Suicide

Suicide (from Lat. sui, of oneself, and cidium, from caedere, to kill), the act of intentionally destroying one's own life. The phenomenon of suicide has at all times attracted a large amount of attention from moralists and social investigators. Its existence is looked upon, in Western civilization, as a sign of the presence of maladies in the body politic which, whether remediable or not, deserve careful examination. It is, of course, impossible to compare Western civilization in this respect with, say, Japan, where suicide in certain circumstances is part of a distinct moral creed. In Christian ethics and Christian law it is wrong, indeed illegal, as a felo de se, self-murder. It is within comparatively recent years that the study of suicide by means of the vital statistics of various European countries has demonstrated that while the act may be regarded as a purely voluntary one, yet that suicide as a whole conforms there to certain general laws, and is influenced by conditions other than mere individual circumstances or surroundings. Thus it can be shown that each country has a different suicide-rate, and that while the rate for each country may fluctuate from year to year, yet it maintains practically the same relative proportions to the rates of other countries. The following table shows the suicide-rate for various European countries (Bertillon) TABLE I.

C

Country

| 

Period of

Observation.

| 

Annual Number

of Suicides

per Million

Inhabitants.  
  
---|---|---  
  
Saxony. .. ... .

| 

1878-1882

| 

392  
  
Denmark

| 

1880-1882

| 

251  
  
Switzerland. .. .

| 

1878-1882

| 

239  
  
Baden. .. .

| 

„

| 

198  
  
Wiirtternberg

| 

1877-1881

| 

189  
  
France. .. .. .

| 

1878-1882

| 

180  
  
Prussia. ... .

| 

„

| 

166  
  
Belgiu

| 

„

| 

loo  
  
Sweden.. .

| 

„

| 

92  
  
England and Wales

| | 

75  
  
Norwa

| 

„

| 

69  
  
Scotland

| 

1877-1881

| 

49  
  
Ireland. .. .. .

| 

1878-1882

| 

17  
  
1861-1865 .

1866-1870 .

| 

65 per million living.

. 66  
  
---|---  
  
1871-1875 .

| 

66

| |   
  
1876-1880 .

| 

. 74

| |   
  
1881-1885 .

| 

75

| |   
  
1886-1890 .

| 

. 79

| |   
  
1891-1895 .

| 

. 88

| |   
  
1896-1900 .

| 

. 89

| |   
  
1901 -1905

| 

. 100

| 

„

|   
  
In addition to furnishing materials for an approximately accurate estimate of the number of suicides which will occur in any country in a year, statistics have demonstrated that the proportion of male to female suicides is practically the same from year to year, viz. 3 or 4 males to 1 female; that it is possible to predict the month of greatest prevalence, the modes of death adopted by men on the one hand and women on the other, and even the relative frequency of suicide amongst persons following different professions and employments; and that in most of the countries of Europe the suicide-rate is increasing. In England and Wales the annual death-rate per million from suicide has steadily advanced, as is shown by the following figures for quinquennial periods: The next table illustrates the continued increase in recent years, and at the same time shows the total number and the number of male and female suicides each year from 1886 to 1905.

TABLE II.

Year.

| 

Male.

| 

Female.

| 

Total.

| 

Suicide-rate

per Million

Living.  
  
---|---|---|---|---  
  
1886

| 

1694

| 

560

| 

2254

| 

82  
  
1890

| 

1635

| 

570

| 

2205

| 

77  
  
1895

| 

2071

| 

726

| 

2797

| 

92  
  
1896

| 

1979

| 

677

| 

2656

| 

86  
  
1897

| 

2090

| 

702

| 

2792

| 

90  
  
1898

| 

2166

| 

711 

| 

2877

| 

91  
  
1899

| 

2121

| 

723

| 

2844

| 

89  
  
1900

| 

2166

| 

730

| 

2896

| 

90  
  
1901

| 

2318

| 

803

| 

3121

| 

96  
  
1902

| 

2460

| 

807

| 

3267

| 

99  
  
1903

| 

2640

| 

871

| 

3511

| 

105  
  
1904

| 

2523

| 

822

| 

3345

| 

99  
  
1905

| 

2683

| 

862

| 

3545

| 

104  
  
Total.

| 

28,546

| 

9564

| 

38,110

|   
  
Order

of Fre-

quency.

| 

Males.

| 

Females.

| 

Both Sexes.  
  
---|---|---|---  
  
Mode.

| 

Num-

ber.

| 

Mode.

| 

Num-

ber.

| 

Mode.

| 

Num-

her.  
  
1

| 

Hanging

| 

5669

| 

Drowning

| 

2089

| 

Hanging

| 

7005  
  
2

| 

Stab-cut

| 

3594

| 

Poison

| 

1652

| 

Drowning

| 

5532  
  
3

| 

Drowning

| 

3443

| 

Hanging

| 

1336

| 

Stab-cut

| 

4365  
  
4

| 

Poison

| 

2264

| 

Stab-cut

| 

771

| 

Poison

| 

3916  
  
5

| 

Fire-arms

| 

2152

| 

Fire-arms

| 

52

| 

Fire-arms

| 

2204  
  
6

| 

Otherwise

| 

1773

| 

Otherwise

| 

527

| 

Otherwise

| 

2300  
  
| 

Total

| 

18,895

| 

Total

| 

6427

| 

Total

| 

25,322  
  
Order

of Fre-

quency.

| 

Males.

| 

Females.

| 

Both Sexes.  
  
---|---|---|---  
  
Mode.

| 

Num-

ber.

| 

Mode.

| 

Num-

ber.

| 

Mode.

| 

Num-

ber.  
  
1

| 

Hanging

| 

741

| 

Drowning

| 

430

| 

Drowning

| 

1060  
  
2

| 

Drowning

| 

630

| 

Hanging

| 

257

| 

Hanging

| 

998  
  
3

| 

Stab-cut

| 

556

| 

Poison

| 

145

| 

Stab-cut

| 

700  
  
4

| 

Poison

| 

257

| 

Stab-cut

| 

144

| 

Poison

| 

402  
  
5

| 

Fire-arms

| 

245

| 

Fire-arms

| 

6

| 

Fire-arms

| 

251  
  
6

| 

Otherwise

| 

207

| 

Otherwise

| 

ioo

| 

Otherwise

| 

307  
  
| 

Total

| 

2636

| 

Total

| 

1082

| 

Total

| 

3;18  
  
## Total Suicide

Male and Female - in England and Wales, 1886-1905, together with the annual rate per million living (Registrar-General's Reports).  The reason of the high suicide-rate in some countries as compared with others, and the causes of its progressive increase, are not easily determined. Various explanations have been offered, such as the influence of climate, the comparative prevalence of insanity, and the proportionate consumption of alcoholic drinks, but none satisfactorily accounts for the facts. It may, however, be remarked that suicide is much more common amongst Protestant than amongst Roman Catholic communities, while Jews have a smaller suicide-rate than Roman Catholics. A point of considerable interest is the increase of suicide in relation to the advance of elementary education. Ogle states that suicide is more common among the educated than the illiterate classes. It is also more prevalent in urban than in rural districts. A curious feature in large towns is the sudden outbreak of self-destruction which sometimes occurs, and which has led to its being described as epidemic. In such cases force of example and imitation undoubtedly play a considerable part, as it is well recognized that both these forces exert an influence not only in causing suicide, but also in suggesting the method, time and place for the act. No age above five years is exempted from furnishing its quota of suicidal deaths, although self-destruction between five and ten years is very rare. Above this age the proportion of suicides increases at each period, the maximum being reached between fifty-five and sixty-five. Among females there is a greater relative prevalence at earlier age periods than among males. The modes of suicide are found to vary very slightly in different countries. Hanging is most common amongst males; then drowning, injuries from fire-arms, stabs and cuts, poison and precipitation from heights. Amongst females, drowning comes first, while poison and hanging are more frequent than other methods entailing effusion of blood and disfigurement of the person. The methods used in England and Wales by suicides during 1888-1897, and in Scotland during the years 1881-1897, are given in the following table: TABLE III. Modes of Suicide in England and Wales, 1888-1897. Modes of Suicide in Scotland, 1881-1897.  The season of the year influences suicide practically uniformly in all European countries, the number increasing from the commencement of the year to a maximum in May or June, and then declining again to a minimum in winter. Morselli attempts to account for this greater prevalence during what may well be called the most beautiful months of the year by attributing it to the influence of increased temperature upon the organism, while Durkheim suggests that the determining factor is more probably to be found in the length of the day and the effect of a longer period of daily activity. The suicide-rate is higher in certain male occupations and professions than in others (Ogle). Thus it is high amongst soldiers, doctors, innkeepers and chemists, and low for clergy, bargemen, railway drivers and stokers. The suicide-rate is twice as great for unoccupied males as for occupied males.

## Authorities

\- Morselli, Il Suicidio (Milan, 1879); Legoyt, Le Suicide ancien et modern (Paris, 1881); Westcott, Suicide: its History, Literature, &c. (London, 1885); Ogle, "Suicides in England and Wales, in relation to Age, Sex, Season, and Occupation," Journal of the Statistical Society (1886), vol. xlix.; Strahan, Suicide and Insanity (London, 1893); Mayr, "Selbstmord statistik," in Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften (Jena, 1895); Durkheim, Le Suicide (Paris, 1897). (H. H. L.) Suidas, Greek lexicographer. Nothing is known of him, except that he must have lived before Eustathius (12th-13th century), who frequently quotes him. Under the heading "Adam" the author of the lexicon (which a prefatory note states to be "by Suidas") gives a brief chronology of the world, ending with the death of the emperor John Zimisces (975), and under "Constantinople" his successors Basil and Constantine are mentioned. It would thus appear that Suidas lived in the latter part of the 10th century. The passages in which Michael Psellus (end of the II th century) is referred to are considered later interpolations. The lexicon of Suidas is arranged alphabetically with some slight deviations, letters and combinations of letters having the same sound being placed together; thus, at and E follow 8, and a, rt, c follow It partakes of the nature of a dictionary and encyclopaedia. It includes numerous quotations from ancient writers; the scholiasts on Aristophanes, Homer, Sophocles and Thucydides are also much used. The biographical notices, the author tells us, are condensed from the Onomatologion or Pinax  of Hesychius of Miletus; other sources were the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the chronicle of Georgius Monachus, the biographies of Diogenes Laertius and the works of Athenaeus and Philostratus. The work deals with scriptural as well as pagan subjects, from which it is inferred that the writer was a Christian. A prefatory note gives a list of dictionaries from which the lexical portion was compiled, together with the names of their authors. Although the work is uncritical and probably much interpolated, and the value of the articles is very unequal, it contains much information on ancient history and life.

Editio princeps, by Demetrius Chalcondyles (i 499); later editions by L. Kiister (1705), T. Gaisford (1834), G. Bernhardy (1834-1853) and I. Bekker (1854); see A. Daub, De S. Biographicorum origine et fide (1880) and Studien zu den Biographika des S. (1882); and J. E. Sandys, Hist. of Cassical Scholarship (1906), p. 407.