Ethernet

Ethernet (/ˈiːθərnɛt/ EE-thər-net) is a family of wired computer networking technologies commonly used in local area networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN) and wide area networks (WAN).[1] It was commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in 1983 as ECMA-82 and shortly after as IEEE 802.3. It is an example of an open standard.

Ethernet has since been refined to support higher bit rates, a greater number of nodes, and longer link distances, but retains much backward compatibility. Over time, Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies such as Token Ring, FDDI and ARCNET.

Systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream of data into shorter pieces called frames. Each frame contains source and destination addresses, and error-checking data so that damaged frames can be detected and discarded; most often, higher-layer protocols trigger retransmission of lost frames. Per the OSI model, Ethernet provides services up to and including the data link layer.[2] The 48-bit MAC address was adopted by other IEEE 802 networking standards, including IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), as well as by FDDI. EtherType values are also used in Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) headers.

Ethernet is widely used in homes and industry, and interworks well with wireless Wi-Fi technologies. Ethernet commonly carries Internet Protocol traffic, and so Ethernet is considered one of the key technologies that make up the Internet.

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Standardization
* 3 Evolution
* 3.1 Shared medium
* 3.2 Repeaters and hubs
* 3.3 Bridging and switching
* 3.4 Advanced networking
* 4 Varieties
* 5 Frame structure
* 6 Autonegotiation
* 7 Error conditions
* 7.1 Switching loop
* 7.2 Jabber
* 7.3 Runt frames
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 Further reading
* 12 External links

## History

Accton Etherpocket-SP parallel port Ethernet adapter (c. 1990). Supports both coaxial (10BASE2) and twisted pair (10BASE-T) cables. Power is drawn from a PS/2 port passthrough cable.

The original forms of Ethernet used a shared communications channel. This concept originated in ALOHAnet, designed in the late 1960s by Norman Abramson. ALOHANet was a 4800 bps radio network used by the University of Hawaii. When a sender detected that its message hadn't been received, it would resend the message after waiting for a randomly selected period of time.[3]: 3–4 [4]: 4

In 1972, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs adapted the ALOHAnet approach to transmission over a shared coaxial cable in the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (Xerox PARC). This network connected ALTO computers using a coaxial cable. It first ran on May 22, 1973 with a bit rate of 2.94 Mbps. In a memo written at that time, Metcalfe named the concept "Ethernet."[4]: 3–4 The name was inspired by the former idea that the universe was filled with a "luminiferous aether" that carried electromagnetic waves, and calling it Ethernet emphasized its ability to run over any transmission medium.[5] Ethernet improved the original ALOHANet design because a sender would first listen to the channel to determine if it was already in use. The combination of the new idea of Carrier Sense with Multiple Access and Collision Detection from ALOHANet became Carrier-Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection, or CSMA/CD.[3]: 6–7 [4]: 5

In 1975, Metcalfe, Boggs and their colleagues Charles Thacker and Butler Lampson filed for a patent on Ethernet, which was granted in 1977.[6] By 1976, 100 ALTOs at Xerox PARC were connected using Ethernet. In July 1976, Metcalfe and Boggs published the seminal paper Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks in Communications of the ACM (CACM).[3]: 7 [7] Subsequently between 1976-1978 Ron Crane, Bob Garner, Hal Murray, and Roy Ogus designed a 10Mbps version of Ethernet running over coaxial cable.[8][4]: 5–6

There were multiple local area network technologies in the 1970s. These included IBM's Token Ring, Network Systems Corporation's HYPERchannel and Datapoint's ARCnet. All were proprietary at the time. Metcalfe, Gordon Bell, and David Liddle developed a strategy of standardizing Ethernet rather than keeping it vendor-specific,[9] and convinced Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Intel, and Xerox to work together on a standard, subsequently known as the DIX standard, based on the 10Mbps version of Ethernet and published in 1980 as the Ethernet Blue Book.[10] Version 2 was published in November 1982.[11][3]: 7–8 [4]: 6

In June 1981, the Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers (IEEE) Project 802 (for local area network standards) created an 802.3 subcommittee to produce an Ethernet standard based on DIX. In 1983, a standard was published for 10 Mbps Ethernet over a coaxial cable of up to 500 meters (10BASE5). It differed only in some details from the DIX standard.[4]: 7 As part of the standardization process, Xerox turned over all its Ethernet patents to the IEEE, and anyone can implement 802.3. IEEE 802.3 is now considered the same as Ethernet.[3]: 8 The cooperation of Xerox with Intel and Digital on the Ethernet standard ultimately made it a truly open standard.[9]

In June 1979, Metcalfe left Xerox to found the Computer, Communication, and Compatibility Corporation, better known as 3Com, along with Howard Charney, Ron Crane, Greg Shaw, and Bill Kraus. Metcalfe's vision was to sell Ethernet adapters for all personal computers. Apple quickly agreed, but IBM was committed to their own LAN protocol, the Token Ring. Nonetheless, 3Com developed the EtherLink ISA adapter and started shipping it with DOS driver software, making it usable on IBM PCs.[3]: 9

The EtherLink adapter had several advantages over competitors. It was the first network interface card (NIC) to use VLSI semiconductor technology (developed in partnership with Seeq Technologies). This meant most of the functions, including the transceiver, could be contained on a single chip, so the price for Etherlink ($950) was significantly lower than of its competitors. 3Com introduced a new, thinner coaxial cable for the card, called Thin Ethernet, making it more convenient to install and use. Finally, Etherlink was the first Ethernet adapter for the IBM PC.[3]: 9–10

Because both businesses and home users adopted the IBM PC, its market expanded rapidly, and by 1982, IBM was shipping 200,000 units a month. Since IBM hadn't realized that businesses would want the computers connected by a network, Etherlink sales filled the vacuum, and in 1984, 3Com was able to file for a public stock offering. The Etherlink approach was standardized by IEEE as 10BASE2 in 1984.[3]: 11

Also in the early 1980s, Novell began selling Network Interface Cards (NICs) to go with its NetWare operating system. These NE2000 NICs were all Ethernet, and because NetWare became an important application for businesses, this increased the demand for Ethernet adapters. Then in 1989, Novell sold its NIC business and licensed the NE2000 card, creating a highly competitive market and driving the price of Ethernet cards down, while cards for other technologies, such as IBM's Token Ring, remained high.[3]: 16–17

Starting in late 1983, AT&T and NCR promoted a star configuration using unshielded twisted pair cabling (UTP), or regular telephone wire. This became StarLAN, running at 1Mbps over cables up to 500 meters, and was standardized as 1BASE5 by IEEE 802.3,[3]: 12–13 but on August 17, 1987, SynOptics introduced LATTISNET with 10Mbps Ethernet also over regular telephone wire (UTP).[3]: 14 In the fall of 1990, the IEEE issued the 802.3i standard for 10BASE-T, Ethernet over twisted pairs, and the following year, Ethernet sales nearly doubled.[3]: 15–16 By 1992, Ethernet was the de facto standard for LANs.[3]: 17

In the 1990s, the proliferation of PCs combined with their increasing power drove demand for much faster network infrastructure. The Kalpana EtherSwitch EPS-700 helped to meet this demand by increasing the speed of Ethernet dramatically. The switch allowed multiple simultaneous data transmission paths and it used faster cut-through bridging technology in place of store-and-forward. The switch was marketed as a way to improve network performance rather than as a way to connect different LANs, creating a new market category. Then in 1993, Kalpana introduced full-duplex mode for switches, potentially doubling the data transmission rate. In 1997, the IEEE standardized full-duplex flow-control switched in 802.3x.[3]: 18–19

The 10Mbps rate of Ethernet was still too slow for some networks, though, and most larger networks planned to use FDDI, a very expensive alternative to Ethernet. In August 1991 Howard Charney, David Boggs, Ron Crane, and Larry Birenbaum founded Grand Junction Networks to build and market 100Mbps Ethernet equipment. Their announcement in 1992 triggered a standards war over whether to maintain backward compatibility with the original Ethernet CSMA/CD standard or to adopt a demand-priority protocol pushed by HP and AT&T. Since the competing groups were unable to come to an agreement, IEEE set up a new group, 802.12, for the demand-priority scheme. The supporters of backward compatibility formed the Fast Ethernet Alliance in 1993 to publish an interoperability specification that became the 100BASE-TX standard (also known as Fast Ethernet). At the same time, Grand Junction shipped the first Fast Ethernet hubs and NICs, and more companies announced Fast Ethernet equipment. In 1994, Sun Microsystems, followed by 3Com, DEC, and others, shipped 100BASE-TX compliant products, and the IEEE 802.3u specification for Fast Ethernet was approved.[3]: 19–21

Since 1999, Ethernet's maximum speed has increased with the introductions of Gigabit Ethernet (802.3ab),[12] 2.5 and 5 Gbit/s Ethernet (802.3bz),[13] 10 Gigabit Ethernet (802.3ae),[14] 25 Gigabit Ethernet (802.3by),[15] 50 Gigabit Ethernet (802.3cd),[16] 100 Gigabit Ethernet (802.3ba),[17] and Terabit Ethernet (802.3df).[18]

## Standardization

An Intel 82574L Gigabit Ethernet NIC, PCI Express ×1 card

In February 1980, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) started project 802 to standardize local area networks (LAN).[19][20] The DIX group with Gary Robinson (DEC), Phil Arst (Intel), and Bob Printis (Xerox)[21] submitted the so-called Blue Book CSMA/CD specification as a candidate for the LAN specification.[22] In addition to CSMA/CD, Token Ring (supported by IBM) and Token Bus (selected and henceforward supported by General Motors) were also considered as candidates for a LAN standard.[23] Competing proposals and broad interest in the initiative led to strong disagreement over which technology to standardize. In December 1980, the group was split into three subgroups, and standardization proceeded separately for each proposal.[24][19]

The development of the CSMA/CD standard was slowed by conflict over issues such as baseband versus broadband and the lengths of address fields. Some members of the DIX group became impatient with the process and concerned that the ultimate CSMA/CD standard would differ significantly from their "Blue Book" de facto standard. They turned instead to the European Computer Manufacturers Association (ECMA), where Friedrich Röscheisen of Siemens helped to introduce the Blue Book as a candidate standard to a newly created "Local Networks" Task Group (TC24).[25] Gary Robinson later claimed to have instigated the effort to convince ECMA to standardize CSMA/CD.[26] ECMA approved a standard in June 1982 that was very close to the DIX de facto standard.[27][23][28][29] Because the DIX proposal was the most technically complete and because of the speedy action taken by ECMA, the IEEE group felt compelled to approve the 802.3 CSMA/CD standard in December 1982. It differed only slightly from the DIX standard in terminology and frame format.[19][30] IEEE published the 802.3 standard as a draft in 1983 and as a standard in 1985.[31]

Approval of Ethernet on the international level was achieved by a similar, cross-partisan action with Ingrid Fromm, Siemens' representative to IEEE 802, as the liaison officer working to integrate with International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Technical Committee 83 and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Committee 97 Sub Committee 6.[32] The ISO 8802-3 standard was published on March 23, 1989.[33][3]: 8

The IEEE has approved changes to its 802.3 (Ethernet) standard regularly since 1985. The current standard is available from the IEEE website. With each change to the standard, the IEEE first issues a supplement with a letter designation added to IEEE 802.3. For example, IEEE 802.3u refers to Fast Ethernet. Then when the supplement is formally approved, it is merged with the main standard.[4]

Subsequent standards have provided for ever-faster versions of Ethernet, additional physical media, and network management. For a table of IEEE Ethernet standards, see IEEE 802.3 § Communication standards.

## Evolution

Ethernet has evolved to include higher bandwidth, improved medium access control methods, and different physical media. The multidrop coaxial cable was replaced with physical point-to-point links connected by Ethernet repeaters or switches.[34]

Ethernet stations communicate by sending each other data packets: blocks of data individually sent and delivered. As with other IEEE 802 LANs, each adapter comes programmed with a globally unique 48-bit MAC address so that each Ethernet station has a unique address.[lower-alpha 1] The MAC addresses are used to specify both the destination and the source of each data packet. Ethernet establishes link-level connections, which can be defined using both the destination and source addresses. On reception of a transmission, the receiver uses the destination address to determine whether the transmission is relevant to the station or should be ignored. A network interface normally does not accept packets addressed to other Ethernet stations.[lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3]

An EtherType field in each frame is used by the operating system on the receiving station to select the appropriate protocol module (e.g., an Internet Protocol version such as IPv4). Ethernet frames are said to be self-identifying, because of the EtherType field. Self-identifying frames make it possible to intermix multiple protocols on the same physical network and allow a single computer to use multiple protocols together.[35] Despite the evolution of Ethernet technology, all generations of Ethernet (excluding early experimental versions) use the same frame formats.[36] Mixed-speed networks can be built using Ethernet switches and repeaters supporting the desired Ethernet variants.[37]

Due to the ubiquity of Ethernet and the ever-decreasing cost of the hardware needed to support it, by 2004 most manufacturers built Ethernet interfaces directly into PC motherboards, eliminating the need for a separate network card.[38]

### Shared medium

Older Ethernet equipment. Clockwise from top-left: An Ethernet transceiver with an in-line 10BASE2 adapter, a similar model transceiver with a 10BASE5 adapter, an AUI cable, a different style of transceiver with 10BASE2 BNC T-connector, two 10BASE5 end fittings (N connectors), an orange vampire tap installation tool (which includes a specialized drill bit at one end and a socket wrench at the other), and an early model 10BASE5 transceiver (h4000) manufactured by DEC. The short length of yellow 10BASE5 cable has one end fitted with an N connector and the other end prepared to have an N connector shell installed; the half-black, half-grey rectangular object through which the cable passes is an installed vampire tap.

Ethernet was originally based on the idea of computers communicating over a shared coaxial cable acting as a broadcast transmission medium. The method used was similar to those used in radio systems,[lower-alpha 4] with the common cable providing the communication channel likened to the Luminiferous aether in 19th-century physics, and it was from this reference that the name Ethernet was derived.[4]

The original Ethernet's shared coaxial cable (the shared medium) traversed a building or campus to connect every attached machine. A scheme known as carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) governed the way the computers shared the channel. This scheme was simpler than competing Token Ring or Token Bus technologies.[lower-alpha 5] Computers are connected to an Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) transceiver, which is in turn connected to the cable (with thin Ethernet, the transceiver is usually integrated into the network adapter). While a simple passive wire is highly reliable for small networks, it is not reliable for large extended networks, where damage to the wire in a single place, or a single bad connector, can make the whole Ethernet segment unusable.[lower-alpha 6]

Through the first half of the 1980s, Ethernet's 10BASE5 implementation utilised a coaxial cable 0.375 inches (9.5 mm) in diameter, later referred to as thick Ethernet or thicknet. Its successor, 10BASE2, called thin Ethernet or thinnet, used the RG-58 coaxial cable. The emphasis was on making installation of the cable easier and less costly.[39]: 57

Since all communication happens on the same wire, any information sent by one computer is received by all, even if that information is intended for just one destination.[lower-alpha 7] The network interface card interrupts the CPU only when applicable packets are received: the card ignores information not addressed to it.[lower-alpha 2] Use of a single cable also means that the data bandwidth is shared, such that, for example, available data bandwidth to each device is halved when two stations are simultaneously active.[40]

A collision happens when two stations attempt to transmit at the same time. They corrupt transmitted data and require stations to re-transmit. The loss of data and retransmission reduce throughput. In the worst case, where multiple active hosts connected with maximum allowed cable length attempt to transmit many short frames, excessive collisions can reduce throughput dramatically. However, a Xerox report in 1980, published in Communications of the ACM, studied the performance of an existing Ethernet installation under both normal and artificially generated heavy load. The report claimed that 98% throughput on the LAN was observed.[41] This is in contrast with token passing LANs (Token Ring, Token Bus), all of which suffer throughput degradation as each new node comes into the LAN, due to token waits. This report was controversial, as modeling showed that collision-based networks theoretically became unstable under loads as low as 37% of nominal capacity. Many early researchers failed to understand these results. Performance on real networks is significantly better.[42]

In a modern Ethernet, the stations do not all share one channel through a shared cable or a simple repeater hub; instead, each station communicates with a switch, which in turn forwards that traffic to the destination station. In this topology, collisions are only possible if the station and switch attempt to communicate with each other at the same time, and collisions are limited to this link. Furthermore, the 10BASE-T standard introduced a full duplex mode of operation, which became familiar with Fast Ethernet and the de facto standard with Gigabit Ethernet. In full duplex, a switch and a station can send and receive simultaneously, and therefore modern Ethernet networks are completely collision-free.

* Comparison between original Ethernet and modern Ethernet
* The original Ethernet implementation: shared medium, collision-prone. All computers trying to communicate share the same cable, and so compete with each other.

* Modern Ethernet implementation: switched connection, collision-free. Each computer communicates only with its own switch, without competition for the cable with others.

### Repeaters and hubs

A 1990s ISA network interface card supporting both coaxial-cable-based 10BASE2 (BNC connector, left) and twisted-pair-based 10BASE-T (8P8C connector, right)

Main article: Ethernet hub

For signal degradation and timing reasons, coaxial Ethernet segments have a restricted size.[43] Somewhat larger networks can be built by using an Ethernet repeater. Early repeaters had only two ports, allowing, at most, a doubling of network size. Once repeaters with more than two ports became available, it was possible to wire the network in a star topology. Early experiments with star topologies (called Fibernet) using optical fiber were published by 1978.[44]

Shared cable Ethernet is always hard to install in offices because its bus topology is in conflict with the star topology cable plans designed into buildings for telephony. Modifying Ethernet to conform to twisted-pair telephone wiring already installed in commercial buildings provided another opportunity to lower costs, expand the installed base, and leverage building design, and, thus, twisted-pair Ethernet was the next logical development in the mid-1980s.

Ethernet on unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP) began with StarLAN at 1 Mbit/s in the mid-1980s.[3]: 12-13 In 1987 SynOptics introduced the first twisted-pair Ethernet at 10 Mbit/s in a star-wired cabling topology with a central hub, later called LattisNet.[19][4]: 29 [45] These evolved into 10BASE-T, which was designed for point-to-point links only, and all termination was built into the device. This changed repeaters from a specialist device used at the center of large networks to a device that every twisted pair-based network with more than two machines had to use. The tree structure that resulted from this made Ethernet networks easier to maintain by preventing most faults with one peer or its associated cable from affecting other devices on the network. Despite the physical star topology and the presence of separate transmit and receive channels in the twisted pair and fiber media, repeater-based Ethernet networks still use half-duplex and CSMA/CD, with only minimal activity by the repeater, primarily the generation of the jam signal in dealing with packet collisions. Every packet is sent to every other port on the repeater, so bandwidth and security problems are not addressed. The total throughput of the repeater is limited to that of a single link, and all links must operate at the same speed.[4]: 278

### Bridging and switching

Patch cables with patch fields of two Ethernet switches

Main articles: Network bridge and Network switch

In 1989, Motorola Codex introduced their 6310 EtherSpan, and Kalpana introduced their EtherSwitch; these were examples of the first commercial Ethernet switches.[lower-alpha 8] Early switches such as this used cut-through switching where only the header of the incoming packet is examined before it is either dropped or forwarded to another segment.[46] This reduces the forwarding latency. One drawback of this method is that it does not readily allow a mixture of different link speeds. Another is that packets that have been corrupted are still propagated through the network. The eventual remedy for this was a return to the original store and forward approach of bridging, where the packet is read into a buffer on the switch in its entirety, its frame check sequence verified and only then the packet is forwarded.[46] In modern network equipment, this process is typically done using application-specific integrated circuits allowing packets to be forwarded at wire speed.[47]

When a twisted pair or fiber link segment is used, and neither end is connected to a repeater, full-duplex Ethernet becomes possible over that segment. In full-duplex mode, both devices can transmit and receive to and from each other at the same time, and there is no collision domain.[48] This doubles the aggregate bandwidth of the link and is sometimes advertised as double the link speed (for example, 200 Mbit/s for Fast Ethernet).[lower-alpha 9] The elimination of the collision domain for these connections also means that all the link's bandwidth can be used by the two devices on that segment and that segment length is not limited by the constraints of collision detection.

Since packets are typically delivered only to the port they are intended for, traffic on a switched Ethernet is less public than on shared-medium Ethernet. Despite this, switched Ethernet should still be regarded as an insecure network technology, because it is easy to subvert switched Ethernet systems by means such as ARP spoofing and MAC flooding.[49][50]

The bandwidth advantages, the improved isolation of devices from each other, the ability to easily mix different speeds of devices and the elimination of the chaining limits inherent in non-switched Ethernet have made switched Ethernet the dominant network technology.[51]

### Advanced networking

A core Ethernet switch

Simple switched Ethernet networks, while a great improvement over repeater-based Ethernet, suffer from single points of failure, attacks that trick switches or hosts into sending data to a machine even if it is not intended for it, scalability and security issues with regard to switching loops, broadcast radiation, and multicast traffic.[52]

Advanced networking features in switches use Shortest Path Bridging (SPB) or the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) to maintain a loop-free, meshed network, allowing physical loops for redundancy (STP) or load-balancing (SPB). Shortest Path Bridging includes the use of the link-state routing protocol IS-IS to allow larger networks with shortest path routes between devices.

Advanced networking features also ensure port security, provide protection features such as MAC lockdown[53] and broadcast radiation filtering, use VLANs to keep different classes of users separate while using the same physical infrastructure,[54] and use link aggregation to add bandwidth to overloaded links and to provide some redundancy.[55]

In 2016, Ethernet replaced InfiniBand as the most popular system interconnect of TOP500 supercomputers.[56]

In many industrial systems, Ethernet and fieldbus coexist, each performing certain roles, and data is exchanged between them through gateways.

## Varieties

Main articles: Ethernet physical layer and Ethernet over twisted pair

An Ethernet port on a laptop computer connected to a twisted pair cable with an 8P8C modular connector

The Ethernet physical layer evolved over a considerable time span and encompasses coaxial, twisted pair and fiber-optic physical media interfaces, with speeds from 1 Mbit/s to 400 Gbit/s.[57] The first introduction of twisted-pair CSMA/CD was StarLAN, standardized as 802.3 1BASE5.[58] While 1BASE5 had little market penetration, it defined the physical apparatus (wire, plug/jack, pin-out, and wiring plan) that would be carried over to 10BASE-T through 10GBASE-T.

The most common forms used are 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, and 1000BASE-T. All three use twisted-pair cables and 8P8C modular connectors. They run at 10 Mbit/s, 100 Mbit/s, and 1 Gbit/s, respectively.[59][60][61]

Fiber optic variants of Ethernet (that commonly use SFP modules) are also very popular in larger networks, offering high performance, better electrical isolation and longer distance (tens of kilometers with some versions). In general, network protocol stack software will work similarly on all varieties.[62]

## Frame structure

A close-up of the SMSC LAN91C110 (SMSC 91x) chip, an embedded Ethernet chip

Main article: Ethernet frame

In IEEE 802.3, a datagram is called a packet or frame. Packet is used to describe the overall transmission unit and includes the preamble, start frame delimiter (SFD) and carrier extension (if present).[lower-alpha 10] The frame begins after the start frame delimiter with a frame header featuring source and destination MAC addresses and the EtherType field giving either the protocol type for the payload protocol or the length of the payload. The middle section of the frame consists of payload data, including any headers for other protocols (for example, Internet Protocol) carried in the frame. The frame ends with a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check, which is used to detect corruption of data in transit.[63]: sections 3.1.1 and 3.2 Notably, Ethernet packets have no time-to-live field, leading to possible problems in the presence of a switching loop.

## Autonegotiation

Main article: Autonegotiation

Autonegotiation is the procedure by which two connected devices choose common transmission parameters, e.g., speed and duplex mode. Autonegotiation was initially an optional feature, first introduced with 100BASE-TX (1995 IEEE 802.3u Fast Ethernet standard), and is backward compatible with 10BASE-T. The specification was improved in the 1998 release of IEEE 802.3. Autonegotiation is mandatory for 1000BASE-T and faster.

## Error conditions

### Switching loop

Main article: Switching loop

A switching loop or bridge loop occurs in computer networks when there is more than one Layer 2 (OSI model) path between two endpoints (e.g., multiple connections between two network switches or two ports on the same switch connected to each other). The loop creates broadcast storms as broadcasts and multicasts are forwarded by switches out every port, the switch or switches will repeatedly rebroadcast the broadcast messages flooding the network. Since the Layer 2 header does not support a time to live (TTL) value, if a frame is sent into a looped topology, it can loop forever.[64]

A physical topology that contains switching or bridge loops is attractive for redundancy reasons, yet a switched network must not have loops. The solution is to allow physical loops, but create a loop-free logical topology using the SPB protocol or the older STP on the network switches.[65]

### Jabber

A node that is sending longer than the maximum transmission window for an Ethernet packet is considered to be jabbering. Depending on the physical topology, jabber detection and remedy differ somewhat.

* An MAU is required to detect and stop abnormally long transmission from the DTE (longer than 20–150 ms) in order to prevent permanent network disruption.[66]
* On an electrically shared medium (10BASE5, 10BASE2, 1BASE5), jabber can only be detected by each end node, stopping reception. No further remedy is possible.[67]
* A repeater/repeater hub uses a jabber timer that ends retransmission to the other ports when it expires. The timer runs for 25,000 to 50,000 bit times for 1 Mbit/s,[68] 40,000 to 75,000 bit times for 10 and 100 Mbit/s,[69][70] and 80,000 to 150,000 bit times for 1 Gbit/s.[71] Jabbering ports are partitioned off the network until a carrier is no longer detected.[72]
* End nodes utilizing a MAC layer will usually detect an oversized Ethernet frame and cease receiving. A bridge/switch will not forward the frame.[73]
* A non-uniform frame size configuration in the network using jumbo frames may be detected as jabber by end nodes. Jumbo frames are not part of the official IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard.
* A packet detected as jabber by an upstream repeater and subsequently cut off has an invalid frame check sequence and is dropped.[74]

### Runt frames

* Runts are packets or frames smaller than the minimum allowed size. They are dropped and not propagated.[75]

## See also

* 5-4-3 rule
* Chaosnet
* Ethernet Alliance
* Ethernet crossover cable
* Ethernet Technology Consortium
* Fiber media converter
* ISO/IEC 11801
* Link Layer Discovery Protocol
* List of interface bit rates
* LocalTalk
* PHY
* Physical coding sublayer
* Power over Ethernet
* Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE)
* Sneakernet
* Wake-on-LAN (WoL)

## Notes

1. ↑ In some cases, the factory-assigned address can be overridden, either to avoid an address change when an adapter is replaced or to use locally administered addresses.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Unless it is put into promiscuous mode.
3. ↑ Of course, bridges and switches will accept other addresses for forwarding the packet.
4. ↑ There are fundamental differences between wireless and wired shared-medium communication, such as the fact that it is much easier to detect collisions in a wired system than a wireless system.
5. ↑ In a CSMA/CD system packets must be large enough to guarantee that the leading edge of the propagating wave of a message gets to all parts of the medium and back again before the transmitter stops transmitting, guaranteeing that collisions (two or more packets initiated within a window of time that forced them to overlap) are discovered. As a result, the minimum packet size and the physical medium's total length are closely linked.
6. ↑ Multipoint systems are also prone to strange failure modes when an electrical discontinuity reflects the signal in such a manner that some nodes would work properly, while others work slowly because of excessive retries or not at all. See standing wave for an explanation. These could be much more difficult to diagnose than a complete failure of the segment.
7. ↑ This one speaks, all listen property is a security weakness of shared-medium Ethernet, since a node on an Ethernet network can eavesdrop on all traffic on the wire if it so chooses.
8. ↑ The term switch was invented by device manufacturers and does not appear in the IEEE 802.3 standard.
9. ↑ This is misleading, as performance will double only if traffic patterns are symmetrical.
10. ↑ The carrier extension is defined to assist collision detection on shared-media gigabit Ethernet.

## References

1. ↑ Ralph Santitoro (2003). "Metro Ethernet Services – A Technical Overview". https://www.mef.net/Assets/White_Papers/Metro-Ethernet-Services.pdf.
2. ↑ Charles M. Kozierok (September 20, 2005). "Data Link Layer (Layer 2)". http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_DataLinkLayerLayer2.htm.
3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 Breyer, Robert (1999). Switched, fast, and gigabit Ethernet. U.S.A.: MacMillan Technical Publications. ISBN 9781578700738. https://archive.org/details/switchedfastgiga0003brey/. Retrieved November 7, 2025.
4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 Charles E. Spurgeon (2000). Ethernet: The Definitive Guide. O'Reilly. ISBN 978-1-56592-660-8. https://archive.org/details/ethernetdefiniti0000spur.
5. ↑ "Exclusive Interview - Bob Metcalfe the Father of Ethernet |". August 25, 2017. https://broadbandlibrary.com/bob-metcalfe-lays-down-the-law/.
6. ↑ U.S. Patent 4,063,220 "Multipoint data communication system (with collision detection)"
7. ↑ Robert Metcalfe; David Boggs (July 1976). "Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks". Communications of the ACM 19 (7): 395–405. doi:10.1145/360248.360253. https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/360248.360253. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
8. ↑ "Introduction to Ethernet Technologies" (in en-US). WideBand Products. https://www.wband.com/2013/05/introduction-to-ethernet-technologies/.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Markoff, John (May 18, 1998). "Long Before Microsoft's Internet War: A Peaceful Ethernet". The New York Times: p. D-1. https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/18/business/long-before-microsoft-s-internet-war-a-peaceful-ethernet.html.
10. ↑ Digital Equipment Corporation; Intel Corporation; Xerox Corporation (July 1981). "The ethernet: a local area network: data link layer and physical layer specifications". ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review 11 (3): 20–66. doi:10.1145/1015591.1015594. https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1015591.1015594.
11. ↑ Digital Equipment Corporation; Intel Corporation; Xerox Corporation (November 1982). ﻿The Ethernet, A Local Area Network. Data Link Layer and Physical Layer Specifications, Version 2.0﻿ (Report). Xerox Corporation. http://decnet.ipv7.net/docs/dundas/aa-k759b-tk.pdf. Retrieved December 10, 2011.
12. ↑ "IEEE P802.3ab 1000BASE-T Task Force". IEEE Standards Association. https://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/3/ab/.
13. ↑ "IEEE P802.3bz 2.5G/5GBASE-T Task Force". IEEE Standards Association. http://www.ieee802.org/3/bz/index.html.
14. ↑ "IEEE P802.3ae 10Gb/s Ethernet Task Force". https://www.ieee802.org/3/ae/index.html.
15. ↑ "IEEE P802.3by 25 Gb/s Ethernet Task Force". https://www.ieee802.org/3/by/index.html.
16. ↑ "IEEE 802.3 50 Gb/s, 100 Gb/s, and 200 Gb/s Ethernet Task Force". https://www.ieee802.org/3/cd/index.html.
17. ↑ "IEEE P802.3ba 40Gb/s and 100Gb/s Ethernet Task Force". official web site. IEEE. http://www.ieee802.org/3/ba/.
18. ↑ "IEEE P802.3df 400 Gb/s and 800 Gb/s Ethernet Task Force". official web site. IEEE. https://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/3/df/index.html.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 von Burg, Urs; Kenney, Martin (December 2003). "Sponsors, Communities, and Standards: Ethernet vs. Token Ring in the Local Area Networking Business". Industry & Innovation 10 (4): 351–375. doi:10.1080/1366271032000163621. http://hcd.ucdavis.edu/faculty/webpages/kenney/articles_files/Sponsors, Communities, and Standards: Ethernet vs. Token Ring in the Local Area Networking Business.pdf. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
20. ↑ Vic Hayes (August 27, 2001). "Letter to FCC". http://www.ieeeusa.org/policy/policy/2001/01aug27IEEE802.pdf. "IEEE 802 has the basic charter to develop and maintain networking standards... IEEE 802 was formed in February 1980..."
21. ↑ Robinson, Gary (2011). "IEEE P802 view of history by Gary Robinson based upon the paper "Standardization of Local Area Networks" by Marvin Sirbu of Carnegie Mellon University and Kent Hughes of Pacific Bell". United States: IEEE. http://ieeehc.pairserver.com/pubs/802/sirbu-hughes-notes-by-robinson-only.pdf.
22. ↑ Digital Equipment Corporation; Intel Corporation; Xerox Corporation (September 30, 1980). ﻿The Ethernet, A Local Area Network. Data Link Layer and Physical Layer Specifications, Version 1.0﻿ (Report). Xerox Corporation. http://ethernethistory.typepad.com/papers/EthernetSpec.pdf. Retrieved December 10, 2011.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Dib, Daniel (August 21, 2024). "Ethernet History Deepdive – Why Do We Have Different Frame Types?". United States: Daniel Dib. https://lostintransit.se/2024/08/21/ethernet-history-deepdive-why-do-we-have-different-frame-types/.
24. ↑ The Froehlich/Kent Encyclopedia of Telecommunications. 9\. IEEE 802.3 and Ethernet Standards to Interrelationship of the SS7 Protocol Architecture and the OSI Reference Model and Protocols. New York, Basel, Hong Kong. 1990. pp. 1-2. ISBN 0-8247-2907-2. https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Froehlich_Kent_Encyclopedia_of_Telec/lQ6NeDDr4o4C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=token+bus+802.3+general+motors&pg=PA2&printsec=frontcover.
25. ↑ Pelkey, James L. (October 11, 1988). "Oral History of David Liddle". Mountain View, California: Computer History Museum. https://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2013/05/102746649-05-01-acc.pdf.
26. ↑ Robinson, Gary. "IEEE P802 view of history by Gary Robinson based upon the paper Standardization of Local Area Networks by Marvin Sirbu of Carnegie Mellon University and Kent Hughes of Pacific Bell". United States: IEEE Computer Society. https://history.computer.org/pubs/802/sirbu-hughes-notes-by-robinson-only.pdf.
27. ↑ Sirbu, Marvin; Hughes, Kent (April 1986). ﻿Standardization of local area networks﻿ (Report). Airlie, VA: Presented at the 14th Annual Telecommunications Policy Research Conference.
28. ↑ "Editorial: Very Good News". ComputerWorld (United States: IDG Communications): p. 26. December 20, 1982. https://books.google.com/books?id=Nb-pSr41croC&pg=PA26&dq=european+computer+manufacturers+association+ethernet&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi5ls6jo_-QAxVPEFkFHaevAC0Q6AF6BAgLEAM.
29. ↑ Liddle, David (October 11, 1988). "Oral History of David Liddle" (PDF) (Interview). Interviewed by James L. Pelkey. Mountain View, California: Computer History Museum. Retrieved November 18, 2025.
30. ↑ Duffy, Jim (May 20, 2013). "10 things you may not know about Ethernet". Network World (Foundry). https://www.networkworld.com/article/673522/lan-wan-10-things-you-may-not-know-about-ethernet.html.
31. ↑ IEEE 802.3-2008, p.iv
32. ↑ samainstage (2023-05-24). "Ethernet Through the Years: Celebrating the Technology’s 50th Year of Innovation" (in en). https://standards.ieee.org/beyond-standards/ethernet-50th-anniversary/.
33. ↑ "ISO 8802-3:1989". ISO. http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=16235.
34. ↑ Jim Duffy (April 20, 2009). "Evolution of Ethernet". Network World. http://www.networkworld.com/article/2869883/lan-wan/evolution-of-ethernet.html.
35. ↑ Douglas E. Comer (2000). Internetworking with TCP/IP – Principles, Protocols and Architecture (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-018380-6. 2.4.9 – Ethernet Hardware Addresses, p. 29, explains the filtering.
36. ↑ Iljitsch van Beijnum (July 15, 2011). "Speed matters: how Ethernet went from 3Mbps to 100Gbps... and beyond". https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2011/07/ethernet-how-does-it-work/3/. "All aspects of Ethernet were changed: its MAC procedure, the bit encoding, the wiring... only the packet format has remained the same."
37. ↑ Fast Ethernet Turtorial, Lantronix, December 9, 2014, http://www.lantronix.com/resources/networking-tutorials/fast-ethernet-tutorial/, retrieved January 1, 2016
38. ↑ Geetaj Channana (November 1, 2004). "Motherboard Chipsets Roundup". PCQuest. http://pcquest.ciol.com/content/search/showarticle.asp?artid=63428. "While comparing motherboards in the last issue we found that all motherboards support Ethernet connection on board."
39. ↑ Heinz-Gerd Hegering; Alfred Lapple (1993). Ethernet: Building a Communications Infrastructure. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-62405-2. https://archive.org/details/ethernetbuilding0000hege.
40. ↑ Ethernet Tutorial – Part I: Networking Basics, Lantronix, December 9, 2014, http://www.lantronix.com/resources/networking-tutorials/ethernet-tutorial-networking-basics/, retrieved January 1, 2016
41. ↑ "Measured performance of an Ethernet local network". Communications of the ACM (ACM Press) 23 (12): 711–721. December 1980. doi:10.1145/359038.359044. ISSN 0001-0782.
42. ↑ "Measured capacity of an Ethernet: myths and reality". ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review (ACM) 18 (4): 222–234. August 1988. doi:10.1145/52325.52347. https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/52325.52347. Retrieved October 31, 2025.
43. ↑ "Ethernet Media Standards and Distances". https://kb.wisc.edu/ns/page.php?id=7829.
44. ↑ Eric G. Rawson; Robert M. Metcalfe (July 1978). "Fibemet: Multimode Optical Fibers for Local Computer Networks". IEEE Transactions on Communications 26 (7): 983–990. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1978.1094189. Bibcode: 1978ITCom..26..983R. http://ethernethistory.typepad.com/papers/Fibernet.pdf. Retrieved June 11, 2011.
45. ↑ Urs von Burg (2001). The Triumph of Ethernet: technological communities and the battle for the LAN standard. Stanford University Press. p. 175. ISBN 0-8047-4094-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=ooBqdIXIqbwC&pg=PA175. Retrieved September 23, 2016.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Robert J. Kohlhepp (October 2, 2000). "The 10 Most Important Products of the Decade". Network Computing. http://www.networkcomputing.com/1119/1119f1products_5.html.
47. ↑ "Define "wire speed" routing...." (in en-US). https://askfilo.com/user-question-answers-smart-solutions/define-wire-speed-routing-3332313331343138.
48. ↑ Nick Pidgeon (April 2000). "Full-duplex Ethernet". How Stuff Works. https://computer.howstuffworks.com/ethernet15.htm.
49. ↑ "What is ARP Spoofing | ARP Cache Poisoning Attack Explained | Imperva" (in en-US). https://www.imperva.com/learn/application-security/arp-spoofing/.
50. ↑ Wang, Shuangbao Paul; Ledley, Robert S. (October 25, 2012) (in en). Computer Architecture and Security: Fundamentals of Designing Secure Computer Systems. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-16883-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=NFK_CyoyIGEC&pg=PT121. Retrieved October 2, 2020.
51. ↑ "Token Ring-to-Ethernet Migration". Cisco. http://www.cisco.com/en/US/solutions/collateral/ns340/ns394/ns74/ns149/net_business_benefit09186a00800c92b9_ps6600_Products_White_Paper.html. "Respondents were first asked about their current and planned desktop LAN attachment standards. The results were clear—switched Fast Ethernet is the dominant choice for desktop connectivity to the network"
52. ↑ Payne, Mike. "Network Loops: The One Infrastructure Killer You Can (Mostly) Prevent" (in en-us). https://blog.paessler.com/network-loops-the-one-infrastructure-killer-you-can-prevent.
53. ↑ David Davis (October 11, 2007). "Lock down Cisco switch port security". https://www.techrepublic.com/blog/it-security/lock-down-cisco-switch-port-security-88196/.
54. ↑ "Virtual LANs (VLANS) | Department of Computer Science Computing Guide". https://csguide.cs.princeton.edu/access/vlans.
55. ↑ Tholeti, Bhanu Prakash Reddy (2013). "Hypervisors, Virtualization, and Networking". Handbook of Fiber Optic Data Communication. pp. 387–416. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-401673-6.00016-7. ISBN 978-0-12-401673-6. "A link aggregation, or EtherChannel, device is a network port-aggregation technology that allows several Ethernet adapters to be aggregated. The adapters can then act as a single Ethernet device. Link aggregation helps to provide more throughput over a single IP address than would be possible with a single Ethernet adapter."
56. ↑ "HIGHLIGHTS – JUNE 2016". June 2016. https://www.top500.org/lists/top500/2016/06/highlights/. "InfiniBand technology is now found on 205 systems, down from 235 systems, and is now the second most-used internal system interconnect technology. Gigabit Ethernet has risen to 218 systems up from 182 systems, in large part thanks to 176 systems now using 10G interfaces."
57. ↑ "[STDS-802-3-400G IEEE P802.3bs Approved!"]. IEEE 802.3bs Task Force. http://www.ieee802.org/3/400GSG/email/msg01519.html.
58. ↑ "1BASE5 Medium Specification (StarLAN)". December 28, 1996. http://www.cs.nthu.edu.tw/~nfhuang/handouts/Chap04/sld022.htm.
59. ↑ IEEE 802.3 14\. Twisted-pair medium attachment unit (MAU) and baseband medium, type 10BASE-T including type 10BASE-Te
60. ↑ IEEE 802.3 25\. Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayer and baseband medium, type 100BASE-TX
61. ↑ IEEE 802.3 40\. Physical Coding Sublayer (PCS), Physical Medium Attachment (PMA) sublayer and baseband medium, type 1000BASE-T
62. ↑ IEEE 802.3 4.3 Interfaces to/from adjacent layers
63. ↑ "802.3-2012 – IEEE Standard for Ethernet" (PDF). IEEE. IEEE Standards Association. December 28, 2012. http://standards.ieee.org/findstds/standard/802.3-2012.html.
64. ↑ "Layer 2 Switching Loops in Network Explained" (in en-gb). https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/ccna-study-guide/layer-2-switching-loops-in-network-explained.html.
65. ↑ Sigari, F. Akhavan; Mirjalily, Ghasem; Saadat, Reza (July 29, 2010). "Complexity reduction of the Best Multiple Spanning Tree algorithm". 2010 2nd International Conference on Education Technology and Computer. 3. pp. V3-47–V3-51. doi:10.1109/ICETC.2010.5529599. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5529599.
66. ↑ IEEE 802.3 8.2 MAU functional specifications
67. ↑ IEEE 802.3 8.2.1.5 Jabber function requirements
68. ↑ IEEE 802.3 12.4.3.2.3 Jabber function
69. ↑ IEEE 802.3 9.6.5 MAU Jabber Lockup Protection
70. ↑ IEEE 802.3 27.3.2.1.4 Timers
71. ↑ IEEE 802.3 41.2.2.1.4 Timers
72. ↑ IEEE 802.3 27.3.1.7 Receive jabber functional requirements
73. ↑ IEEE 802.1 Table C-1—Largest frame base values
74. ↑ 802.3-2012 - IEEE Standard for Ethernet, IEEE Standards Association, 2012-12-28, https://ecfsapi.fcc.gov/file/1050839507018/IEEE Standard for Ethernet.pdf, retrieved 2015-07-05
75. ↑ "Troubleshooting Ethernet" (in en). http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/internetworking/troubleshooting/guide/tr1904.html.

## Further reading

* "Ethernet Technologies". Internetworking Technology Handbook. Cisco Systems. http://docwiki.cisco.com/wiki/Ethernet_Technologies.
* Charles E. Spurgeon (2000). Ethernet: The Definitive Guide. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1565-9266-08. https://archive.org/details/ethernetdefiniti0000spur.
* Yogen Dalal. "Ethernet History". blog. http://ethernethistory.com/.

## External links

* IEEE 802.3 Ethernet working group
* IEEE 802.3-2015 – superseded
* IEEE 802.3-2018 standard

* v
* t
* e

Ethernet family of local area network technologies

Speeds|

* 10 Mbit/s
* 100 Mbit/s
* 1 Gbit/s
* 2.5 and 5 Gbit/s
* 10 Gbit/s
* 25 and 50 Gbit/s
* 40 and 100 Gbit/s
* 200 and 400 Gbit/s

General|

* Physical layer
* Autonegotiation
* EtherType
* Flow control
* Frames
* Jumbos

Organizations|

* IEEE 802.3
* Ethernet Alliance

Media|

* Twisted pair
* Coaxial
* First mile
* 10G-EPON

Historic|

* CSMA/CD
* StarLAN
* 10BROAD36
* 10BASE-FB
* 10BASE-FL
* 10BASE5
* 10BASE2
* FOIRL
* 100BaseVG
* LattisNet
* Long Reach

Applications|

* Audio
* Carrier
* Data center
* Energy Efficiency
* Industrial
* Metro
* Power
* Synchronous

Transceivers|

* MAU
* GBIC
* SFP/SFP+/QSFP/QSFP+/OSFP
* XENPAK
* XFP
* CFP

Interfaces|

* AUI
* MDI
* MII
* GMII
* XGMII
* XAUI

* Category
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Internet access

Wired|

* Cable
* Dial-up
* DOCSIS
* DSL
* Ethernet
* FTTx
* G.hn
* HD-PLC
* HomePlug
* HomePNA
* IEEE 1901
* ISDN
* MoCA
* PON
* Power-line
* Broadband

Wireless PAN|

* Bluetooth
* Li-Fi
* Wireless USB

Wireless LAN|

* Wi-Fi

Long range wireless|

* DECT
* EVDO
* GPRS
* HSPA
* iBurst
* LTE
* MMDS
* Muni Wi-Fi
* Satellite
* UMTS-TDD
* WiMAX
* WiBro

* v
* t
* e

Basic computer components

Input devices|

* Keyboard
* Image scanner
* Microphone
* Pointing device
* Graphics tablet
* Game controller
* Light pen
* Mouse
* Optical
* Pointing stick
* Touchpad
* Touchscreen
* Trackball
* Refreshable braille display
* Sound card
* Sound chip
* Webcam
* Softcam
* Video card
* GPU

Output devices|

* Monitor
* Screen
* Refreshable braille display
* Printer
* Plotter
* Speakers
* Sound card
* Video card

Removable
data storage|

* Disk pack
* Floppy disk
* Optical disc
* CD
* DVD
* Blu-ray
* Flash memory
* Memory card
* USB flash drive

Computer case|

* Central processing unit
* Microprocessor
* Motherboard
* Memory
* RAM
* BIOS
* Data storage
* HDD
* SSD
* SSHD
* Power supply
* SMPS
* MOSFET
* Power MOSFET
* VRM
* Network interface controller
* Fax modem
* Expansion card

Ports|

* Ethernet
* FireWire (IEEE 1394)
* Parallel port
* Serial port
* PS/2 port
* USB
* Thunderbolt
* DisplayPort / HDMI / DVI / VGA
* eSATA
* Audio jack

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