Dagur language

Short description: Mongolic language

Dagur

Daghur, Dahur, Daur
Даор Усуву

Template:ManchuSibeUnicode
Daor Usuwu (Hailar)
Template:ManchuSibeUnicode

Dagur Kel (Qiqihar)
Pronunciation| [daɔr usuɣu]
Native to| China, Mongolia, Russia
Region| China: Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang Province, Xinjiang
Ethnicity| Daur

Native speakers

| (China: 91,000 cited 1999)[1]

Language family

Mongolic

* Dagur

Writing system

| Latin script
Mongol script
Cyrillic script[2]
Manchu script (historically)
Language codes
ISO 639-3| `dta`
Glottolog| `daur1238`[3]

Dagur is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

The Dagur, Daghur, Dahur, or Daur language, is a Mongolic language, as well as a distinct branch of the Mongolic language family,[4] and is primarily spoken by members of the Daur ethnic group.

There is no written standard in use, although a Pinyin-based orthography has been devised; instead the Dagur make use of Mongolian or Chinese, as most speakers know these languages as well.[5] During the time of the Qing dynasty, Dagur was written with the Manchu alphabet.[6]

## Contents

* 1 Distribution
* 2 Phonology
* 2.1 Vowels
* 2.2 Consonants
* 3 Writing system
* 4 Grammar
* 4.1 Grammatical case suffix table
* 4.2 Personal reflexive relationship suffixes
* 4.3 Imperative verb suffixes
* 4.4 Declarative verb suffixes
* 4.5 Pronouns' verb suffixes
* 4.5.1 Present future tense
* 4.5.2 Past tense
* 4.6 Adverb suffixes
* 4.7 Personal pronouns
* 5 Lexicon
* 5.1 Middle Mongol words
* 5.2 Numerals
* 6 References
* 7 Bibliography
* 8 External links

## Distribution

Dagur is a Mongolic language consisting of five dialects:[7]

* Amur Dagur in the vicinity of Heihe (original homeland). About 400 people.
* Nonni Dagur on the west side of the Nonni River from south of Qiqihar up to Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner. Speakers of Nonni Dagur are usually grouped into the following 4 dialects:
* Morin Daba Dagur, in Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner (Moli Daba) of Hulun Buir League, Inner Mongolia
* Butha (Buteha) (Northern)[8] Dagur, immediately south of Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner
* Tsitsikar (Southern)[8] Dagur, in Tsitsikar (Qiqihar) City and surrounding areas
* Mergen Dagur or Nenjiang Dagur, in Nenjiang County (formerly Mergen County) of Heilongjiang Province
* Hailar Dagur to the south-east of Hailar in Ewenki Autonomous Banner
* Sinkiang Dagur in Xinjiang in the vicinity of Tacheng

## Phonology

Dagur phonology is peculiar in that some of its dialects have developed a set of labialized consonants (e.g. /sʷar/ 'flea' vs. /sar/ 'moon'),[9] while it shares palatalized consonants[10] with most Mongolian dialects that have not been developed in the other Mongolic languages. It also has /f/, which is, however, limited to loan words.[11] Word-final short vowels were lost[12] and historically short vowels in non-initial syllables have lost phoneme status.[13] Dagur is the only Mongolic language to share this development with Mongolian (i.e. Mongolian proper, Oirat, Buryat). Due to the merger of /ɔ/ and /ʊ/ with /o/ and /u/, vowel harmony was lost.[14] According to Tsumagari (2003), vowel harmony is still a productive synchronic phonotactic aspect of Dagur in which initial syllable long vowels are divided into "masculine" (back), "feminine" (front), and neutral groups. Likewise, suffixal long vowels must agree in harmonic group with the root.

### Vowels

Dagur vowels (Chuluu 1994)  | Front  | Central  | Back

|
|
|

short  | long  | short  | long  | short  | long
Close  | i | iː |  |  | u | uː
Mid  | e | eː | ə | əː | ɔ | ɔː
Open  |  |  |  |  | a | aː

### Consonants

Dagur consonants (Chuluu 1994)  | Labial  | Alveolar  | Postalveolar  | Velar

|
|
|
|

plain | lab. | pal. | plain | lab. | pal. | plain | lab. | plain | lab. | pal.
Stop/
Affricate  | voiceless | p |  |  | t | tʷ | tʲ | tʃ | tʃʷ | k | kʷ | kʲ
voiced | b |  | bʲ | d | dʷ | dʲ | dʒ | dʒʷ | ɡ |  | ɡʲ
Fricative  | f |  |  | s | sʷ |  | ʃ |  | x | xʷ | xʲ
Nasal  | m | mʷ | mʲ | n |  | nʲ |  |  | ŋ |  |
Trill  |  |  |  | r |  | rʲ |  |  |  |  |
Lateral  |  |  |  | l |  | lʲ |  |  |  |  |
Semivowel  |  |  |  |  |  | j |  |  |  | w |

## Writing system

Letters  | Contextual forms  | Transliteration  | International Phonetic Alphabet

|
|
|

Initial  | Medial  | Final  | Latin  | Cyrillic
ᠠ | ᠠ‍ | ‍ᠠ‍ | ‍ᠠ

‍ᠠTemplate:Fvs

| a | а | /a/
ᠡ | ᠡ‍ | ‍ᠡ‍ | ‍ᠡ

‍ᠡTemplate:Fvs

| e | э | /ə/
ᠢ | ᠢ‍ | ‍ᠢ‍ | ‍ᠢ | i | и | /i/
ᠣ | ᠣ‍ | ‍ᠣ‍ | ‍ᠣ | o | о | /ɔ/
ᠦ | ᡠ‍ | ‍ᡠ᠊Template:Fvs‍ | ‍᠊ᡠ | u | у | /u/
ᠨ | ᠨ‍ | ‍ᠨ‍

‍ᠨTemplate:Fvs‍

| ‍ᠨ

‍ᠨTemplate:Mvs

| n | н | /n/
ᠩ | —  | ‍ᠩ‍ | ‍ᠩ | ng | нг | /ŋ/
ᠪ | ᠪ‍ | ‍ᠪ‍ | ‍ᠪ | b | б | /b/
ᡦ᠊ | ᡦ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᡦ᠊‍ | —  | p | п | /p/
ᡥ᠊ | ᡥ᠊‍

‍ᡭ᠊Template:Mvs

| ‍᠊ᡥ᠊

‍᠊ᡭ᠊Template:Mvs

| —  | h | х | /x/
ᠬ | ᠬ

‍ᠺ᠊Template:Mvs

| ‍ᠬ‍

‍᠊ᠺ᠊Template:Mvs

| ‍ᠬ | k | к | /k/
ᡤ᠊ | ᡤ᠊

‍ᡬ᠊Template:Fvs‍

| ‍ᡤ᠊‍

‍᠊ᡬ᠊Template:Fvs‍

| ‍‍ᠭ᠎ | g | г | /g/
ᠮ | ᠮ‍ | ‍ᠮ‍ | ‍ᠮ | m | м | /m/
ᠯ | ᠯ‍ | ‍ᠯ‍ | ‍ᠯ | l | л | /l/
ᠰ | ᠰ‍ | ‍ᠰ‍ | ‍ᠰ | s | с | /s/
ᡧ᠊ | ᡧ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᡧ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᡧ | x | ш | /ʃ/
ᠲ | ᠲ‍ | ‍ᠲ‍ | ‍ᠲ | t | т | /t/
ᡩ᠊ | ᡩ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᡩ᠊‍ | ‍ᡩ᠊ | d | д | /d/
ᠴ | ᠴ‍ | ‍ᠴ‍ | ‍‍ᠴ | q | ч | /t͡ʃ/
ᠵ | ᠵ‍ | ‍ᠵ‍ | ‍‍‍ᠵ | j | ж | /d͡ʒ/
ᠶ | ᠶ‍ | ‍ᠶ‍ | ‍ᠶ | y | й | /j/
ᠸ | ᠸ‍ | ‍᠊ᠸ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᠸ | w | в | /w/
ᠷ | ᠷ‍ | ‍ᠷ‍ | ‍ᠷ | r | р | /r/

## Grammar

Dagur has a pronominal system that distinguishes between first person plural inclusive /bed/ and exclusive /baː/ and, even more archaic, it distinguishes between third person singular /iːn/ and plural /aːn/.[15] While the phoneme /t͡ʃ/ (< *t͡ʃʰ) has been retained, the second person singular pronoun has become /ʃiː/ nevertheless,[16] resembling a more thorough sound change in Khorchin Mongolian. The second person plural is retained as /taː/.[16] The genitive and accusative have fused in some variants, becoming –ji, and the ablative may assume the form of the instrumental case. The old comitative has been lost, while the innovated comitative is the same as in Mongolian.[17] In addition, several other cases have been innovated that are not shared by Mongolian, including a new allative, -maji.[18]

Dagur has a fairly simple tense-aspect system consisting of the nonpast markers -/bəi/ and (marginally) -/n/ and the past forms -/sən/ and (marginally) /la/ and the non-finite imperfective marker -/d͡ʒa/-. These may be inflected for person. The attributive particle forms are limited to –/ɡʷ/ (< Written Mongolian -γ-a) for imperfective aspect and future tense, -sən (< -γsan) for perfective aspect, -/ɡat͡ʃ/ (< -gči) for habituality (instead of -daγ which used to fulfil this function) and -/mar/ for potential and probable actions. It has acquired a highly complex converbal system containing several innovations. Notably, -mar which is a participle in Mongolian serves as a converb as well.[19]

### Grammatical case suffix table

[20]

Case  | Marker  | Note  | Example  | Meaning

|
|
|
|

Genitive  | -ei | Added to words ending in a consonant (except j, q, x)  | битегей

biteg + ei → bitegei

| of the book
хелегей

heleg + ei → helegei

адусей

adus + ei → adusei

аолэй

aol + ei → aolei

| of the mountain
-ii | Added to words ending in j, q, x  | кайчий

kaiq + ii → kaiqii

| of shears
оржий

orj + ii → orjii

тульший

tulx + ii → tulxii

-i | Added to words ending in a short vowel  | морий

mori + i → morii

| of the horse
новуй

nowu + i → nowui

| of the dog
дангай

danga + i → dangai

| of smoke
-yi | Appended to words ending in long vowels and diphthongs  | акааий

akaa + yi → akaayi

| older brother's
касооий

kasoo + yi → kasooyi

| of iron
даоий

dao + yi → daoyi

| of the song
Accusative  | Same as genitive case
Locative  | -d | Added to the stem (if ending in a consonant d, t, k, s, j, q, x add an appropriate vowel before -d)  | ширээд

xiree + d → xireed

| on the desk
хорвуд

horwu + d → horwud

| in/on the cabinet
тосод

tos + d → tosod

| in the oil
Instrumental  | -aar, -eer, -oor | Added to words ending in consonants (except j, q, x) according to vowel harmony  | сарпаар

sarp + aar → sarpaar

| using chopsticks
лэкээр

lek + eer → lekeer

топоор

topoor + oor → topooroor

| using an axe
-ier | Added to words ending in j, q, x  | онкиэр

onq + ier → onqier

| using a knife
оржиэр

orj + ier → orjier

-ar, -er, -or | Added according to vowel harmony to words ending in short vowels  | дангаар

danga + ar → dangaar

| using smoke
галиэр

gali + er → galier

| using fire
мориэр

mori + er → morier

| using a horse
новуор

nowu + or → nowuor

| using a dog
-yaar, -yeer | Added according to vowel harmony to words ending in long vowels and diphthongs  | чолоояар

qoloo + yaar → qolooyaar

| using a stone
касоояар

kasoo + yaar → kasooyaar

| using iron
Ablative  | Same as instrumental case  | The ablative form is sometimes -aas, -ees, -oos, -ies, -as, -es, -os, -yaas, -yees.
Comitative  | -tii | Added to the word stem  | акаатий

akaa + tii → akaatii

| together with older brother
эвээтий

ewee + tii → eweetii

| together with mom
Terminative  | -qaar, -qeer | Added to the word stem according to vowel harmony  | соочаар

soo + qaar → sooqaar

| up to the armpits
сакчаар

sak + qaar → sakqaar

| up to the ankles

### Personal reflexive relationship suffixes

Pronoun  | Number  | Marker  | Example  | Meaning

|
|
|
|

1st  | Singular  | mini | жакмини

jakmini

| my stuff/thing
хороомини

horoomini

| my finger
Plural (exclusive)  | -maani | себмаани

sebmaani

| our teacher
Plural (inclusive)  | -naani | себнаани

sebnaani

| our teacher
2nd  | Singular  | -xini | васкалшини

waskalxini

| your clothing
Plural  | -taani | гэритаани

geritaani

| your home
3rd  | Singular  | -ini | агини

agini

| his brother
-yini | экээйини

ekeeyini

| his sister
Plural  | -inaani | этэвуйнаани

eteewuinaani

| their grandmother
-yinaani | ачайинаани

aqaayinaani

| their father

### Imperative verb suffixes

Pronoun  | Number  | Volitional  | Imperative  | Prohibitive

|
|
|
|

1st  | Singular  | -яа

-yaa

|  | -гаан, -гээн

-gaan, -geen

-гаамини

-gaamini

-гэмини

-geemini

Plural (exclusive)  | -гаамани

-gaamaani

-гээмани

-geemaani

Plural (inclusive)  | -гааннаани

-gaannaani

-гээннаани

-geennaani

2nd  | Singular  | -гаание

-gaanie

| (word stem)  | -гааншини

-gaanxini

-геение

-geenie

| -гээншини

-geenxini

Plural  | -гаантие

-gaantie

| -ту

-tu

| -гаантаани

-gaantaani

-геентие

-geentie

| -геентаани

-geentaani

3rd  | Singular & plural  |  | -тгай

-tgai

| -гаанини

-gaanini

-гээнини

-geenini

### Declarative verb suffixes

Time  | Suffix  | Example  | Meaning

|
|
|

Present future tense  | -bei | идбей (иден)

idbei (iden)

| (he) will eat
-n | яобей (явун)

yaobei (yawun)

| (she) will go
Past tense  | -sen | идсен

idsen

| (she) ate
яосен

yaosen

| (he) went

### Pronouns' verb suffixes

#### Present future tense

Pronoun  | Number  | Marker  | Example  | Meaning

|
|
|
|

1st  | Singular  | -wei(-w) | Би харивей.

Bi hariwei(hariw).

| I return.
-nbi | Би харинби.

Bi harinbi.

| I return.
Plural (exclusive)  | -waa | Баа хариваа.

Baa hariwaa.

| We return.
-nbaa | Баа харинбаа.

Baa harinbaa.

| We return.
Plural (inclusive)  | -wdaa | Бид харивдаа.

Bid hariwdaa.

| We return.
-ndaa | Бид хариндаа.

Bid harindaa.

| We return.
2nd  | Singular  | -beixi(-bxi) | Ши харибейши.

Xi haribeixi.

| You return.
-nxi | Ши харинши.

Xi harinxi.

| You return.
Plural  | -beitaa (-btaa) | Таа харибейтаа.

Taa haribeitaa (haribtaa).

| You return.
-ntaa | Таа харинтаа.

Taa harintaa.

| You return.

#### Past tense

Pronoun  | Number  | Marker  | Example  | Meaning

|
|
|
|

1st  | Singular  | -senbi | Би харисенби.

Bi harisenbi.

| I returned.
Plural (exclusive)  | -senbaa | Баа харисенбаа.

Baa harisenbaa.

| We returned.
Plural (inclusive)  | -sendaa | Бид харисэндаа.

Bid harisendaa.

| We returned.
2nd  | Singular  | -senxi | Ши харисенши.

Xi harisenxi.

| You returned.
Plural  | -sentaa | Таа харисентаа.

Taa harisentaa.

| You returned.

### Adverb suffixes

Suffix  | Notes  | Example  | Meaning

|
|
|

-j | Indicates parallel actions  | Ийчиж ужсенби.

iiqij ujsenbi.

| I went to see (it).
-jie (dii) | Indicates that two actions are performed simultaneously  | Саожие (дий) усвулжьжабей.

Saojie (dii) uswuljjabei.

| (She) sits while talking.
-aar, -eer, -oor | Indicates that the behavior occurred successively  | Гараар ирсэн.

Garaar irsen.

| (He) came out.
Энкуер яосэн.

Enkuer yaosen.

| (She) ate it.
-jii | Signifies the end of the act  | Ужьжий яосэн.

Ujjii yaosen.

| (He) left after reading (it).
Иджий яо!

Idjii yao!

| Let's eat and (then) go.
-n ...-n | Indicates behaviors that occur together  | Гуйн кариен яосэн.

Guin karien yaosen.

| (He) jumped and bounced away.
-mkii,-mklii | Indicates that the behavior occurs immediately  | Мадемький (мэдемький) ичсэн.

Medemkii (medemklii) iqsen.

| (She) went as soon as (she) knew it.
-mder | Indicates that the behavior occurs immediately  | Медемдерь (меднмкьлий) ичсэн.

Medemder (medemklii) iqsen.

| (She) went as soon as she knew it.
-wueter | Indicates readiness  | Елвуетерь медсен.

Elwueter medsen.

| (She) will know as soon as (he) says it.
-aajaar, -eejeer (-eejaar), -oojaar | Indicates simultaneous act  | Бариежаараа алдсэн.

Bariejaaraa aldsen.

| (He) grabbed it and let it go.
-rsaar, rseer | Indicates continuation and recurrence of behavior  | Элерсеерь араан болсен.

Elerseer araan bolsen.

| How many times have you said it?
-aas, -ees, -oos | Express the condition of the behavior  | Элеесшини укубей.

Eleesxini ukubei.

| If you say so, I'll give it to you.
-tgai q | Indicates concessive act  | Учийкэн аатгай чукаатий.

Uqiiken aatgai qukaatii.

| Small but wise.
-worg, -wuar | Indicates the act to follow  | Хийвуерь тортсен.

Hiiwuer tortsen.

| (She) decided to do (it).
-gaanie, -geenie | Expresses purpose  | Уйгеени игсен.

Uigeenie igsen.

| (He) went to see (it).
-tel | Indicates behavioral boundaries  | Яотельмини аасен.

Yaotelmini aasen.

| (He'll) be there until (she) leaves.
-tlaa(-tlaanie), tlee(-tleenie) | Expresses choice  | Элтлеение хиисехдь уль денген.

Eltleenie hiisehd ul dengen.

| It's better to do (so).
-maak(-maaken), meek(-meken) | Indicates the proximity of behavior  | Ванамаак (ванамаакен) болсен.

Wanamaak (wanamaaken) bolsen.

| (It's) about to fall.

### Personal pronouns

[21] | 1st Person  | 2nd Person  | 3rd Person

|
|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural  | singular | plural
exclusive  | inclusive
Nominative  | бий

bii

| биэде

biede

| баа

baa

| ший

xii

| таа

taa

| инг

ing

| аанг

aang

Genitive  | миний

minii

| биэдний

biednii

| мааний

maanii

| шиний

xinii

| тааний

taanii

| иний

inii

| ааний

aanii

Dative  | намд

namd

| биэдендэ

biedende

| маандэ

maande

| шамд

xamd

| таандэ

taande

| ямд (инд)

yamd (ind)

| аандэ

aande

Accusative  | намий

namii

| биэдний

biednii

| мааний

maanii

| шамий

xamii

| тааний

taanii

| ямий

yamii

| ааний

aanii

Ablative  | намаасэ

namaase

| биэденаас

biedenaas

| маанаас

maanaas

| шамаасэ

xamaase

| таанаас

taanaas

| ямаас

yamaas

| аанаас

aanaas

Instrumental  | намаарэ

namaare

| биэдэнаар

biedenaar

| маанаар

maanaar

| шамаарэ

xamaare

| таанаар

taanaar

| ямаар

yamaar

| аанаар

aanaar

Comitative  | намтий

namtii

| биэдентий

biedentii

| маантий

maantii

| шамтий

xamtii

| таантий

taantii

| ямтий

yamtii

| аантий

aantii

## Lexicon

It is estimated that out of Dagur's entire language vocabulary, over half is Mongolic in origin.[22] Additionally, while Dagur has over 50% common Mongolic vocabulary, it has borrowed 5[23] to 10% of its words from Chinese, as well as 10% of its words from Manchu, and a small number vocabulary borrowed from Evenki[24] and Russian – leaving about 20% vocabulary that is specific to Dagur only.[25]

### Middle Mongol words

Dagur retains quite a few archaic Mongolic words, and although they are not commonly found in the modern Mongolic languages, they do appear in Middle Mongol sources, like the Hua-Yi yiyu and The Secret History of the Mongols. These words include:[26]

* tergul ~ terwul (тэргул ~ тервул) ‘road’ (in Mongol *jam)
* najir (нажийр) ‘summer’ (Mongol *jun)
* xeky (хэкый) ‘head’ (Mongol *tologai)
* sorby (сорбый) ‘staff’ (Mongol *tayag)
* kasoo (касоо) ‘iron’
* saur (саур) ‘spade’
* ogw (огв) ‘brain’
* basert (басерть) ‘kidney’
* twalcig (твалциг) ‘knee’
* kataa (катаа) ‘salt’
* warkel (варкэль) ‘clothes’
* el- (эл-) ‘to say’ (cf. Mongol *kele-)

### Numerals

All basic numerals are of Mongolic origin.

| English | Classical Mongolian | Dagur (Hailar) | Dagur (Qiqihar)

|
|
|
|

1 | One | Nigen | Нэкэн
Neken | Neke
2 | Two | Qoyar | Хойир
Hoir | Hoyir
3 | Three | Ghurban | Гуарбан
Guarban | Guarbe
4 | Four | Dorben | Дурубун
Durbun | Durbu
5 | Five | Tabun | Таавун
Taawun | Taawu
6 | Six | Jirghughan | Жиргөө
Jirwoo | Jirgoo
7 | Seven | Dologhan | Долөөн
Doloon | Doloo
8 | Eight | Naiman | Найман
Naiman | Naime
9 | Nine | Yisun | Йсэн
Isen | Yise
10 | Ten | Arban | Харбан
Harban | Harbe

## References

1. ↑ Dagur at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
zby/ {{{ld4}}} at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
2. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 129
3. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds (2017). "Dagur". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/daur1238.
4. ↑ Janhunen, Juha A. (2012) (in en). Mongolian. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-3820-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=SAlwcg9ioPMC&pg=PA4.
5. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 129
6. ↑ Engkebatu 2001
7. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 129, Sengge 2004: 616
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27) (in en). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. pp. On page 129, Janhunen writes: 'The Nonni Dagur are normally divided into speakers of the Butha (northern) and Tsitsikar (southern) dialects'. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCRAgAAQBAJ&q=mongolic+book+juha.
9. ↑ Chuluu 1994: 5, but for example not the Tacheng dialect, see Yu et al. 2008: 25-26
10. ↑ Sengge 2004a, Tsumagari 2003: 133
11. ↑ Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 66-67, cp. Tsumagari 2003: 131
12. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 131
13. ↑ cp. Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 84
14. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 131 basically in agreement with Sengge 2004a; in contrast, Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 37 give a pretty standard Mongolian vowel harmony system with the pharyngeal vowels /ɑ/, /ɔ/, /ʊ/ contrasting with the non-pharyngeal vowels /ə/, /o/, /u/, while /i/ is neutral.
15. ↑ Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 211-126, cp. Tsumagari 2003: 141
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Sengge 2004c: 621
17. ↑ Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 110-121, Sengge 619-620
18. ↑ Sengge 2004c: 620
19. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 144-148 supplemented with Sengge 2004c. The exact form of the plosive in -/ɡat͡ʃ/ is unclear as these two sources and Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983 give different phones.
20. ↑ 恩和巴图 (1983). 达汉小词典. 内蒙古人民出版社. p. 243.
21. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 141
22. ↑ Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27) (in en). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. pp. Page 151, under 'Lexicon', Janhunen writes: "It has been estimated that, roughly speaking, more than half of the entire vocabulary of Dagur is Mongolic in origin, including both inherited items and reintroduced borrowings.". ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCRAgAAQBAJ&q=mongolic+book+juha.
23. ↑ Sengge 2004b
24. ↑ Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27) (in en). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. pp. Page 151, Janhunen writes: " Borrowings from Manchu amount to c.10 per cent, while borrowings from Chinese cover another 10 per cent of the lexicon. A smaller number of items has been borrowed from Ewenki. This means that a significant proportion, over 20 per cent, of all vocabulary items are specific only to Dagur". ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCRAgAAQBAJ.
25. ↑ Tsumagari 2003: 151-152
26. ↑ Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27) (in en). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. pp. In pages 151 and 152: "Due to its peripheral position, Dagur retains a considerable number of archaic Mongolic words, which are not commonly found in the modern Mongolic languages, but which are attested in Middle Mongol sources, such as the Hua-Yi yiyu and the ‘Secret History’. Such words include: tergul ~ terwul ‘road’ (Mongol *jam), najir ‘summer’ (Mo. *jun), xeky ‘head’ (Mongol *tologai), sorby ‘staff’ (Mongol *tayag). Other more or less idiosyncratic words include several basic items, such as: kasoo ‘iron’, saur‘spade’, ogw ‘brain’, basert ‘kidney’, twalcig ‘knee’, kataa ‘salt’, warkel ‘clothes’, el- ‘to say’ (cf. Mongol *kele-).". ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCRAgAAQBAJ.

## Bibliography

* Chuluu, Üjiyediin (1994), Introduction, Grammar, and Sample Sentences for Dagur, Sino-Platonic Papers, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp056_dagur_language.pdf
* Engkebatu (2001): Cing ulus-un üy-e-dü dagur kele-ber bicigdegsen jokiyal-ud-un sudulul. Kökeqota: Öbür monggol-un yeke surgaguli-yin keblel-ün qoriy-a.
* Namcarai; Qaserdeni (1983), Daγur kele ba mongγul kelen-ü qaričaγulul, Öbür mongγul-un arad-un keblel-ün qoriy-a, OCLC 45024952
* Oyunčimeg, ed. (2004), Mongγul sudulul-un nebterkei toli, Kökeqota: Öbür mongγul-un arad-un keblel-ün qoriy-a, ISBN 978-7-204-07745-8, OCLC 67279589
* Sengge (2004): Daγur kele. In: Oyunčimeg 2004: 616-617.
* Sengge (2004a): Daγur kelen-ü abiy-a. In: Oyunčimeg 2004: 618.
* Sengge (2004b): Daγur kelen-ü üges. In: Oyunčimeg 2004: 619.
* Sengge (2004c): Daγur kelen-ü kele ǰüi. In: Oyunčimeg 2004: 618-622.
* Tsumagari, Toshiro (2003): Dagur. In: Janhunen, Juha (ed.) (2003): The Mongolic languages. London: Routledge: 129-153.
* Yu, Wonsoo, Jae-il Kwon, Moon-Jeong Choi, Yong-kwon Shin, Borjigin Bayarmend, Luvsandorj[in] Bold (2008): A study of the Tacheng dialect of the Dagur language. Seoul: Seoul National University Press

## External links

* Unicode Manchu/Sibe/Dagur Fonts and Keyboards
* Learning Dagur (in Chinese)

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