humans, other mammals, including livestock and companion animals, and avian species.[104] Human coronaviruses are capable of causing illnesses ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases such as Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS, fatality rate ~34%). SARS-CoV-2 is the seventh known coronavirus to infect people, after 229E, NL63, OC43, HKU1, MERS-CoV, and the original SARS-CoV.[105]

Like the SARS-related coronavirus implicated in the 2003 SARS outbreak, SARS‑CoV‑2 is a member of the subgenus Sarbecovirus (beta-CoV lineage B).[106][107] Coronaviruses undergo frequent recombination.[108] The mechanism of recombination in unsegmented RNA viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 is generally by copy-choice replication, in which gene material switches from one RNA template molecule to another during replication.[109] SARS-CoV-2 RNA sequence is approximately 30,000 bases in length,[110] relatively long for a coronavirus (which in turn carry the largest genomes among all RNA families)[111] Its genome consists nearly entirely of protein-coding sequences, a trait shared with other coronaviruses.[108]

A distinguishing feature of SARS‑CoV‑2 is its incorporation of a polybasic site cleaved by furin,[102] which appears to be an important element enhancing its virulence.[112] It was suggested that the acquisition of the furin-cleavage site in the SARS-CoV-2 S protein was essential for zoonotic transfer to humans.[113] The furin protease recognizes the canonical peptide sequence RX[R/K] R↓X where the cleavage site is indicated by a down arrow and X is any amino acid.[114][115] In SARS-CoV-2 the recognition site is formed by the incorporated 12 codon nucleotide sequence CCT CGG CGG GCA which corresponds to the amino acid sequence P RR A.[116] This sequence is upstream of an arginine and serine which forms the S1/S2 cleavage site (P RR A R↓S) of the spike protein.[117] Although such sites are a common naturally-occurring feature of other viruses within the Subfamily Orthocoronavirinae,[116] it appears in few other viruses from the Beta-CoV genus,[118] and it is unique among members of its subgenus for such a site.[102] The furin cleavage site PRRAR↓ is identical to that of the feline coronavirus, an alphacoronavirus 1 strain.[119]

Viral genetic sequence data can provide critical information about whether viruses separated by time and space are likely to be epidemiologically linked.[120] With a sufficient number of sequenced genomes, it is possible to reconstruct a phylogenetic tree of the mutation history of a family of viruses. By 12 January 2020, five genomes of SARS‑CoV‑2 had been isolated from Wuhan and reported by the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CCDC) and other institutions;[110][121] the number of genomes increased to 42 by 30 January 2020.[122] A phylogenetic analysis of those samples showed they were "highly related with at most seven mutations relative to a common ancestor", implying that the first human infection occurred in November or December 2019.[122] Examination of the topology of the phylogenetic tree at the start of the pandemic also found high similarities between human isolates.[123] As of 21 August 2021,[update] 3,422 SARS‑CoV‑2 genomes, belonging to 19 strains, sampled on all continents except Antarctica were publicly available.[124]

On 11 February 2020, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses announced that according to existing rules that compute hierarchical relationships among coronaviruses based on five conserved sequences of nucleic acids, the differences between what was then called 2019-nCoV and the virus from the 2003 SARS outbreak were insufficient to make them separate viral species. Therefore, they identified 2019-nCoV as a virus of Severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus.[125]

In July 2020, scientists reported that a more infectious SARS‑CoV‑2 variant with spike protein variant G614 has replaced D614 as the dominant form in the pandemic.[126][127]

Coronavirus genomes and subgenomes encode six open reading frames (ORFs).[128] In October 2020, researchers discovered a possible overlapping gene named ORF3d, in the SARS‑CoV‑2 genome. It is unknown if the protein produced by ORF3d has any function, but it provokes a strong immune response. ORF3d has been identified before, in a variant of coronavirus that infects pangolins.[129][130]

#### Variants[edit | edit source]

Main article: Variants of SARS-CoV-2

There are many thousands of variants of SARS-CoV-2, which can be grouped into the much larger clades.[131] Several different clade nomenclatures have been proposed. Nextstrain divides the variants into five clades (19A, 19B, 20A, 20B, and 20C), while GISAID divides them into seven (L, O, V, S, G, GH, and GR).[132]Several notable variants of SARS-CoV-2 emerged in late 2020. The World Health Organization has currently declared five variants of concern, which are as follows:[133]

* Alpha: Lineage B.1.1.7 emerged in the United Kingdom in September 2020, with evidence of increased transmissibility and virulence. Notable mutations include N501Y and P681H.
* An E484K mutation in some lineage B.1.1.7 virions has been noted and is also tracked by various public health agencies.
* Beta: Lineage B.1.351 emerged in South Africa in May 2020, with evidence of increased transmissibility and changes to antigenicity, with some public health officials raising alarms about its impact on the efficacy of some vaccines. Notable mutations include K417N, E484K and N501Y.
* Gamma: Lineage P.1 emerged in Brazil in November 2020, also with evidence of increased transmissibility and virulence, alongside changes to antigenicity. Similar concerns about vaccine efficacy have been raised. Notable mutations also include K417N, E484K and N501Y.
* Delta: Lineage B.1.617.2 emerged in India in October 2020. There is also evidence of increased transmissibility and changes to antigenicity.
* Omicron: Lineage B.1.1.529 emerged in Botswana in November 2021.

* False-colour transmission electron micrograph of a B.1.1.7 variant coronavirus. The variant's increased transmissibility is believed to be due to changes in the structure of the spike proteins, shown here in green.

* Omicron variant and other major or previous variants of concern of SARS-CoV-2 depicted in a tree scaled radially by genetic distance, derived from Nextstrain on 1 December 2021

Other notable variants include 6 other WHO-designated variants under investigation and Cluster 5, which emerged among mink in Denmark and resulted in a mink euthanasia campaign rendering it virtually extinct.[134]

## Virology[edit | edit source]

### Structure[edit | edit source]

Structure of a SARSr-CoV virion

Each SARS-CoV-2 virion is 60–140 nanometres (2.4×10−6–5.5×10−6 in) in diameter;[105][81] its mass within the global human populace has been estimated as being between 0.1 and 1.0 kg.[135] Like other coronaviruses, SARS-CoV-2 has four structural proteins, known as the S (spike), E (envelope), M (membrane), and N (nucleocapsid) proteins; the N protein holds the RNA genome, and the S, E, and M proteins together create the viral envelope.[136] Coronavirus S proteins are glycoproteins and also type I membrane proteins (membranes containing a single transmembrane domain oriented on the extracellular side).[113] They are divided into two functional parts (S1 and S2).[104] In SARS-CoV-2, the spike protein, which has been imaged at the atomic level using cryogenic electron microscopy,[137][138] is the protein responsible for allowing the virus to attach to and fuse with the membrane of a host cell;[136] specifically, its S1 subunit catalyzes attachment, the S2 subunit fusion.[139]

SARS‑CoV‑2 spike homotrimer with one protein subunit highlighted. The ACE2 binding domain is magenta.

### Genome[edit | edit source]

SARS-CoV-2 has a linear, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA genome about 30,000 bases long.[104] Its genome has a bias against cytosine (C) and guanine (G) nucleotides, like other coronaviruses.[140] The genome has the highest composition of U (32.2%), followed by A (29.9%), and a similar composition of G (19.6%) and C (18.3%).[141] The nucleotide bias arises from the mutation of guanines and cytosines to adenosines and uracils, respectively.[142] The mutation of CG dinucleotides is thought to arise to avoid the zinc finger antiviral protein related defense mechanism of cells,[143] and to lower the energy to unbind the genome during replication and translation (adenosine and uracil base pair via two hydrogen bonds, cytosine and guanine via three).[142] The depletion of CG dinucleotides in its genome has led the virus to have a noticeable codon usage bias. For instance, arginine's six different codons have a relative synonymous codon usage of AGA (2.67), CGU (1.46), AGG (.81), CGC (.58), CGA (.29), and CGG (.19).[141] A similar codon usage bias trend is seen in other SARS–related coronaviruses.[144]

### Replication cycle[edit | edit source]

Virus infections start when viral particles bind to host surface cellular receptors.[145] Protein modeling experiments on the spike protein of the virus soon suggested that SARS‑CoV‑2 has sufficient affinity to the receptor angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) on human cells to use them as a mechanism of cell entry.[146] By 22 January 2020, a group in China working with the full virus genome and a group in the United States using reverse genetics methods independently and experimentally demonstrated that ACE2 could act as the receptor for SARS‑CoV‑2.[17][147][148][149] Studies have shown that SARS‑CoV‑2 has a higher affinity to human ACE2 than the original SARS virus.[137][150] SARS‑CoV‑2 may also use basigin to assist in cell entry.[151]

Initial spike protein priming by transmembrane protease, serine 2 (TMPRSS2) is essential for entry of SARS‑CoV‑2.[24] The host protein neuropilin 1 (NRP1) may aid the virus in host cell entry using ACE2.[152] After a SARS‑CoV‑2 virion attaches to a target cell, the cell's TMPRSS2 cuts open the spike protein of the virus, exposing a fusion peptide in the S2 subunit, and the host receptor ACE2.[139] After fusion, an endosome forms around the virion, separating it from the rest of the host cell. The virion escapes when the pH of the endosome drops or when cathepsin, a host cysteine protease, cleaves it.[139] The virion then releases RNA into the cell and forces the cell to produce and disseminate copies of the virus, which infect more cells.[153]

SARS‑CoV‑2 produces at least three virulence factors that promote shedding of new virions from host cells and inhibit immune response.[136] Whether they include downregulation of ACE2, as seen in similar coronaviruses, remains under investigation (as of May 2020).[154]

Digitally colourised scanning electron micrographs of SARS-CoV-2 virions (yellow) emerging from human cells cultured in a laboratory

## Treatment and drug development[edit | edit source]

Very few drugs are known to effectively inhibit SARS‑CoV‑2. Masitinib is a clinically safe drug and was recently found to inhibit its main protease, 3CLpro and showed >200-fold reduction in viral titers in the lungs and nose in mice. However, it is not approved for the treatment of COVID-19 in humans as of August 2021.[155]

COVID Moonshot is an international collaborative open-science project started in March 2020 with the goal of developing an un-patented oral antiviral drug for treatment of SARS-CoV-2.[156]

## Epidemiology[edit | edit source]

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic

Retrospective tests collected within the Chinese surveillance system revealed no clear indication of substantial unrecognized circulation of SARS‑CoV‑2 in Wuhan during the latter part of 2019.[84]

A meta-analysis from November 2020 estimated the basic reproduction number ( R 0 {\displaystyle R_{0}} ) of the virus to be between 2.39 and 3.44.[20] This means each infection from the virus is expected to result in 2.39 to 3.44 new infections when no members of the community are immune and no preventive measures are taken. The reproduction number may be higher in densely populated conditions such as those found on cruise ships.[157] Human behavior affects the R0 value and hence estimates of R0 differ between different countries, cultures, and social norms. For instance, one study found relatively low R0 (~3.5) in Sweden, Belgium and the Netherlands, while Spain and the US had significantly higher R0 values (5.9 to 6.4, respectively).[158]

Reproductive value R0 of SARS-Cov2 variants  variant  | R0  | source

|
|

Reference/ancestral strain  | ~2.8  | [159]
Alpha (B.1.1.7)  | (40-90% higher than previous variants)  | [160]
Delta (B.1.617.2)  | ~5 (3-8)  | [161]

There have been about 96,000 confirmed cases of infection in mainland China.[162] While the proportion of infections that result in confirmed cases or progress to diagnosable disease remains unclear,[163] one mathematical model estimated that 75,815 people were infected on 25 January 2020 in Wuhan alone, at a time when the number of confirmed cases worldwide was only 2,015.[164] Before 24 February 2020, over 95% of all deaths from COVID-19 worldwide had occurred in Hubei province, where Wuhan is located.[165][166] As of 10 March 2023, the percentage had decreased to 0.047%.[162]

As of 10 March 2023, there have been 676,609,955 total confirmed cases of SARS‑CoV‑2 infection in the ongoing pandemic.[162] The total number of deaths attributed to the virus is 6,881,955.[162]

## See also[edit | edit source]

* 3C-like protease (NS5)

## References[edit | edit source]

1. ↑ Solodovnikov, Alexey; Arkhipova, Valeria (2021-07-29). "Достоверно красиво: как мы сделали 3D-модель SARS-CoV-2" [Truly beautiful: how we made the SARS-CoV-2 3D model] (in русский). N+1. Archived from the original on 2021-07-30. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (April 2020). "The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2". Nature Microbiology. 5 (4): 536–544. doi:10.1038/s41564-020-0695-z. PMC 7095448. PMID 32123347.
3. ↑ Zimmer C (26 February 2021). "The Secret Life of a Coronavirus - An oily, 100-nanometer-wide bubble of genes has killed more than two million people and reshaped the world. Scientists don't quite know what to make of it". Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
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5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Healthcare Professionals: Frequently Asked Questions and Answers". United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 11 February 2020. Archived from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
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107. ↑ Wong AC, Li X, Lau SK, Woo PC (February 2019). "Global Epidemiology of Bat Coronaviruses". Viruses. 11 (2): 174. doi:10.3390/v11020174. PMC 6409556. PMID 30791586.
108. ↑ 108.0 108.1 Singh D, Yi SV (April 2021). "On the origin and evolution of SARS-CoV-2". Experimental & Molecular Medicine. 53 (4): 537–547. doi:10.1038/s12276-021-00604-z. PMC 8050477. PMID 33864026.
109. ↑ Jackson B, Boni MF, Bull MJ, Colleran A, Colquhoun RM, Darby AC, et al. (September 2021). "Generation and transmission of interlineage recombinants in the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic". Cell. 184 (20): 5179–5188.e8. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.08.014. PMC 8367733. PMID 34499854. S2CID 237099659.
110. ↑ 110.0 110.1 "CoV2020". GISAID EpifluDB. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
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117. ↑ Zhang T, Wu Q, Zhang Z (April 2020). "Probable Pangolin Origin of SARS-CoV-2 Associated with the COVID-19 Outbreak". Current Biology. 30 (7): 1346–1351.e2. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.022. PMC 7156161. PMID 32197085.
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## Further reading[edit | edit source]

* Bar-On YM, Flamholz A, Phillips R, Milo R (April 2020). "SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) by the numbers". eLife. 9. arXiv:2003.12886. Bibcode:2020arXiv200312886B. doi:10.7554/eLife.57309. PMC 7224694. PMID 32228860.
* Brüssow H (May 2020). "The Novel Coronavirus - A Snapshot of Current Knowledge". Microbial Biotechnology. 13 (3): 607–612. doi:10.1111/1751-7915.13557. PMC 7111068. PMID 32144890.
* Cascella M, Rajnik M, Aleem A, Dulebohn S, Di Napoli R (January 2020). "Features, Evaluation and Treatment Coronavirus (COVID-19)". StatPearls. PMID 32150360. Archived from the original on 6 April 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
* Laboratory testing for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in suspected human cases (Report). World Health Organization. 2 March 2020. hdl:10665/331329.
* Zoumpourlis V, Goulielmaki M, Rizos E, Baliou S, Spandidos DA (October 2020). "[Comment] The COVID‑19 pandemic as a scientific and social challenge in the 21st century". Molecular Medicine Reports (Review). 22 (4): 3035–3048. doi:10.3892/mmr.2020.11393. PMC 7453598. PMID 32945405.

## External links[edit | edit source]

* "Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 11 February 2020. Archived from the original on 20 January 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
* "Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Pandemic". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 2020-01-30. Retrieved 2022-02-10.
* "SARS-CoV-2 (Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) Sequences". National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Archived from the original on 2020-04-21. Retrieved 2022-02-10.
* "COVID-19 Resource Centre". The Lancet. Archived from the original on 2020-02-23. Retrieved 2022-02-10.
* "Coronavirus (Covid-19)". The New England Journal of Medicine. Archived from the original on 2021-05-07. Retrieved 2022-02-10.
* "Covid-19: Novel Coronavirus Outbreak". Wiley. Archived from the original on 2020-09-24. Retrieved 2022-02-10.
* "SARS-CoV-2". Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource. Archived from the original on 2020-04-04. Retrieved 2022-02-10.
* "SARS-CoV-2 related protein structures". Protein Data Bank. Archived from the original on 2021-11-17. Retrieved 2022-02-10.

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* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Faroe Islands
* Estonia
* Finland
* Åland
* France
* Guadeloupe
* French Guiana
* Réunion
* Martinique
* Mayotte
* Normandy
* Saint Martin
* Germany
* North Rhine-Westphalia
* government response
* Greece
* Hungary
* Ireland
* timeline
* 2020
* 2021
* 2022
* economic impact
* social impact
* vaccination
* Italy
* lockdowns
* timeline
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* government response
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* timeline
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* timeline
* Asturias
* Canary Islands
* Ceuta
* Community of Madrid
* Melilla
* Sweden
* government response
* Operation Gloria

EFTA countries|

* Iceland
* Liechtenstein
* Norway
* Svalbard
* Switzerland

Microstates|

* Andorra
* Monaco
* San Marino
* Vatican City

North
America|

| Atlantic|

* Bermuda
* Greenland
* Saint Pierre and Miquelon

|

Canada|

* timeline
* economic impact
* federal aid
* vaccination
* by province
* military response
* Atlantic Bubble
* Alberta
* timeline
* British Columbia
* Manitoba
* New Brunswick
* Newfoundland and Labrador
* Northwest Territories
* Nova Scotia
* Nunavut
* Ontario
* timeline
* 2020
* 2021
* 2022
* Ottawa
* Peel Region
* Toronto
* York Region
* Provincial government response
* Vaccination
* Prince Edward Island
* Quebec
* Montreal
* boroughs
* Saskatchewan
* timeline
* Yukon

Caribbean|

| Countries|

* Antigua and Barbuda
* Bahamas
* Barbados
* Cuba
* Guantanamo Bay Naval Base
* Dominica
* Dominican Republic
* Grenada
* Haiti
* Jamaica
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
* Trinidad and Tobago
* timeline

|

British Overseas Territories|

* Anguilla
* British Virgin Islands
* Cayman Islands
* Montserrat
* Turks and Caicos Islands
* response

* Aruba
* Curaçao
* Sint Maarten

Caribbean Netherlands|

* Bonaire
* Saba
* Sint Eustatius

French West Indies|

* Guadeloupe
* Martinique
* Saint Barthélemy
* Saint Martin

US insular areas|

* Puerto Rico
* U.S. Virgin Islands

Central America|

* Belize
* Costa Rica
* El Salvador
* Guatemala
* Honduras
* Mexico
* timeline
* vaccination
* Nicaragua
* Panama

United States|

* Trump administration communication
* timeline
* 2020
* 2021
* social impact
* economic impact
* 2021 hospital crisis

responses|

* federal government
* state and local governments
* California government response
* New York government response
* Texas government response
* Eastern States Multi-state Council
* Midwest Governors Regional Pact
* Western States Pact

By location|

* Alabama
* Alaska
* American Samoa
* Arizona
* Navajo Nation
* Arkansas
* California
* timeline
* S.F. Bay Area
* Colorado
* Connecticut
* Delaware
* Florida
* Georgia
* Guam
* Hawaii
* Idaho
* Illinois
* Indiana
* Iowa
* Kansas
* Kentucky
* Louisiana
* Maine
* Maryland
* timeline
* Massachusetts
* timeline
* Boston
* timeline
* Michigan
* Minnesota
* Mississippi
* Missouri
* Montana
* Nebraska
* Nevada
* timeline
* New Hampshire
* New Jersey
* New Mexico
* New York
* New York City
* timeline
* North Carolina
* North Dakota
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Ohio
* Columbus
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* Portland
* Pennsylvania
* Philadelphia
* Puerto Rico
* Rhode Island
* South Carolina
* South Dakota
* Tennessee
* Texas
* timeline
* Austin
* U.S. Virgin Islands
* Utah
* Vermont
* Virginia
* Washington
* Washington, D.C.
* White House
* West Virginia
* Wisconsin
* Wyoming

Oceania|

* American Samoa
* Cook Islands
* Easter Island
* Federated States of Micronesia
* Fiji
* French Polynesia
* Guam
* Hawaii
* Kiribati
* Marshall Islands
* Nauru
* New Caledonia
* Niue
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Palau
* Papua New Guinea
* Bougainville
* Pitcairn Islands
* Samoa
* Solomon Islands
* Tokelau
* Tonga
* Tuvalu
* Vanuatu
* Wallis and Futuna

Australia|

* timeline
* 2020
* 2021
* January–June
* July–December
* 2022
* Australian Capital Territory
* Christmas Island
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands
* New South Wales
* Norfolk Island
* Northern Territory
* Queensland
* South Australia
* Tasmania
* Victoria
* Western Australia

New Zealand|

* timeline
* 2020
* 2021
* 2022
* 2023
* economic impact
* government response
* Alert levels
* Traffic light system
* social impact
* managed isolation

South
America|

* Argentina
* statistics
* human rights
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* São Paulo
* Chile
* statistics
* Easter Island
* Colombia
* timeline
* Ecuador
* Falkland Islands
* French Guiana
* Guyana
* Paraguay
* Peru
* statistics
* Cusco
* Suriname
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

Others|

* Antarctica
* Cruise ships
* Diamond Princess
* Grand Princess
* Naval ships
* Charles de Gaulle
* USS Theodore Roosevelt

Impact

| Culture and
entertainment|

| Arts and
cultural heritage|

* References in popular culture
* Cinema
* films affected
* Corona-chan
* Disney
* Fashion industry
* Music industry
* Performing arts
* Television
* U.S.
* U.S. sports
* programs affected
* Video games

|

Education|

* Female education
* Homeschooling

By country|

* Ghana
* Ireland
* United Kingdom
* exam grading controversy
* United States

Sports|

* Bio-secure bubble

By country|

* Ireland
* Philippines

By sport|

* Association football
* Baseball
* Basketball
* NBA
* Combat sports
* Cricket
* Disc golf
* Gaelic games
* Gridirion football (NCAAF, NFL, and CFL)
* Ice hockey
* Motorsport
* Rugby league

Society
and rights|

| Social impact|

* Social media
* Stigma
* COVID-19 parties
* Children
* foster care in the U.S.

|

Labor|

* Healthcare workers
* Indian migrant workers
* Great Resignation
* Strikes

Human rights|

* Argentina
* Hong Kong
* Myanmar
* North Korea
* Turkmenistan

Legal|

* Abortion in the U.S.
* Crime
* Domestic violence
* Prisons
* U.S. immigration detention

Minority|

* Gender
* LGBT community
* African communities
* Disability community
* Native American communities
* Xenophobia and racism

Religion|

* Catholic Church
* Hajj

Economic|

* Charitable activity
* COVID-19 scams
* Travel restrictions

By country|

* Canada
* India
* Ireland
* COVID-19 Pandemic Unemployment Payment
* Malaysia
* New Zealand
* Russia
* U.K.
* U.S.

By industry|

* Aviation
* Airlines
* Cannabis industry
* Food industry
* meat industry in Canada
* meat industry in the U.S.
* restaurant industry in the U.S.
* Hospitals
* ICU capacity
* Long-term care facilities
* Mink farming
* Public transport
* Retail
* Tourism

Supply and trade|

* Shortages
* Chip supply
* Energy
* Global supply chain
* Oil price war
* Food security

Financial markets|

* Global stock market crash
* COVID-19 recession
* Inflation

Information|

* Journalism
* Media coverage
* Wikipedia's response

Misinformation|

* Governments
* China
* United States
* By country
* Canada
* Philippines
* Ivermectin
* Plandemic

Politics|

* National responses
* Legislation
* European Union

Political impact|

* Ireland
* Malaysia
* Russia

Protests|

* Canada
* convoy protest
* China
* Italy
* Germany
* Idar-Oberstein shooting
* the Netherlands
* New Zealand
* Serbia
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Open the States

International relations|

* Aid
* Italy
* Moldovan–Romanian collaboration
* Nicaragua–Taiwan relations
* Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan
* Vaccine diplomacy

Language|

* Anthropause
* Doomscrolling
* Flattening the curve
* Green recovery
* Long COVID
* Quarantini
* Social distancing
* Superspreader
* Twindemic
* Zero-COVID
* Zoom
* Zoom towns

Others|

* Animals
* Cluster 5
* Environment
* Military
* Pregnant women
* Science and technology

Health issues

| Medical topics|

* Transmission
* Symptoms
* Cancer
* Endemic COVID-19
* Skin manifestations
* Long COVID
* Mental health
* neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes
* Pregnancy
* Non-COVID-19–related health issues
* Shortages
* Raise the line
* Rehabilitation
* Unproven medical methods

|

Testing and
epidemiology|

* Datasets
* Death rates by country
* Disease testing
* Breathalyzer
* Operation Moonshot
* Test to Release
* UK Rapid Test Consortium
* AbC-19 rapid antibody test
* investigations into the origins
* lab leak theory
* Rapid antigen test
* Software
* Surveillance
* Undercounting COVID-19 deaths

Apps|

* Aarogya Setu
* BlueTrace
* careFIJI
* Coronavirus Australia
* Corona-Warn-App
* COVID-19 Contact-Confirming Application
* COVID Alert (Canada)
* COVID AlertSA (South Africa)
* COVIDSafe
* COVID Tracker Ireland
* Covid Watch
* Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing
* Exposure Notification
* Health Code
* Healthy Together
* Immuni
* Koronavilkku
* LeaveHomeSafe
* MySejahtera
* NHS COVID-19
* NZ COVID Tracer
* NZ Pass Verifier
* PathCheck
* PeduliLindungi
* SafeEntry
* SafePass
* StaySafe.ph
* SwissCovid
* TCN Protocol
* Test, Trace, Protect
* Thai Chana
* TousAntiCovid
* TraceTogether
* Valtrace
* Zoe Health Study

Prevention|

* Air purifier (Corsi–Rosenthal Box)
* Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine
* COVID fatigue
* Evacuations
* Face masks
* Anti-mask sentiment
* United States
* Flattening the curve
* Great Barrington Declaration
* International aid
* Lockdowns
* Public health mitigation
* Safe Hands Challenge
* Social distancing
* Workplace hazard controls
* Zero-COVID

Vaccines|

| Topics|

* Authorizations
* Clinical research
* Deployment
* Development
* EU Certificate
* Misinformation and hesitancy
* Deaths of anti-vaccine advocates
* US
* Operation Warp Speed (U.S.)
* Post-vaccination complications
* Vaccine card
* Vaccine passports

|

Authorized|

| DNA|

* ZyCoV-D

|

Inactivated|

* Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences
* CoronaVac
* Covaxin
* COVIran Barekat
* CoviVac (Russia)
* FAKHRAVAC
* Minhai
* QazCovid-in
* Sinopharm BIBP
* Sinopharm WIBP
* Turkovac
* Valneva

mRNA|

* Moderna
* Pfizer–BioNTech

Subunit|

* Abdala
* Corbevax (Bio E COVID-19)
* COVAX-19
* EpiVacCorona
* IndoVac
* MVC
* Noora
* Novavax
* Razi Cov Pars
* Sinopharm CNBG
* Soberana 02
* Soberana Plus
* ZF2001 (Zifivax)

Viral vector|

* Convidecia
* Janssen
* Oxford–AstraZeneca
* Sputnik V
* Sputnik Light

Virus-like particles|

* CoVLP

In trials|

| Attenuated|

* COVI-VAC (United States)

|

DNA|

* AG0302-COVID‑19
* GX-19
* Inovio

Inactivated|

* KD-414
* NDV-HXP-S

RNA|

* ARCT-021
* ARCT-154
* Bangavax
* CureVac (terminated)
* HGC019
* mRNA-1283
* PTX-COVID19-B
* Sanofi–Translate Bio (terminated)
* Stemirna COVID-19 vaccine
* Walvax

Subunit|

* 202-CoV
* AKS-452
* EuCorVac-19
* IVX-411
* Nanocovax
* ReCOV
* Sanofi–GSK
* S-268019
* SCB-2019
* SCTV01C
* Skycovione
* UB-612
* V-01
* V451 (terminated)
* Vabiotech
* West China Hospital
* Zhongyianke Biotech–Liaoning Maokangyuan Biotech

Viral vector|

* AdCLD-CoV19
* BriLife
* COH04S1
* DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT
* GRAd-COV2
* ImmunityBio
* iNCOVACC
* INNA-051
* NDV-HXP-S
* Vaxart COVID-19 vaccine

Virus-like particles|

* ABNCoV2
* LYB001
* MigVax-101
* VBI-2902

Deployment
by location|

| Africa|

* Algeria
* Angola
* Benin
* Botswana
* Burkina Faso
* Burundi
* Cameroon
* Cape Verde
* Cameroon
* Chad
* Comoros
* Democratic Republic of the Congo
* Djibouti
* Egypt
* Equatorial Guinea
* Eswatini
* Ghana
* Morocco
* Nigeria
* Senegal
* South Africa
* Zimbabwe

|

Asia|

* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* Mainland China
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Israel
* Japan
* Kazakhstan
* Malaysia
* Nepal
* Philippines
* Russia
* Singapore
* South Korea
* Sri Lanka
* Taiwan
* Thailand
* Turkey
* United Arab Emirates
* Vietnam

Europe|

* Albania
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Denmark
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Iceland
* Ireland
* Italy
* Moldova
* Norway
* Portugal
* Romania
* Russia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom

North America|

* Canada
* Ontario
* Quebec
* Cuba
* Haiti
* Mexico
* United States
* mandates

Oceania|

* Australia
* Fiji
* New Zealand

South America|

* Argentina
* Brazil
* Colombia
* Peru

Others|

* Antarctica

Treatment|

* Drug development
* Drug repurposing research
* Baricitinib
* Dexamethasone
* Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation
* Open-source ventilator
* PANORAMIC trial (UK)
* RECOVERY Trial (UK)
* Solidarity trial (WHO)

Monoclonal antibodies|

* Bamlanivimab/etesevimab
* Bamlanivimab
* Etesevimab
* Bebtelovimab
* Casirivimab/imdevimab
* Regdanvimab
* Sarilumab
* Sotrovimab
* Tixagevimab/cilgavimab
* Tocilizumab

Small molecule antivirals|

* Broad-spectrum
* Ensitrelvir
* Molnupiravir
* Remdesivir
* Co-packaged
* Nirmatrelvir
* ritonavir

Variants

| Specific|

* Alpha
* Beta
* Gamma
* Delta
* Epsilon
* Zeta
* Eta
* Theta
* Iota
* Kappa
* Lambda
* Mu
* Omicron
* timeline

|

General|

* Cluster 5
* Lineage B.1.617
* Lineage B.1.640.2
* Variant of concern

Institutions

| Hospitals and
medical clinics|

| Mainland China|

* Central Hospital of Wuhan
* Dabie Mountain Regional Medical Centre
* Fangcang hospitals
* Huoshenshan Hospital
* Leishenshan Hospital
* Xinjia Express Hotel
* Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital

|

Others|

* Hospital ships
* Garran Surge Centre (Australia)
* Hospital El Salvador
* SevenHills Hospital (India)
* Kemayoran Athletes Village (Indonesia)
* Pyongyang General Hospital (North Korea)
* Malaysia Agro Exposition Park Serdang (Malaysia)
* Mega Ligtas COVID Centers (Philippines)
* Kandakadu Treatment and Rehabilitation Centre (Sri Lanka)
* Sancaktepe Prof. Dr. Feriha Öz Emergency Hospital (Turkey)
* Yeşilköy Prof. Dr. Murat Dilmener Emergency Hospital (Turkey)
* COVID-19 hospitals in the United Kingdom
* NHS Nightingale Hospitals (England)
* Birmingham
* London
* North East
* North West
* Yorkshire and the Humber
* NHS Louisa Jordan (Scotland)
* Dragon's Heart Hospital (Wales)

Organizations|

| Global|

|

By location|

* National Cabinet (Australia)
* ScienceUpFirst (Canada)
* Wuhan Institute of Virology (China)
* Independent SAGE (United Kingdom)

Health
institutes|

* Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (African Union)
* Ghana Infectious Disease Centre (Ghana)
* Department of Health (Hong Kong)
* Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency (South Korea)
* National Institute for Communicable Diseases (South Africa)
* Taiwan Centers for Disease Control (Taiwan)

Pandemic
institutes|

* National COVID-19 Commission Advisory Board (Australia)
* COVID-19 Immunity Task Force (Canada)
* COVID-19 Supply Council (Canada)
* PREPARE (European Union)
* National Expert Group on Vaccine Administration for COVID-19 (India)
* COVID-19 Response Acceleration Task Force (Indonesia)
* National Public Health Emergency Team (Ireland)
* Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting (Japan)
* Crisis Preparedness and Response Centre (Malaysia)
* Defeat COVID-19 Ad Hoc Committee (Philippines)
* Inter-Agency Task Force for the Management of Emerging Infectious Diseases (Philippines)
* Central Epidemic Command Center (Taiwan)
* Coronavirus Scientific Advisory Board (Turkey)
* COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium (United Kingdom)
* Imperial College COVID-19 Response Team (United Kingdom)
* Joint Biosecurity Centre (United Kingdom)
* Vaccine Taskforce (United Kingdom)
* COVID-19 Advisory Board (United States)
* Great American Economic Revival Industry Groups (United States)
* White House Coronavirus Task Force (United States)
* White House COVID-19 Response Team (United States)
* GACH (Uruguay)

Relief funds|

* PM CARES Fund (India)
* SAARC COVID-19 Emergency Fund (India)
* Artist Relief (United States)

People

| Medical
professionals|

* Ai Fen
* Corona Rintawan
* Li Wenliang
* Liu Wen
* Xie Linka
* Zhang Wenhong

|

Researchers|

* Awang Bulgiba Awang Mahmud
* Roberto Burioni
* Chen Wei
* Kizzmekia Corbett
* Andrea Crisanti
* Peter Daszak
* Christian Drosten
* Neil Ferguson
* Dale Fisher
* George F. Gao
* Azra Ghani
* Sarah Gilbert
* Guan Yi
* Kentaro Iwata
* Katalin Karikó
* Matt Keeling
* Trudie Lang
* Li Lanjuan
* W. Ian Lipkin
* Ma Xiaowei
* Shabir Madhi
* Allison McGeer
* Camilla Rothe
* Shi Zhengli
* Moncef Slaoui
* Mike Tildesley
* John Todd
* Wang Chen
* Wang Guangfa
* Drew Weissman
* Yuen Kwok-yung
* Zeng Guang
* Zhang Jixian
* Zhang Yongzhen
* Zhong Nanshan

Officials|

| WHO|

* Tedros Adhanom
(Director-General of the WHO)
* Bruce Aylward
(Team lead of WHO-China COVID-19 mission)
* Maria Van Kerkhove
(Technical Lead for COVID-19 response)
* Michael J. Ryan
(Executive Director of the WHO Health Emergencies Programme)

|

By location|

* Frank Atherton
(Wales)
* Ashley Bloomfield
(New Zealand)
* Catherine Calderwood
(Scotland)
* Chang Shan-chwen
(Taiwan)
* Anutin Charnvirakul
(Thailand)
* Chen Shih-chung
(Taiwan)
* Kenneth Chuang Yin-ching
(Taiwan)
* Victor Costache
(Romania)
* Fabrizio Curcio
(Italy)
* Carmen Deseda
(Puerto Rico)
* Jaap van Dissel
(the Netherlands)
* Christian Drosten
(Germany)
* Francisco Duque III
(Philippines)
* Anthony Fauci
(United States)
* Francesco Paolo Figliuolo
(Italy)
* Graça Freitas
(Portugal)
* Henrique Gouveia e Melo
(Portugal)
* Matt Hancock
(United Kingdom)
* Hamad Hasan
(Lebanon)
* Greg Hunt
(Australia)
* Tony Holohan
(Ireland)
* Jeong Eun-kyeong
(South Korea)
* Fahrettin Koca
(Turkey)
* Li Keqiang
(China)
* Hugo López-Gatell Ramírez
(Mexico)
* Michael McBride
(Northern Ireland)
* Oriol Mitjà
(Andorra)
* Zweli Mkhize
(South Africa)
* Doni Monardo
(Indonesia)
* Alma Möller
(Iceland)
* Saeed Namaki
(Iran)
* Ala Nemerenco
(Moldova)
* Nguyễn Thanh Long
(Vietnam)
* Noor Hisham Abdullah
(Malaysia)
* Ali Pilli
(Northern Cyprus)
* Daniel Salinas
(Uruguay)
* Jérôme Salomon
(France)
* Fernando Simón
(Spain)
* Gregor Smith
(Scotland)
* Su Ih-jen
(Taiwan)
* Łukasz Szumowski
(Poland)
* Theresa Tam
(Canada)
* Anders Tegnell
(Sweden)
* Þórólfur Guðnason
(Iceland)
* Sotiris Tsiodras
(Greece)
* Harsh Vardhan
(India)
* Víðir Reynisson
(Iceland)
* Carla Vizzotti
(Argentina)
* Vlad Voiculescu
(Romania)
* Chris Whitty
(United Kingdom)
* Lawrence Wong
(Singapore)
* Jeff Zients
(United States)

Others|

* Chen Qiushi
* Brett Crozier
* Fang Bin
* Fang Fang
* Joseph Ashitey Hammond
* Li Zehua
* Captain Tom Moore
* Qiu Menghuang
* Ren Zhiqiang

Deaths|

* List

Data (templates)

| Global|

* Cases, deaths, recoveries by country
* Tests, cases, tests per capita, cases per capita by country
* Tests, cases, tests per capita, cases per capita by country subdivision
* WHO situation reports
* cases
* January 2020
* February 2020
* March 2020
* April 2020
* May 2020
* June 2020
* July 2020
* August 2020
* September 2020
* October 2020
* November 2020
* December 2020
* January 2021
* February 2021
* March 2021
* April 2021
* May 2021
* June 2021
* July 2021
* August 2021
* deaths
* World map by countries: confirmed per capita
* China
* Hospital beds by country
* Lockdowns

|

Africa|

* Algeria
* Angola
* Benin
* Botswana
* Burkina Faso
* Burundi
* Cameroon
* Comoros
* Egypt
* Eswatini
* Ethiopia
* Ghana
* cases chart
* Ivory Coast
* Kenya
* Libya
* Malawi
* Mali
* Mauritania
* Mauritius
* Morocco (including occupied Western Sahara)
* Mozambique
* Namibia
* Nigera
* cases chart
* São Tomé and Príncipe
* Senegal
* Seychelles
* Sierra Leone
* South Africa
* cases chart
* South Sudan
* Sudan
* Tanzania
* Togo
* Tunisia
* Uganda
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe
* cases chart

Americas|

* Argentina
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Canada
* by province
* vaccinations by province
* Chile
* by commune
* Colombia
* Costa Rica
* cases chart
* Cuba
* Dominican Republic
* Ecuador
* El Salvador
* Guatemala
* Haiti
* Honduras
* Mexico
* cases chart
* Nicaragua
* Panama
* Paraguay
* Peru
* United States
* by state
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

Asia|

* Afghanistan
* Armenia
* Artsakh
* Azerbaijan
* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* by division
* Bhutan
* cases chart
* Brunei
* Cambodia
* cases chart
* summary
* China
* cases chart
* confirmed per capita
* lockdowns
* by province
* Hong Kong
* Macau
* Cyprus
* East Timor
* Egypt
* Georgia
* India
* Indonesia
* cases chart
* Iran
* cases chart
* Iraq
* Israel
* cases chart
* Japan
* cases chart
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* Kuwait
* cases chart
* Kyrgyzstan
* Laos
* Lebanon
* Malaysia
* cases chart
* charts
* Myanmar
* cases chart
* summary
* Nepal
* cases chart
* Oman
* cases chart
* Pakistan
* cases chart
* Philippines
* cases chart
* areas of quarantine
* vaccinations chart
* Qatar
* Russia
* cases chart
* by federal subject
* North Asia
* Saudi Arabia
* Singapore
* South Korea
* cases chart
* vaccinations charts
* Sri Lanka
* Syria
* Taiwan
* vaccination charts
* Tajikistan
* Thailand
* cases chart
* Turkey
* cases chart
* United Arab Emirates
* cases chart
* Uzbekistan
* cases chart
* Vietnam
* statistics charts
* Yemen

Europe|

* Albania
* Austria
* cases chart
* Belarus
* Belgium
* cases chart
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* cases chart
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* cases chart
* Faroe Islands
* Estonia
* cases chart
* Finland
* France
* cases chart
* Germany
* cases chart
* Greece
* Hungary
* Iceland
* cases chart
* Ireland
* cases chart
* Italy
* cases chart
* statistics charts
* vaccinations chart
* Kosovo
* Latvia
* cases chart
* Lithuania
* cases chart
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Moldova
* Monaco
* Montenegro
* Netherlands
* North Macedonia
* Norway
* cases chart
* Poland
* cases chart
* by voivodeship
* Portugal
* cases chart
* Romania
* cases chart
* Russia
* cases chart
* by federal subject
* North Asia
* San Marino
* Serbia
* Slovakia
* cases chart
* by region
* Slovenia
* cases chart
* Spain
* cases chart
* Sweden
* cases chart
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* cases chart
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* cases chart
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom
* Scotland
* 2020
* 2021
* Gibraltar
* vaccinations chart
* daily
* by nation
* Vatican City

Oceania|

* Australia
* by state/territory
* Fiji
* French Polynesia
* New Caledonia
* New Zealand
* Papua New Guinea
* Solomon Islands

Others|

* Cruise ships
* Diamond Princess

* v
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* e

Taxonomy of the Coronaviridae

Higher taxonomy: Riboviria > Orthornavirae > Pisuviricota > Pisoniviricetes > Nidovirales > Cornidovirineae > Coronaviridae

Orthocoronavirinae

Alphacoronavirus|

| Colacovirus|

* Bat coronavirus CDPHE15

Decacovirus|

* Bat coronavirus HKU10
* Rhinolophus ferrumequinum alphacoronavirus HuB-2013

Duvinacovirus|

* Human coronavirus 229E

Luchacovirus|

* Lucheng Rn rat coronavirus

Minacovirus|

* Mink coronavirus 1

Minunacovirus|

* Miniopterus bat coronavirus 1
* Miniopterus bat coronavirus HKU8

Myotacovirus|

* Myotis ricketti alphacoronavirus Sax-2011

Nyctacovirus|

* Nyctalus velutinus alphacoronavirus SC-2013
* Pipistrellus kuhlii coronavirus 3398

Pedacovirus|

* Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus
* Scotophilus bat coronavirus 512

Rhinacovirus|

* Rhinolophus bat coronavirus HKU2

Setracovirus|

* Human coronavirus NL63
* NL63-related bat coronavirus strain BtKYNL63-9b

Soracovirus|

* Sorex araneus coronavirus T14

Sunacovirus|

* Suncus murinus coronavirus X74

Tegacovirus|

* Alphacoronavirus 1
* Feline coronavirus
* Canine coronavirus
* Canine coronavirus HuPn-2018
* Transmissible gastroenteritis virus

Betacoronavirus|

| Embecovirus|

* Betacoronavirus 1
* Bovine coronavirus
* Human coronavirus OC43
* China Rattus coronavirus HKU24
* Human coronavirus HKU1
* Murine coronavirus
* Rat coronavirus
* Myodes coronavirus 2JL14

Hibecovirus|

* Bat Hp-betacoronavirus Zhejiang2013

Merbecovirus|

* Hedgehog coronavirus 1
* Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus
* London1_novel CoV/2012
* MERS coronavirus EMC/2012
* Pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5
* Tylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4

Nobecovirus|

* Eidolon bat coronavirus C704
* Rousettus bat coronavirus GCCDC1
* Rousettus bat coronavirus HKU9

Sarbecovirus|

* SARS-related coronavirus
* SARS-CoV-1
* SARS-CoV-2
* Variants
* BANAL-52
* Bat SARS-like coronavirus WIV1
* RacCS203
* RaTG13
* RmYN02
* RpYN06
* SHC014-CoV

Gammacoronavirus|

| Brangacovirus|

* Goose coronavirus CB17

Cegacovirus|

* Beluga whale coronavirus SW1

Igacovirus|

* Avian coronavirus
* Avian coronavirus 9203
* Duck coronavirus 2714

Deltacoronavirus|

| Andecovirus|

* Wigeon coronavirus HKU20

Buldecovirus|

* Bulbul coronavirus HKU11
* Common moorhen coronavirus HKU21
* Coronavirus HKU15
* Munia coronavirus HKU13
* White-eye coronavirus HKU16

Herdecovirus|

* Night heron coronavirus HKU19

Letovirinae

| Alphaletovirus|

| Milecovirus|

* Microhyla letovirus 1

Source: ICTV ––  Wikispecies

* v
* t
* e

Zoonotic viral diseases (A80–B34, 042–079)

Arthropod
-borne|

| Mosquito
-borne|

| Bunyavirales|

* Arbovirus encephalitides: La Crosse encephalitis
* LACV
* Batai virus
* BATV
* Bwamba Fever
* BWAV
* California encephalitis
* CEV
* Jamestown Canyon encephalitis
* Tete virus
* Tahyna virus
* TAHV

* Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Rift Valley fever
* RVFV
* Bunyamwera fever
* BUNV
* Ngari virus
* NRIV

|

Flaviviridae|

* Arbovirus encephalitides: Japanese encephalitis
* JEV
* Australian encephalitis
* MVEV
* KUNV
* Saint Louis encephalitis
* SLEV
* Usutu virus
* West Nile fever
* WNV

* Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Dengue fever
* DENV-1-4
* Yellow fever
* YFV
* Zika fever
* Zika virus

Togaviridae|

* Arbovirus encephalitides: Eastern equine encephalomyelitis
* EEEV
* Western equine encephalomyelitis
* WEEV
* Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis
* VEEV
* Chikungunya
* CHIKV
* O'nyong'nyong fever
* ONNV
* Pogosta disease
* Sindbis virus
* Ross River fever
* RRV
* Semliki Forest virus

Reoviridae|

* Banna virus encephalitis

Tick
-borne|

| Bunyavirales|

* Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Bhanja virus
* Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHFV)
* Heartland virus
* Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (Huaiyangshan banyangvirus)
* Tete virus

|

Flaviviridae|

* Arbovirus encephalitides: Tick-borne encephalitis
* TBEV
* Powassan encephalitis
* POWV
* Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Omsk hemorrhagic fever
* OHFV
* Kyasanur Forest disease
* KFDV
* AHFV
* Langat virus
* LGTV

Orthomyxoviridae|

* Bourbon virus

Reoviridae|

* Colorado tick fever
* CTFV
* Kemerovo tickborne viral fever

Sandfly
-borne|

| Bunyavirales|

* Adria virus (ADRV)
* Oropouche fever
* Oropouche virus
* Pappataci fever
* Toscana virus
* Sandfly fever Naples virus

|

Rhabdoviridae|

* Chandipura virus

Mammal
-borne|

| Rodent
-borne|

| Arenaviridae|

* Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Lassa fever
* LASV
* Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever
* GTOV
* Argentine hemorrhagic fever
* JUNV
* Brazilian hemorrhagic fever
* SABV
* Bolivian hemorrhagic fever
* MACV
* LUJV
* CHPV

|

Bunyavirales|

* Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome
* DOBV
* HTNV
* PUUV
* SEOV
* AMRV
* THAIV
* Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
* ANDV
* SNV

Herpesviridae|

* Murid gammaherpesvirus 4

Bat
-borne|

| Filoviridae|

* BDBV
* SUDV
* TAFV
* Marburg virus disease
* MARV
* RAVV

|

Rhabdoviridae|

* Rabies
* ABLV
* MOKV
* DUVV
* LBV
* CHPV

Paramyxoviridae|

* Henipavirus encephalitis
* HeV
* NiV

Coronaviridae|

* MERS-CoV
* SARS-related coronavirus
* SARS-CoV
* SARS-CoV-2

Primate
-borne|

| Herpesviridae|

* B virus

|

Retroviridae|

* Simian foamy virus
* HTLV-1
* HTLV-2

Poxviridae|

* Tanapox
* Yaba monkey tumor virus

Multiple
vectors|

| Rhabdoviridae|

* Rabies
* RABV
* Mokola virus

|

Poxviridae|

* Monkeypox

* v
* t
* e

Infectious diseases – viral systemic diseases

Oncovirus|

DNA virus
HBV

Hepatocellular carcinoma
HPV

Cervical cancer
Anal cancer
Penile cancer
Vulvar cancer
Vaginal cancer
Oropharyngeal cancer
KSHV

Kaposi's sarcoma
EBV

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma
Burkitt's lymphoma
Hodgkin lymphoma
Follicular dendritic cell sarcoma
Extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type
MCPyV

Merkel-cell carcinoma

RNA virus
HCV

Hepatocellular carcinoma
Splenic marginal zone lymphoma
HTLV-I

Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma

Immune disorders|

* HIV
* AIDS

Central
nervous system|

| Encephalitis/
meningitis|

DNA virus
Human polyomavirus 2

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy

RNA virus
MeV

Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis
LCV

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis
Arbovirus encephalitis
Orthomyxoviridae (probable)

Encephalitis lethargica

Rabies
Chandipura vesiculovirus
Herpesviral meningitis
Ramsay Hunt syndrome type 2

|

Myelitis|

* Poliovirus
* Poliomyelitis
* Post-polio syndrome
* HTLV-I
* Tropical spastic paraparesis

Eye|

* Cytomegalovirus
* Cytomegalovirus retinitis
* HSV
* Herpes of the eye

Cardiovascular|

* CBV
* Pericarditis
* Myocarditis

Respiratory system/
acute viral
nasopharyngitis/
viral pneumonia|

| DNA virus|

* Epstein–Barr virus
* EBV infection/Infectious mononucleosis
* Cytomegalovirus

|

RNA virus|

* IV: Human coronavirus 229E/NL63/HKU1/OC43
* Common cold
* MERS coronavirus
* Middle East respiratory syndrome
* SARS coronavirus
* Severe acute respiratory syndrome
* SARS coronavirus 2
* COVID-19

* V, Orthomyxoviridae: Influenza virus A/B/C/D
* Influenza/Avian influenza

* V, Paramyxoviridae: Human parainfluenza viruses
* Parainfluenza
* Human orthopneumovirus
* hMPV

Human
digestive system|

| Pharynx/Esophagus|

* MuV
* Mumps
* Cytomegalovirus
* Cytomegalovirus esophagitis

|

Gastroenteritis/
diarrhea|

DNA virus
Adenovirus

Adenovirus infection

RNA virus
Rotavirus
Norovirus
Astrovirus
Coronavirus

Hepatitis|

DNA virus
HBV (B)

RNA virus
CBV
HAV (A)
HCV (C)
HDV (D)
HEV (E)
HGV (G)

Pancreatitis|

* CBV

Urogenital|

* BK virus
* MuV
* Mumps

Portals
Access related topics|

* COVID-19 portal
* Medicine portal
* Viruses portal

|

* * *

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Classification|

* ICD-10: U07.1

|

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