History of software

Short description: none

History of computing

Hardware

* Hardware before 1960
* Hardware 1960s to present

Software

* Software
* Unix
* Free software and open-source software

Computer science

* Artificial intelligence
* Compiler construction
* Computer science
* Operating systems
* Programming languages
* Prominent pioneers
* Software engineering

Modern concepts

* General-purpose CPUs
* Graphical user interface
* Internet
* Laptops
* Personal computers
* Video games
* World Wide Web

By country

* Bulgaria
* Poland
* Romania
* Soviet Bloc
* Soviet Union
* Yugoslavia

Timeline of computing

* before 1950
* 1950–1979
* 1980–1989
* 1990–1999
* 2000–2009
* 2010–2019
* more timelines ...

Glossary of computer science

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Software is a set of programmed instructions stored in the memory of stored-program digital computers for execution by the processor. Software is a recent development in human history and is fundamental to the Information Age.

Ada Lovelace's programs for Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine in the 19th century is often considered the founder of the discipline. However, the mathematician's efforts remained theoretical only, as the technology of Lovelace and Babbage's day proved insufficient to build his computer. Alan Turing is credited with being the first person to come up with a theory for software in 1935, which led to the two academic fields of computer science and software engineering.

The first generation of software for early stored-program digital computers in the late 1940s had its instructions written directly in binary code, generally written for mainframe computers. Later, the development of modern programming languages alongside the advancement of the home computer would greatly widen the scope and breadth of available software, beginning with assembly language, and continuing through functional programming and object-oriented programming paradigms.

## Contents

* 1 Before stored-program digital computers
* 1.1 Origins of computer science
* 2 Early days of computer software (1948–1979)
* 2.1 Apollo Mission
* 2.2 Bundling of software with hardware and its legal issues
* 2.3 Packaged software (Late 1960s-present)
* 2.4 Unix (1970s–present)
* 2.5 The rise of Microcomputers
* 3 1980s–present
* 3.1 Free and open source software
* 3.2 Recent developments
* 3.2.1 App stores
* 4 Formalization of software development
* 5 How software has affected hardware
* 6 Computer software and programming language timeline
* 6.1 1971–1974
* 6.2 1975–1978
* 6.3 1979–1982
* 6.4 1983–1986
* 6.5 1987–1990
* 6.6 1991–1994
* 6.7 1995–1998
* 6.8 1999–2002
* 6.9 2003–2006
* 6.10 2007–2010
* 6.11 2011–2014
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 8.1 Sources
* 9 External links

## Before stored-program digital computers

### Origins of computer science

Computing as a concept goes back to ancient times, with devices such as the abacus, the Antikythera mechanism, Astrolabes, Mechanical Astronomical clocks and Mechanical Calculators.[1] The Antikythera mechanism is an example for a highly complex ancient mechanical Astronomical device.[2]

However, these devices were pure hardware and had no software - their computing powers were directly tied to their specific form and engineering.

Software requires the concept of a general-purpose processor - what is now described as a Turing machine \- as well as computer memory in which reusable sets of routines and mathematical functions comprising programs can be stored, started, and stopped individually, and only appears recently in human history.

The first known computer algorithm was written by Ada Lovelace in the 19th century for the Analytical Engine, to translate Luigi Menabrea's work on Bernoulli numbers for machine instruction.[3][3] However, this remained theoretical only - the lesser state of engineering in the lifetime of these two mathematicians proved insufficient[citation needed] to construct the Analytical Engine.

The first modern theory of software was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem).[4]

This eventually led to the creation of the twin academic fields of computer science and software engineering, which both study software and its creation. Computer science is more theoretical (Turing's essay is an example of computer science), whereas software engineering is focused on more practical concerns.

However, prior to 1946, software as we now understand it - programs stored in the memory of stored-program digital computers - did not yet exist. The very first electronic computing devices were instead rewired in order to "reprogram" them. The ENIAC, one of the first electronic computers, was programmed largely by women who had been previously working as human computers.[5] [6] Engineers would give the programmers blueprints of the ENIAC wiring and expected them to figure out how to program the machine.[7] The women who worked as programmers prepped the ENIAC for its first public reveal, wiring the patch panels together for the demonstrations.[8] [9][10] Kathleen Booth developed Assembly Language in 1950 to make it easier to program the computers she worked on at Birkbeck College.[11]

Grace Hopper and UNIVAC

Grace Hopper worked as one of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I.[12] She later created a 500-page manual for the computer.[13] Hopper is often falsely credited with coining the terms "bug" and "debugging," when she found a moth in the Mark II, causing a malfunction;[14] however, the term was in fact already in use when she found the moth.[14] Hopper developed the first compiler and brought her idea from working on the Mark computers to working on UNIVAC in the 1950s.[15] Hopper also developed the programming language FLOW-MATIC to program the UNIVAC.[14] Frances E. Holberton, also working at UNIVAC, developed a code[clarification needed], C-10, which let programmers use keyboard inputs and created the Sort-Merge Generator in 1951.[16][17] Adele Mildred Koss and Hopper also created the precursor to a report generator.[16]

## Early days of computer software (1948–1979)

In his manuscript "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", Claude Shannon (1916–2001) provided an outline for how binary logic could be implemented to program a computer. Subsequently, the first computer programmers used binary code to instruct computers to perform various tasks. Nevertheless, the process was very arduous. Computer programmers had to provide long strings of binary code to tell the computer what kind of data it should store. Code and data had to be loaded onto computers using various tedious mechanisms, including flicking switches or punching holes at predefined positions in cards and loading these punched cards into a computer. With such methods, if a mistake was made, the whole program might have to be loaded again from the beginning.

The very first time a stored-program computer held a piece of software in electronic memory and executed it successfully, was 11 am 21 June 1948, at the University of Manchester, on the Manchester Baby computer. It was written by Tom Kilburn, and calculated the highest factor of the integer 2^18 = 262,144. Starting with a large trial divisor, it performed division of 262,144 by repeated subtraction then checked if the remainder was zero. If not, it decremented the trial divisor by one and repeated the process. Google released a tribute to the Manchester Baby, celebrating it as the "birth of software".

FORTRAN was developed by a team led by John Backus at IBM in the 1950s. The first compiler was released in 1957. The language proved so popular for scientific and technical computing that by 1963 all major manufacturers had implemented or announced FORTRAN for their computers.[18][19]

COBOL was first conceived of when Mary K. Hawes convened a meeting (which included Grace Hopper) in 1959 to discuss how to create a computer language to be shared between businesses.[16] Hopper's innovation with COBOL was developing a new symbolic way to write programming.[13] Her programming was self-documenting.[20] Betty Holberton helped edit the language which was submitted to the Government Printing Office in 1960.[21] FORMAC was developed by Jean E. Sammet in the 1960s.[21] Her book, Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals (1969), became an influential text.[21][22]

### Apollo Mission

Main article: Engineering:Apollo Guidance Computer

Margaret Hamilton next to a stack of code she and her team wrote for the Apollo Mission computers.

The Apollo Mission to the moon depended on software to program the computers in the landing modules.[23][24] The computers were programmed with a language called "Basic" (no relation with the BASIC programming language developed at Dartmouth at about the same time).[25] The software also had an interpreter which was made up of a series of routines and an executive (like a modern-day operating system), which specified which programs to run and when.[25] Both were designed by Hal Laning.[25] Margaret Hamilton, who had previously been involved with software reliability issues when working on the US SAGE air defense system, was also part of the Apollo software team.[23][26] Hamilton was in charge of the onboard flight software for the Apollo computers.[23] Hamilton felt that software operations were not just part of the machine, but also intricately involved with the people who operated the software.[25] Hamilton also coined the term "software engineering" while she was working at NASA.[27]

The actual "software" for the computers in the Apollo missions was made up of wires that were threaded through magnetic cores.[28] Where the wire went through a magnetic core, that represented a "1" and where the wire went around the core, that represented a "0."[28] Each core stored 64 bits of information.[28] Hamilton and others would create the software by punching holes in punch cards, which were then later processed on a Honeywell mainframe where the software could be simulated.[23] When the code was "solid," then it was sent to be woven into the magnetic cores at Raytheon, where women known as "Little Old Ladies" worked on the wires.[23] The program itself was "indestructible" and could even withstand lightning strikes, which happened to Apollo 12.[28] Wiring the computers took several weeks to do, freezing software development during that time.[29]

While using the simulators to test the programming, Hamilton discovered ways that code could produce dangerous errors when human mistakes were made while using it.[23] NASA believed that the astronauts would not make mistakes due to their training.[30] Hamilton was not allowed to program code to prevent errors that would lead to system crash, so she annotated the code in the program documentation.[23] Her ideas to add error-checking code was rejected as "excessive."[23] However, exactly what Hamilton predicted would happen occurred on the Apollo 8 flight, when human error caused the computer to wipe out all of the navigational data.[23]

### Bundling of software with hardware and its legal issues

Later, software was sold to multiple customers by being bundled with the hardware by original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) such as Data General, Digital Equipment and IBM. When a customer bought a minicomputer, at that time the smallest computer on the market, the computer did not come with pre-installed software, but needed to be installed by engineers employed by the OEM.[citation needed]

This bundling attracted the attention of US antitrust regulators, who sued IBM for improper "tying" in 1969, alleging that it was an antitrust violation that customers who wanted to obtain its software had to also buy or lease its hardware in order to do so. However, the case was dropped by the US Justice Department, after many years of attrition, as it concluded it was "without merit".[31]

Data General also encountered legal problems related to bundling - although in this case, it was due to a civil suit from a would-be competitor. When Data General introduced the Data General Nova, a company called Digidyne wanted to use its RDOS operating system on its own hardware clone. Data General refused to license their software and claimed their "bundling rights". The US Supreme Court set a precedent called Digidyne v. Data General in 1985 by letting a 9th circuit appeal court decision on the case stand, and Data General was eventually forced into licensing the operating system because it was ruled that restricting the license to only DG hardware was an illegal tying arrangement.[32] Even though the District Court noted that "no reasonable juror could find that within this large and dynamic market with much larger competitors", Data General "had the market power to restrain trade through an illegal tie-in arrangement", the tying of the operating system to the hardware was ruled as per se illegal on appeal.[33]

In 2008, Psystar Corporation was sued by Apple Inc. for distributing unauthorized Macintosh clones with OS X preinstalled, and countersued. One of the arguments in the countersuit - citing the Data General case - was that Apple dominates the market for OS X compatible computers by illegally tying the operating system to Apple computers. District Court Judge William Alsup rejected this argument, saying, as the District Court had ruled in the Data General case over 20 years prior, that the relevant market was not simply one operating system (Mac OS) but all PC operating systems, including Mac OS, and noting that Mac OS did not enjoy a dominant position in that broader market. Alsup's judgement also noted that the surprising Data General precedent that tying of copyrighted products was always illegal had since been "implicitly overruled" by the verdict in the Illinois Tool Works Inc. v. Independent Ink, Inc. case.[34]

### Packaged software (Late 1960s-present)

An industry producing independently packaged software - software that was neither produced as a "one-off" for an individual customer, nor "bundled" with computer hardware - started to develop in the late 1960s.[35]

### Unix (1970s–present)

Unix was an early operating system which became popular and very influential, and still exists today. The most popular variant of Unix today is macOS (previously called OS X and Mac OS X), while Linux is closely related to Unix.

### The rise of Microcomputers

In January 1975, Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems began selling its Altair 8800 microcomputer kit by mail order. Microsoft released its first product Altair BASIC later that year, and hobbyists began developing programs to run on these kits. Tiny BASIC was published as a type-in program in Dr. Dobb's Journal, and developed collaboratively.

In 1976, Peter R. Jennings for instance created his Microchess program for MOS Technology's KIM-1 kit, but since it did not come with a tape drive, he would send the source code in a little booklet to his mail-order customers, and they would have to type the whole program in by hand. In 1978, Kathe and Dan Spracklen released the source of their Sargon (chess) program in a computer magazine. Jennings later switched to selling paper tape, and eventually compact cassettes with the program on it.

It was an inconvenient and slow process to type in source code from a computer magazine, and a single mistyped - or worse, misprinted - character could render the program inoperable, yet people still did so. (Optical character recognition technology, which could theoretically have been used to scan in the listings rather than transcribe them by hand, was not yet in wide use.)

Even with the spread of cartridges and cassette tapes in the 1980s for distribution of commercial software, free programs (such as simple educational programs for the purpose of teaching programming techniques) were still often printed, because it was cheaper than making and attaching cassette tapes to magazines.

However, eventually a combination of four factors brought this practice of printing complete source code listings of entire programs in computer magazines to an end:

* programs started to become very large
* floppy discs started to be used for distributing software, and then came down in price
* regular people started to use computers - and wanted a simple way to run a program
* computer magazines started to include cassette tapes or floppy discs with free or trial versions of software on them

Very quickly, commercial software started to be pirated, and commercial software producers were very unhappy at this. Bill Gates, cofounder of Microsoft, was an early moraliser against software piracy with his famous Open Letter to Hobbyists in 1976.[36]

## 1980s–present

Before the microcomputer, a successful software program typically sold up to 1,000 units at $50,000–60,000 each. By the mid-1980s, personal computer software sold thousands of copies for $50–700 each. Companies like Microsoft, MicroPro, and Lotus Development had tens of millions of dollars in annual sales.[37] They similarly dominated the European market with localized versions of already successful products.[38]

A pivotal moment in computing history was the publication in the 1980s of the specifications for the IBM Personal Computer published by IBM employee Philip Don Estridge, which quickly led to the dominance of the PC in the worldwide desktop and later laptop markets - a dominance which continues to this day. Microsoft, by successfully negotiating with IBM to develop the first operating system for the PC (MS-DOS), profited enormously from the PC's success over the following decades, via the success of MS-DOS and its add-on-cum-successor, Microsoft Windows. Winning the negotiation was a pivotal moment in Microsoft's history.

### Free and open source software

Main article: History of free and open-source software

### Recent developments

#### App stores

Main article: Software:App store

Applications for mobile devices (cellphones and tablets) have been termed "apps" in recent years. Apple chose to funnel iPhone and iPad app sales through their App Store, and thus both vet apps, and get a cut of every paid app sold. Apple does not allow apps which could be used to circumvent their app store (e.g. virtual machines such as the Java or Flash virtual machines).

The Android platform, by contrast, has multiple app stores available for it, and users can generally select which to use (although Google Play requires a compatible or rooted device).

This move was replicated for desktop operating systems with GNOME Software (for Linux), the Mac App Store (for macOS), and the Windows Store (for Windows). All of these platforms remain, as they have always been, non-exclusive: they allow applications to be installed from outside the app store, and indeed from other app stores.

The explosive rise in popularity of apps, for the iPhone in particular but also for Android, led to a kind of "gold rush", with some hopeful programmers dedicating a significant amount of time to creating apps in the hope of striking it rich. As in real gold rushes, not all of these hopeful entrepreneurs were successful.

## Formalization of software development

The development of curricula in computer science has resulted in improvements in software development. Components of these curricula include:

1. Structured and Object Oriented programming[39]
2. Data structures[40]
3. Analysis of Algorithms[41]
4. Formal languages[42] and compiler construction[43]
5. Computer Graphics Algorithms[44]
6. Sorting and Searching[45]
7. Numerical Methods,[46] Optimization and Statistics[47]
8. Artificial Intelligence[48] and Machine Learning[49]

## How software has affected hardware

As more and more programs enter the realm of firmware, and the hardware itself becomes smaller, cheaper and faster as predicted by Moore's law, an increasing number of types of functionality of computing first carried out by software, have joined the ranks of hardware, as for example with graphics processing units. (However, the change has sometimes gone the other way for cost or other reasons, as for example with softmodems and microcode.)

Most hardware companies today have more software programmers on the payroll than hardware designers[citation needed], since software tools have automated many tasks of printed circuit board (PCB) engineers.

## Computer software and programming language timeline

The following tables include year by year development of many different aspects of computer software including:

1. High level languages[50][51]
2.   3. Operating systems[52]
4.   5. Networking software and applications[53]
6.   7. Computer graphics hardware, algorithms and applications[54][55]
8.   9. Spreadsheets
10.   11. Word processing
12.   13. Computer aided design[56]

### 1971–1974

| 1971 | 1972 | 1973 | 1974

|
|
|
|

Programming
languages | CDL
KRL
SUE | C
INTERCAL
PL/M
Prolog
Smalltalk
SQL | COMAL
LIS

Speakeasy-3 | BASIC FOUR
CLU
GRASS
PROSE
Operating
systems | DEC RSTS-11 | Data General
RDOS | Soviet ALGOL 68 | DEC DOS-11
Computer
networks |  | Wozniak's
Blue Box | Bob Metcalfe develops
Ethernet |
Computer
graphics |  | Newell & Sancha visible
surface algorithm |  | Catmull & Straber
develop z-buffer
CAD/CAM | MCS founded | ADAM | Auto-Draft | Tektronix 4014

### 1975–1978

| 1975 | 1976 | 1977 | 1978

|
|
|
|

Programming
languages | ABC
Altair BASIC
CS-4
Modula
Scheme | Mesa
Plus
Ratfor

SAM76
SAS
Smalltalk-76 | Blue
Bourne Shell
Commodore BASIC

Icon
IDL
Red
Standard MUMPS
Yellow
IDL | C shell
HAL/S
MATLAB
RPG III
SMALL
VisiCalc
SQL
Operating
systems | CP/M | Cambridge CAP | 1BSD | 2BSD
Apple DOS
Computer
networks | Telenet packet
switching |  |  |
Computer
graphics | EDS founded |  | Antialiasing |
Word
processors |  | Electric Pencil |  | AppleWriter
CAD/CAM | Solid modeling | McDonnell Douglas
buys Unigraphics | Forerunner to CATIA | Raster graphics display

### 1979–1982

| 1979 | 1980 | 1981 | 1982

|
|
|
|

Programming
languages | AWK
Icon
Modula-2
REXX
Vulcan dBase-II | Ada 80
C with classes
CBASIC | BBC BASIC
IBM BASICA | Draco
PostScript
Speakeasy-IV
Operating
systems | Atari DOS | 86-DOS | MS-DOS 1
Acorn MOS | Commodore DOS
Computer
networks | Usenet | TCP/IP |  |
Computer
graphics |  |  |  | Silicon Graphics
founded
Word
processors | Wordstar | WordPerfect
for DG Mini | Bank Street
AppleWriter II |

WordStar 3.0
WordPerfect for DOS

Spreadsheet | VisiCalc |  | Lotus 1-2-3 |
CAD/CAM | IGES | VersaCAD | Dassault Systems | Autodesk founded

### 1983–1986

| 1983 | 1984 | 1985 | 1986

|
|
|
|

Programming
languages | ABAP
Ada 83
C++
GW-BASIC
Korn Shell
Objective-C
occam
True BASIC
Turbo Pascal
| CLIPPER
Common Lisp
Good Old MAD (GOM)
OPL
Redcode
RPL
Standard ML
Matlab
Framework FRED | Paradox
QuickBASIC
Framework II FRED | CorVision
Eiffel
GFA BASIC
Informix-4GL
LabVIEW
Miranda
Object Pascal
PROMAL
Operating
systems | MS-DOS 2
Lisa Office
SunOS 1 | MS-DOS 3
System Software | Windows 1.0
Atari TOS
AmigaOS | AIX 1
Computer
networks | ARPANET splits
off MILNET | Novell NetWare
Research In Motion founded | NSFNET connects
5 Supercomputers |
Computer
graphics |  |  | ATI founded | Intel 82786
coprocessor
Word
processors | Word 1 for DOS | Word 1 for Mac | WordPerfect 4.2
for DOS |
Spreadsheet |  |  | Excel for Mac |
CAD/CAM | Autodesk releases
AutoCAD 1.2,1.3,1.4 | AutoCAD 2 | Bentley Systems
Parametric Technology | AutoLISP

### 1987–1990

| 1987 | 1988 | 1989 | 1990

|
|
|
|

Programming
languages | Ada ISO 8652
Clean
Erlang
HyperTalk
Mathematica
Oberon
occam 2
Perl
Self
Turbo Basic | A+
Hamilton C shell
Object REXX
Octave
RPG/400
SPARK
STOS BASIC
Tcl
Mathematica
Framework III FRED | Bash
LPC
Modula-3
PowerBASIC
Turbo Pascal OOP
VisSim
FL | AMOS BASIC
AMPL
EuLisp
Haskell

Object Oberon
Z Shell
Operating
systems | Windows 2.0 | MS-DOS 4
Windows 2.1x
OS/2
A/UX | EPCO | Windows 3.0
Computer
networks |  | Morris worm | World Wide Web
starts | HTML
Computer
graphics | JPEG and GIF | Pixar's Tin Toy
wins Oscar | AutoDesk 3D Studio |
Word
processors | Microsoft Works for DOS | PC Magazine Reviews
55 Packages | WordPerfect 5.1
Word for Windows | Microsoft Office for Windows
Spreadsheet | Excel for Windows | Quattro Pro |  |
CAD/CAM | Deneba releases
Canvas X
AutoCAD 9 | CATIA 3
AutoCAD 10 | Parametric T-Flex | Visionary Design Systems founded
AutoCAD 11
ACIS 1

### 1991–1994

| 1991 | 1992 | 1993 | 1994

|
|
|
|

Programming
languages | GNU E
Oberon-2

Visual Basic
Python
Framework IV FRED | Turbo Pascal
Dylan | Ruby
AppleScript
Brainfuck

Lua
NewtonScript

Transcript
Self
ZPL | CLOS
ANS Forth
ANSI Common Lisp
Claire
Pike
RAPID
Operating
systems | MS-DOS 5
Linux | Windows 3.1x
386BSD | MS-DOS 6
Newton OS
Solaris | AIX 4.0, 4.1
Computer
networks |  | Mosaic web browser | NetWare 4 | Netscape Navigator
Computer
graphics |  | OpenGL | Nvidia founded |
Word
processors | Microsoft Works |  |  | Novell buys WordPerfect
CAD/CAM | EDS buys
Unigraphics | CADAM & CATIA
begin unification | AutoCAD 12 | Simple Vector
Format

### 1995–1998

| 1995 | 1996 | 1997 | 1998

|
|
|
|

Programming
languages | Ada 95
ColdFusion
Delphi
Java
JavaScript
LiveScript
PHP
Ruby | Curl
Lasso
NetRexx
OCaml
Perl Data Language
WebDNA | Component Pascal

ECMAScript
F-Script
ISLISP
Pico
REBOL
Squeak Smalltalk
Tea
Rebol | M2001
Open Source Erlang
Pikt
PureBasic
REALbasic
Standard C++
UnrealScript
Operating
systems | Windows 95
Digital UNIX | Windows NT 4.0
Palm OS | Inferno
Mac OS 7.6
Mac OS 8 | Windows 98
Solaris 7 64-bit
Computer
networks | The research proposal

for Google was formed.

| Mosaic web browser
Inter@ctive Pager | NetWare 4 | Netscape Navigator
Computer
graphics | Pixar Goes Public
after Toy Story | 3Dfx Voodoo | ATI Rage Pro | Voodoo Banshee
Word
processors | Word 95 for Windows | Corel buys WordPerfect
from Novell |  |
CAD/CAM | MicroStation Advanced
solid modeling | Canvas 5 | ISO 13567
AutoCAD 14 | Dassault Systems buys
Matra Datavision products

### 1999–2002

| 1999 | 2000 | 2001 | 2002

|
|
|
|

Programming
languages | D
GameMaker Language
Harbour
XSLT | ActionScript

Ferite
Join Java
Joy

Visual Basic .NET | AspectJ
GDScript
Processing
RPG IV | Gosu

Operating
systems | Mac OS X Server 1.0
Mac OS 9 | Windows 2000
Windows ME
Mac OS X Public Beta | v10.0 Cheetah
v10.1 Puma
Windows XP | Windows XP 64-bit Edition
10.2 Jaguar
Computer
networks | BlackBerry 850 |  | NetWare 4 | Netscape Navigator
Computer
graphics | S3 Savage 4
GeForce 256 | Radeon DDR (R100) | Nvidia Kyro II
GeForce 3 |
Word
processors | Sun buys Star Division |  |  |
CAD/CAM | Pro/Engineer 2000 | AutoCAD 2000 | EDS buys SDRC | Unigraphics NX
Autodesk buys Revit

### 2003–2006

| 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006

|
|
|
|

Programming
languages | Factor
Nemerle
Scala
Squirrel | Alma-0
Boo
FreeBASIC
Groovy
Little b
Subtext | Ada 2005

Seed7 | Cobra
Links
OptimJ
Windows PowerShell
Operating
systems | v10.3 Panther
Red Hat
Enterprise Linux
Windows Server 2003 |  | v10.4 Tiger
Ubuntu 5
Windows XP Professional x64 Edition |
Computer
networks | 802.11g
Apple Safari | Gmail
Facebook founded
Mozilla Firefox |  | BlackBerry Pearl 8100

### 2007–2010

| 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010

|
|
|
|

Programming
languages | Clojure
Fantom
Fortress
LOLCODE
Oberon-07
Vala | Genie
Pure | CoffeeScript

Idris
Parasail | Chapel
RPG Open Access
Rust
Operating
systems | Windows Vista
v10.5 Leopard
| Android | Windows 7
v10.6 Snow Leopard
Android 1.5 "Cupcake"
Android 1.6 "Donut"
Android 2.0–2.1 "Eclair" | Android 2.2 "Froyo"
Android 2.3 "Gingerbread"
Computer
networks |  | Google Chrome
Chromium | Wi-Fi 802.11n |
Computer
graphics |  | Assassin's Creed | Up Cloth
Simulation | Avatar wins
"Best Picture"
Word
processors |  | Oracle buys
OpenOffice from Sun | Oracle releases OpenOffice
to Apache Software Foundation |
CAD/CAM | Siemens buys UGS |  |  |

### 2011–2014

| 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014

|
|
|
|

Programming
languages | Dart | Ada 2012
Elixir
Julia
TypeScript

CryEngine (BeamNG.drive)

| Xojo | Hack
Swift
Operating
systems | v10.7 Lion
Android 3.x "Honeycomb"
Android 4.0 "Ice Cream Sandwich" | Windows 8
v10.8 Mountain Lion
Android 4.1.x–4.2.x "Jelly Bean" | v10.9 Mavericks
Windows 8.1
Android 4.3 "Jelly Bean"
Android 4.4 "KitKat" | v10.10 Yosemite
Android 5.0 "Lollipop"
Computer
networks |  | 802.11ac |  |
Computer
graphics | Hugo wins Oscar
Visual Effects | CryEngine3 and its 3D soft body physics  |  |

## See also

* Forensic software engineering
* History of computing hardware
* History of operating systems
* History of software engineering
* List of failed and overbudget custom software projects
* List of pioneers in computer science
* Women in computing
* Timeline of women in computing

## References

1. ↑ Ancient Discoveries, Episode 11: Ancient Robots, History Channel, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8, retrieved 2008-09-06
2. ↑ Freeth, Tony (2009). "Decoding an Ancient Computer: Greek Technology Tracked the Heavens" (in en). Scientific American 301 (6): 76–83. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1209-76. PMID 20058643. Bibcode: 2009SciAm.301f..76F. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/decoding-an-ancient-computer/. Retrieved 2022-10-15.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Evans 2018, p. 21.
4. ↑ Hally, Mike (2005). Electronic brains/Stories from the dawn of the computer age. London: British Broadcasting Corporation and Granta Books. p. 79. ISBN 1-86207-663-4.
5. ↑ Evans 2018, p. 39.
6. ↑ Light 1999, p. 469.
7. ↑ Light 1999, p. 470.
8. ↑ Light 1999, p. 472.
9. ↑ Light 1999, p. 473.
10. ↑ Evans 2018, p. 51.
11. ↑ Connolly, Cornelia; Hall, Tony; Lenaghan, Jim (2018-01-10). "The women who led the way in computer programming" (in en). RTE.ie. https://www.rte.ie/eile/brainstorm/2018/0110/932241-the-women-who-led-the-way-in-computer-programming/.
12. ↑ Smith 2013, p. 6.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Smith 2013, p. 7.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Gürer 1995, p. 176.
15. ↑ Ceruzzi 1998, p. 84-85.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Gürer 1995, p. 177.
17. ↑ "Frances Holberton, Pioneer in Computer Languages, Dies" (in en). The Courier-Journal. December 12, 2001. https://www.newspapers.com/clip/24508073.
18. ↑ Jean E. Sammet (1969). Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
19. ↑ R.W. Bemer (1969). A politico-social history of Algol, Annual Review in Automatic Programming, pp 151-237. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
20. ↑ Ceruzzi 1998, p. 92.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Gürer 1995, p. 179.
22. ↑ "Computer Authority to Speak Here" (in en). The Times. April 9, 1972. https://www.newspapers.com/clip/24510360/.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 23.8 Harvey IV, Harry Gould (13 October 2015). "Her Code Got Humans on the Moon—And Invented Software Itself" (in en-US). WIRED. https://www.wired.com/2015/10/margaret-hamilton-nasa-apollo. Retrieved 2018-11-25.
24. ↑ "The Lines of Code That Changed Everything; Apollo 11, the JPEG, the first pop-up ad, and 33 other bits of software that have transformed our world.". Slate. October 14, 2019. https://slate.com/technology/2019/10/consequential-computer-code-software-history.html. Retrieved October 17, 2019.
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Mindell 2008, p. 149.
26. ↑ "Margaret Hamilton" (in en). http://www.computerhistory.org/fellowawards/hall/margaret-hamilton/.
27. ↑ "Meet Margaret Hamilton, the scientist who gave us "software engineering"" (in en-US). IEEE Software Magazine | IEEE Computer Society. 2018-06-08. https://publications.computer.org/software-magazine/2018/06/08/margaret-hamilton-software-engineering-pioneer-apollo-11/.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Mindell 2008, p. 154.
29. ↑ Mindell 2008, p. 157.
30. ↑ Mindell 2008, p. 160.
31. ↑ G. David Garson (January 2006). Public Information Technology and E-governance: Managing the Virtual State. Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp. 229–. ISBN 978-0-7637-3468-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=OwYnTHQC4e0C&pg=PA229.
32. ↑ Gary Myers (Nov 1985). "Tying Arrangements and the Computer Industry: Digidyne Corp. vs. Data General". Duke Law Journal 1985 (5): 1027–1056. doi:10.2307/1372482. https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2927&context=dlj.
33. ↑ Justice WHITE, with whom Justice BLACKMUN joins, dissenting.
34. ↑ "Archived copy". https://www.cnet.com/i/ne/p/2008/Psystar_antitrust_dismissal.pdf.
35. ↑ Ensmenger, Nathan (2010). The Computer Boys Take Over. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-262-05093-7.
36. ↑ Brad Lockwood (13 October 2008). Bill Gates: Profile of a Digital Entrepreneur: Easyread Super Large 18pt Edition. ReadHowYouWant.com. pp. 25–. ISBN 978-1-4270-9149-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=7J_EBQuPxAgC&pg=PA25.
37. ↑ Caruso, Denise (1984-04-02). "Company Strategies Boomerang". InfoWorld: pp. 80–83. https://books.google.com/books?id=kC4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA80.
38. ↑ Schrage, Michael (1985-02-17). "IBM Wins Dominance in European Computer Market" (in en-US). Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1985/02/17/ibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market/bdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8/.
39. ↑ Booch, Grady (1997). Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications. Addison-Wesley.
40. ↑ Peter Brass. (2008) Advanced Data Structures, Cambridge University Press
41. ↑ Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L. & Stein, Clifford. (2001) Introduction to Algorithms, MIT Press and McGraw-Hill.
42. ↑ Hopcroft, John E. and Jeffrey D. Ullman, (1979) Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation
43. ↑ Aho, Alfred V., Sethi, Ravi, and Ullman, Jeffrey D. (1988).  Principles, Techniques, and Tools. Addison-Wesley.
44. ↑ Shirley, Peter. (2009) Fundamentals of Computer Graphics - 3rd edition
45. ↑ Knuth, Donald. (1998) The Art of Computer Programming: Volume 3: Sorting and Searching
46. ↑ Press, William H., Saul A. Teukolsky, William T. Vetterling, Brian P. Flannery. (2007) Numerical Recipes 3rd Edition: The Art of Scientific Computing
47. ↑ Baron, Michael. (2006) Probability and Statistics for Computer Scientists
48. ↑ Russell, Stuart J. and Peter Norvig (2009)  A Modern Approach (3rd Edition)
49. ↑ Mitchell, Tom. (1997) Machine Learning.
50. ↑ Aaby, Anthony (2004). Introduction to Programming Languages
51. ↑ Wexelblat, Richard L. History of Programming Languages
52. ↑ Stallings (2005). Operating Systems, Internals and Design Principles. Pearson
53. ↑ Kurose, James; Ross, Keith (2005). Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach. Pearson.
54. ↑ Wayne Carlson (2003) A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation
55. ↑ Ferguson, R. Stuart. (2013) Practical Algorithms for 3D Computer Graphics
56. ↑ Narayan, K. Lalit (2008). Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing. Prentice Hall

### Sources

* Ceruzzi, Paul E. (1998). History of Computing. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03255-1. https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru.
* Evans, Claire L. (2018). Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. ISBN 978-0-7352-1175-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=C8ouDwAAQBAJ&q=9780735211759&pg=PP1.
* Gürer, Denise (1995). "Pioneering Women in Computer Science". Communications of the ACM 38 (1): 45–54. doi:10.1145/204865.204875. https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/csep590/06au/readings/p175-gurer.pdf.
* Light, Jennifer S. (1999). "When Computers Were Women". Technology and Culture 40 (3): 455–483. doi:10.1353/tech.1999.0128.
* Mindell, David A. (2008). Digital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-26668-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=gXYItzQARVoC&pg=PP1.
* Smith, Erika E. (2013). "Recognizing a Collective Inheritance through the History of Women in Computing". CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture 15 (1): 1–9. doi:10.7771/1481-4374.1972.

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