Arabian Peninsula

Short description: Peninsula in West Asia

"Arabia" and "Arabian" redirect here. For other uses, see Arabia (disambiguation) and Arabian (disambiguation).

Arabian PeninsulaNative name:

شبه الجزيرة العربية (Arabic)

Satellite view of the Arabian Peninsula

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Geography
Location| West Asia
Area| 3,237,500 km2 (1,250,000 sq mi)
Administration

* Bahrain[lower-alpha 1]
* Iraq[lower-alpha 2]
* Jordan[lower-alpha 2]
* Kuwait
* Oman
* Qatar
* Saudi Arabia
* United Arab Emirates
* Yemen

Demographics
Demonym| Arabian
Population| 95 million (2023 estimate)
Pop. density| 29.0/km2 (75.1/sq mi)
Languages| Arabic (Peninsular), Modern South Arabian languages

The Arabian Peninsula (Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية, romanized: shibh al-jazīra al-ʿarabiyya, or جزيرة العرب, jazīrat al-ʿarab, 'the Island of Arabs'),[1] or simply Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At 3,237,500 km2 (1.25 million sq mi), comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.[2][3][4][5][6]

Geographically, the Arabian Peninsula comprises Bahrain,[lower-alpha 1] Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Yemen, as well as southern Iraq and Jordan.[7] The largest of these is Saudi Arabia. In the Roman era, the Sinai Peninsula was also considered a part of Arabia.

The Arabian Peninsula formed as a result of the rifting of the Red Sea between 56 and 23 million years ago, and is bordered by the Red Sea to the west and south-west, the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the north-east, the Levant and Mesopotamia to the north and the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean to the south-east. The peninsula plays a critical geopolitical role in the Arab world and globally due to its vast reserves of oil and natural gas.

The era of human settlement in the Arabian Peninsula predating any systematic written records is known as Prehistoric Arabia. The period of Arabian history beginning with the appearance of systematic records, until the rise of Islam, is known as Pre-Islamic Arabia. In the medieval Islamic period, geographers divided the Peninsula into four main regions: the Central Plateau (Najd and Al-Yamama), South Arabia (Yemen, Hadhramaut and south-western Oman), Al-Bahrain (Eastern Arabia or Al-Hassa), and the Hejaz (Tihamah for the western coast).[8]

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Geography
* 2.1 Political boundaries
* 2.2 Population
* 2.2.1 Cities
* 2.3 Landscape
* 2.3.1 Mountains
* 2.4 Land and sea
* 3 History
* 3.1 Prehistoric Arabia
* 3.2 Pre-Islamic Arabia
* 3.3 Rise of Islam
* 3.4 Middle Ages
* 3.5 Modern history
* 3.5.1 Late Ottoman rule and the Hejaz Railway
* 3.5.2 The Arab Revolt and the foundation of Saudi Arabia
* 3.5.3 Oil reserves
* 3.5.4 North Yemen Civil War
* 3.5.5 Gulf War
* 3.5.6 2014 Yemen civil war
* 4 Gallery
* 5 See also
* 6 Explanatory notes
* 7 References
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

## Etymology

Main article: Etymology of Arab

In antiquity, the term "Arabia" encompassed a larger area than the current term "Arabian Peninsula" and included the Arabian Desert and large parts of the Syrian–Arabian desert. During the Hellenistic period, the area was known as Arabia (Ancient Greek: Ἀραβία). The Romans named three regions "Arabia":

* Arabia Petraea ('Stony Arabia'[9]): it consisted of the former Nabataean Kingdom in the southern Levant, the Sinai Peninsula and north-western Arabian Peninsula. It was the only one that became a province, with Petra (in Jordan) as its capital.
* Arabia Deserta ('Desert Arabia'): signified the desert lands of Arabia. As a name for the region, it remained popular into the 19th and 20th centuries, and was used in Charles M. Doughty's Travels in Arabia Deserta (1888).
* Arabia Felix ('Fortunate Arabia'): was used by geographers to describe the southern part of the Arabian peninsula, mostly what is now Yemen, which enjoys more rainfall, is much greener than the rest of the peninsula and has long enjoyed much more productive fields.

One of the nomes of Ptolemaic Egypt was named Arabia.[10]

Arabians used a north–south division of Arabia: ash-Sham vs. al-Yaman, or Arabia Deserta vs. Arabia Felix. Arabia Felix had originally been used for the whole peninsula, and at other times only for the southern region. Because its use became limited to the south, the whole peninsula was simply called Arabia. Arabia Deserta was the entire desert region extending north from Arabia Felix to Palmyra and the Euphrates, including all the area between Pelusium on the Nile and Babylon. This area was also called Arabia and not sharply distinguished from the peninsula.[11]

The Arabs and the Ottoman Empire considered the west of the Arabian Peninsula region where the Arabs lived 'the land of the Arabs'—billad al-'Arab (Arabia), and its major divisions were the bilad al-Sham (Levant), bilad al-Yaman (Yemen), and bilad al-'Iraq (Iraq).[12] The Ottomans used the term Arabistan in a broad sense for the region starting from Cilicia, where the Euphrates river makes its descent into Syria, through Palestine, and on through the remainder of the Sinai and Arabian peninsulas.[13]

The provinces of Arabia were: al-Tih, the Sinai peninsula, Hejaz, Asir, Yemen, Hadramaut, Mahra and Shilu, Oman, Hasa, Bahrain, Dahna, Nufud, the Hammad, which included the deserts of Syria, Mesopotamia and Babylonia.[14][15]

## Geography

Map of the geographic regions of the Arabian Peninsula

The Arabian Peninsula is located in the continent of Asia and is bounded by (clockwise) the Persian Gulf on the north-east, the Strait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman on the east, the Arabian Sea on the south-east, the Gulf of Aden, and the Guardafui Channel on the south, and the Bab-el-Mandeb strait on the south-west and the Red Sea, which is located on the south-west and west.[1] The northern portion of the peninsula merges with the Syrian Desert with no clear borderline, although the northern boundary of the peninsula is generally considered to be the northern borders of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, also southern regions of Iraq and Jordan.[1]

The most prominent feature of the peninsula is desert, but in the south-west, there are mountain ranges, which receive greater rainfall than the rest of the peninsula. Harrat ash Shaam is a large volcanic field that extends from north-western Arabia into Jordan and southern Syria.[16]

### Political boundaries

The constituent countries of Arabia

The Peninsula's constituent countries are (clockwise from north to south) Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) on the east, Oman on the south-east, Yemen on the south, and Saudi Arabia at the center. The island country of Bahrain lies just off the east coast of the Peninsula.[1] Due to Yemen's jurisdiction over the Socotra Archipelago, the Peninsula's geopolitical outline faces the Guardafui Channel and the Somali Sea to the south.[17]

The six countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE form the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).[18]

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers the greater part of the Peninsula. The Peninsula contains the world's largest reserves of oil. Saudi Arabia and the UAE are economically the wealthiest in the region. Qatar, the only peninsular country in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home to the Arabic television station Al Jazeera and its English-language subsidiary Al Jazeera English. Kuwait, on the border with Iraq, is an important country strategically, forming one of the main staging grounds for coalition forces mounting the United States–led 2003 invasion of Iraq.

### Population

Historical population

Year| Pop.| ±%
1950 | 9,481,713| —
1960 | 11,788,232| +24.3%
1970 | 15,319,678| +30.0%
1980 | 23,286,256| +52.0%
1990 | 35,167,708| +51.0%
2000 | 47,466,523| +35.0%
2010 | 63,364,000| +33.5%
2014 | 77,584,000| +22.4%
2018 | 86,221,765| +11.1%
2023| 93,900,000| +8.9%
Political Definition: Gulf Cooperation Council and Yemen
Sources:1950–2000[19] 2000–2014[20]
Historical population (Gulf 4)

Year| Pop.| ±%
1950 | 356,235| —
1970 | 1,329,168| +273.1%
1990 | 4,896,491| +268.4%
2010 | 11,457,000| +134.0%
2014 | 17,086,000| +49.1%
2018 | 18,675,440| +9.3%
Population of 4 smallest (in area) GCC states with their coastline in the Persian Gulf: UAE, Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait
Sources:1950–2000[21] 2000–2014[20]

Despite its historically sparse population, political Arabia stands out for its rapid population growth, driven by both significant inflows of migrant labor and persistently high birth rates. The population is characterized by its relative youth and a heavily skewed gender ratio favoring males. In several states, the number of South Asians surpasses that of the native population. The four smallest states (by area), with coastlines entirely bordering the Persian Gulf, showcase the world's most extreme population growth, nearly tripling every two decades. In 2014, the estimated population of the Arabian Peninsula was 77,983,936 (including expatriates).[22] The Arabian Peninsula is known for having one of the most uneven adult sex ratios in the world, with females in some regions (especially the east) constituting only a quarter of people aged between 20 and 40.[23]

#### Cities

Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, the most populous city in the Arabian Peninsula

The ten most populous cities on the Arabian Peninsula are:

Rank  | City  | Population

|
|

1 |  Riyadh |  7,009,100
2 |  Jeddah |  3,751,700
3 |  Dubai |  3,488,745
4 |  Sanaa |  3,407,814
5 |  Mecca |  2,427,900
6 |  Sharjah |  1,785,684
7 |  Muscat |  1,650,319
8 |  Abu Dhabi |  1,539,830
9 |  Dammam |  1,545,420
10 |  Medina |  1,477,000
Sources:[24][25][26][27][28][29][24]

### Landscape

A caravan crossing Ad-Dahna Desert in central Saudi Arabia

Ras al-Jinz in southeastern Arabia (Oman), also known as the 'Turtle Beach'

AR-Arabian Plate, velocities with respect to Africa in millimeters per year

The rocks exposed vary systematically across Arabia, with the oldest rocks exposed in the Arabian-Nubian Shield near the Red Sea, overlain by earlier sediments that become younger towards the Persian Gulf. Perhaps the best-preserved ophiolite on Earth, the Semail Ophiolite, lies exposed in the mountains of the UAE and northern Oman.

The peninsula consists of:

1. A central plateau, the Najd, with fertile valleys and pastures used for the grazing of sheep and other livestock
2. A range of deserts: the Nefud in the north,[30] which is stony; the Rub' al Khali or Great Arabian Desert in the south, with sand estimated to extend 600 ft (180 m) below the surface; between them, the Dahna Mountains[31][32][33]
3. Stretches of dry or marshy coastline with coral reefs on the Red Sea side (Tihamah)
4. Oases and marshy coast-land in Eastern Arabia, the most important of which are those of the Al Ain emirate (Tawam region) and Hofuf/Al-Ahsa (in modern-day Saudi Arabia), according to an author[33]
5. The south-west monsoon coastline of Dhofar and Eastern Yemen (Mahra).

Rub' al Khali is part of the larger Arabian Desert

Arabia has few lakes or permanent rivers. Most areas are drained by ephemeral watercourses called wadis, which are dry except during the rainy season. Plentiful ancient aquifers exist beneath much of the peninsula, however, and where this water surfaces, oases form (e.g. Al-Hasa and Qatif, two of the world's largest oases) and permit agriculture, especially palm trees, which allowed the peninsula to produce more dates than any other region in the world. In general, the climate is extremely hot and arid, although there are exceptions. Higher elevations are made temperate by their altitude, and the Arabian Sea coastline can receive cool, humid breezes in summer due to cold upwelling offshore. The peninsula has no thick forests. Desert-adapted wildlife is present throughout the region.

A plateau more than 2,500 feet (760 m) high extends across much of the Arabian Peninsula. The plateau slopes eastwards from the massive, rifted escarpment along the coast of the Red Sea, to the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf. The interior is characterized by cuestas and valleys, drained by a system of wadis. A crescent of sand and gravel deserts lies to the east.

#### Mountains

The Haraz Mountains in the west of present-day Yemen include Arabia's highest mountain, Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb or Jabal Hadhur[34][35][36] near Sanaa.[31][32]

There are mountains at the eastern, southern and north-western borders of the peninsula. Broadly, the ranges can be grouped as follows:

* North-east: The Hajar range, of UAE and Oman[33]
* South-east: The Dhofar Mountains of southern Oman,[33] contiguous with the eastern Yemeni Hadhramaut[37][38]
* West: Bordering the eastern coast of the Red Sea are the Sarawat,[31] which can be seen to include the Haraz Mountains to the east of Yemen,[32] as well as those of 'Asir (once part of Yemen) [39] and Hejaz[40][41] the latter including the Midian in what is now north-western Saudi Arabia[37]
* North-west: Aside from the Sarawat, the northern portion of Saudi Arabia hosts the Jabal Shamar Mountains, which include the Aja and Salma subranges[33]
* Central: The Najd hosts the Tuwaiq Escarpment[37] or Tuwair range[33]

From the Hijaz southwards, the mountains show a steady increase in altitude westward as they get nearer to Yemen, and the highest peaks and ranges are all located in Yemen. The highest, Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb or Jabal Hadhur[34][35][36] of the Haraz subrange of the Sarawat range, is 3,666 metres (12,028 ft) high.[31][32] By comparison, the Tuwayr, Shammar and Dhofar generally do not exceed 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in height.[33]

Not all mountains in the peninsula are visibly within ranges. Jebel Hafeet in particular, on the border of the UAE and Oman, measuring between 1,100 and 1,300 m (3,600 and 4,300 ft),[42][43] is not within the Hajar range, but may be considered an outlier of that range.

* Dhofar

* At-Tawilah, Al Mahwit, Yemen

* A subrange of the Jabal Shammar mountains in the desert region of Ha'il, Saudi Arabia

### Land and sea

Coconut palms line corniches of Al-Hafa, Oman.

Red Sea coral reefs

Al-Shaggain rock formation in Burum, a tentative World Heritage Site in Yemen

Most of the Arabian Peninsula is unsuited to agriculture, making irrigation and land reclamation projects essential. The narrow coastal plain and isolated oases, amounting to less than 1% of the land area, are used to cultivate grains, coffee and tropical fruits. Goat, sheep, and camel husbandry is widespread elsewhere throughout the rest of the Peninsula. Some areas have a summer humid tropical monsoon climate, in particular the Dhofar and Al Mahrah areas of Oman and Yemen. These areas allow for large scale coconut plantations. Much of Yemen has a tropical monsoon rain influenced mountain climate. The plains usually have either a tropical or subtropical arid desert climate or arid steppe climate. The sea surrounding the Arabian Peninsula is generally tropical with a very rich sea life and some of the world's largest and most pristine coral reefs. In addition, the protozoa and zooxanthellae living in symbiosis with Red Sea corals have a unique hot weather adaptation to sudden rise (and fall) in sea water temperature. Hence, these coral reefs are not affected by coral bleaching caused by rise in temperatures, as Indo-Pacific coral reefs are. The reefs are also unaffected by mass tourism and diving or other large scale human interference. The Persian gulf has suffered significant loss and degradation of coral reefs with the biggest ongoing threat believed to be coastal construction activity altering the marine environment.[44]

The fertile soils of Yemen have encouraged settlement of almost all of the land from sea level up to the mountains at 10,000 feet (3,000 m). In the higher elevations, elaborate terraces have been constructed to facilitate grain, fruit, coffee, ginger and khat cultivation. The Arabian peninsula is known for its rich oil, i.e. petroleum production due to its geographical location.[45]

According to NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite data (2003–2013) analysed in a University of California, Irvine (UCI)-led study published in Water Resources Research on 16 June 2015, the most over-stressed aquifer system in the world is the Arabian Aquifer System, upon which more than 60 million people depend for water.[46] Twenty-one of the 37 largest aquifers "have exceeded sustainability tipping points and are being depleted" and thirteen of them are "considered significantly distressed".[46]

## History

### Prehistoric Arabia

Prehistoric Arabia is the period of the Arabian Peninsula before any written records are known, going back to when humans first began to settle in the region, until around 1000 BC, when systematic written documentation begins to appear in the archaeological record.[47] Stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era along with fossils of other animals discovered at Ti's al Ghadah, in north-western Saudi Arabia, might imply that hominins migrated through a "Green Arabia" between 300,000 and 500,000 years ago.[48] Two-hundred-thousand-year-old stone tools were discovered at Shuaib Al-Adgham in the eastern Al-Qassim Province, which would indicate that many prehistoric sites, located along a network of rivers, had once existed in the area.[49] Acheulean tools found in Sadaqah, Riyadh Region reveal that hominids lived in the Arabian Peninsula around 188,000 years ago.[50] Human habitation in Arabia may have occurred as early as 130,000 years ago.[51] A fossilized Homo sapiens finger bone found at Al Wusta in the Nefud Desert dates to approximately 90,000 years ago and is the oldest human fossil discovered outside of Africa and the Levant. This indicates human migrations from Africa to Arabia occurred around this time.[52] The Arabian Peninsula may have been the homeland of a 'Basal Eurasian' population, which diverged from other Eurasians soon after the Out-of-Africa migration, and subsequently became isolated, until it started to mix with other populations in the Middle East around 25,000 years ago. These different Middle Eastern populations would later spread Basal Eurasian ancestry via the Neolithic Revolution to all of Western Eurasia.[53]

### Pre-Islamic Arabia

Pre-Islamic Arabia in 1000 BC A map published by the British academic Harold Dixon during World War I, showing the locations of Arab tribes in West Asia, 1914

Archaeology has revealed the existence of many civilizations in pre-Islamic Arabia (such as the Thamud), especially in South Arabia.[54][55] South Arabian civilizations include the Kingdom of Saba, Awsan, Ma'in, and Himyar. From 106 AD to 630 AD north-western Arabia was under the control of the Roman Empire, which renamed it Arabia Petraea.[56] Central Arabia was the location of the Kingdom of Kinda in the 4th, 5th and early 6th centuries, as well as the Ma'add tribes. Eastern Arabia was home to the Dilmun civilization. The earliest known events in Arabian history are migrations from the peninsula into neighbouring areas.[57]

The Arabian Peninsula has long been accepted as the original Urheimat of the Semitic languages by most scholars.[58][59][60][61]

### Rise of Islam

The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)

The seventh century saw the rise of Islam as the peninsula's dominant religion. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 and first began preaching in the city in 610, but migrated to Medina in 622. From there he and his companions united the tribes of Arabia under the banner of Islam and created the first Islamic state—a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the Arabian Peninsula.

Under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates, rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula formed a vast Muslim Arab Empire with an area of influence that stretched from the north-west Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees.

With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[62]

The Middle East, c. 1190. Saladin's empire and its vassals shown in red

On his death in 634, he was succeeded by Umar as caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. The period of these first four caliphs is known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn: the Rashidun or "rightly guided" Caliphate. Under the Rashidun Caliphs, and, from 661, their Umayyad successors, the Arabs rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim control outside of Arabia. In a matter of decades Muslim armies decisively defeated the Byzantine army and destroyed the Persian Empire, conquering huge swathes of territory from the Iberian peninsula to India. The political focus of the Muslim world then shifted to the newly conquered territories.[63][64]

Nevertheless, Mecca and Medina remained the spiritually most important places in the Muslim world. The Qur'an requires every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it, as one of the five pillars of Islam, to make a pilgrimage, or Hajj, to Mecca during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah at least once in his or her lifetime.[65] The Masjid al-Haram (the Grand Mosque) in Mecca is the location of the Kaaba, Islam's holiest site, and the Masjid al-Nabawi (the Prophet's Mosque) in Medina is the location of Muhammad's grave; as a result, from the 7th century, Mecca and Medina became the pilgrimage destinations for large numbers of Muslims from across the Islamic world.[66]

### Middle Ages

Portuguese colonies in Arabia

Despite its spiritual importance, in political terms Arabia soon became a peripheral region of the Islamic world, in which the most important medieval Islamic states were based at various times in such far away cities as Damascus, Baghdad, and Cairo. However, from the 10th century (and, in fact, until the 20th century) the Hashemite Sharifs of Mecca maintained a state in the most developed part of the region, the Hejaz. Their domain originally comprised only the holy cities of Mecca and Medina but in the 13th century it was extended to include the rest of the Hejaz. Although, the Sharifs exercised at most times independent authority in the Hejaz, they were usually subject to the suzerainty of one of the major Islamic empires of the time. In the Middle Ages, these included the Abbasids of Baghdad, and the Fatimids, Ayyubids, and Mamluks of Egypt.[67]

### Modern history

Expansion of the first Saudi State from 1744 to 1814 The Arabian Peninsula in 1914 Territorial evolution of the Third Saudi State (1902–1934)

The provincial Ottoman Army for Arabia (Arabistan Ordusu) was headquartered in Syria, which included Palestine, the Transjordan region in addition to Lebanon (Mount Lebanon was, however, a semi-autonomous mutasarrifate). It was put in charge of Syria, Cilicia, Iraq, and the remainder of the Arabian Peninsula.[68][69] The Ottomans never had any control over central Arabia, also known as the Najd region. The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began in Najd in central Arabia in 1744, when Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.[70] The Emirate of Diriyah established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, sacking Karbala in 1802, and capturing Mecca in 1803.[71]

The Damascus Protocol of 1914 provides an illustration of the regional relationships. Arabs living in one of the existing districts of the Arabian peninsula, the Emirate of Hejaz, asked for a British guarantee of independence. Their proposal included all Arab lands south of a line roughly corresponding to the northern frontiers of present-day Syria and Iraq. They envisioned a new Arab state, or confederation of states, adjoining the southern Arabian Peninsula. It would have comprised Cilicia—İskenderun and Mersin, Iraq with Kuwait, Syria, Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, Jordan, and Palestine.[72]

In the modern era, the term bilad al-Yaman came to refer specifically to the south-western parts of the peninsula. Arab geographers started to refer to the whole peninsula as 'jazirat al-Arab', or the peninsula of the Arabs.[12]

#### Late Ottoman rule and the Hejaz Railway

The railway was started in 1900 at the behest of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II and was built largely by the Turks, with German advice and support. A public subscription was opened throughout the Islamic world to fund the construction. The railway was to be a waqf, an inalienable religious endowment or charitable trust.[73]

#### The Arab Revolt and the foundation of Saudi Arabia

Physical and political elements of Arabia in 1929 Abdulaziz Ibn Saud, the founding father and first king of Saudi Arabia

The Arabian Peninsula in 1923

#### Oil reserves

The second major development has been the discovery of vast reserves of oil in the 1930s. Its production brought great wealth to all countries of the region, with the exception of Yemen.

#### North Yemen Civil War

The North Yemen Civil War was fought in North Yemen between royalists of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen and factions of the Yemen Arab Republic from 1962 to 1970. The war began with a coup d'état carried out by the republican leader, Abdullah as-Sallal, which dethroned the newly crowned Muhammad al-Badr and declared Yemen a republic under his presidency. The Imam escaped to the Saudi Arabian border and rallied popular support.

The royalist side received support from Saudi Arabia, while the republicans were supported by Egypt and the Soviet Union. Both foreign irregular and conventional forces were also involved. The Egyptian President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, supported the republicans with as many as 70,000 troops. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. Egypt's commitment to the war is considered to have been detrimental to its performance in the Six-Day War of June 1967, after which Nasser found it increasingly difficult to maintain his army's involvement and began to pull his forces out of Yemen.

By 1970, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia recognized the republic and a truce was signed. Egyptian military historians refer to Egypt's role in the war in Yemen as analogous to the United States' role in the Vietnam War.[74]

#### Gulf War

In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait.[75] The invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi forces led to the 1990–91 Gulf War. Egypt, Qatar, Syria, and Saudi Arabia joined a multinational coalition that opposed Iraq. Displays of support for Iraq by Jordan and Palestine resulted in strained relations between many of the Arab states. After the war, a so-called "Damascus Declaration" formalized an alliance for future joint Arab defensive actions between Egypt, Syria, and the GCC member states.[76]

#### 2014 Yemen civil war

The Arab Spring reached Yemen in January 2011.[77] People of Yemen took to the street demonstrating against three decades of rule by President Ali Abdullah Saleh.[78] The demonstration led to cracks in the ruling General People's Congress (GPC) and Saleh's Sanhani clan.[79] Saleh used tactics of concession and violence to save his presidency.[80] After numerous attempts, Saleh accepted the Gulf Cooperation Council's mediation. He eventually handed power to Vice President Hadi, who was sworn in as President of Yemen on 25 February 2012. Hadi launched a national dialogue to address new constitutional, political and social issues. The Houthi movement, dissatisfied with the outcomes of the national dialogue, launched an offensive and stormed the Yemeni capital Sanaa on 21 September 2014.[81] In response, Saudi Arabia launched a military intervention in Yemen in March 2015.[82] The civil war and subsequent military intervention and blockade caused a famine in Yemen.[83]

## Gallery

* The Old City of Sanaa

* Ain Zubaydah was built to water the pilgrims in Mecca, Saudi Arabia by order of Zubaidah bint Ja'far.

* Omar Mosque in Dumat al-Jandal, Saudi Arabia

* The facade of a tomb with its details and architectural elements in Hegra, Saudi Arabia

* Qasr al Farid, tomb in Archeological site Mada'in Saleh, Al-`Ula, Saudi Arabia

* Diriyah the capital of the first Saudi state

* Dam of Ma'rib

* Himyarite King Dhamar'ali Yahbur II

* Arad Fort in Bahrain

* Nizwa Fort in Oman

* The ruins of Umayyad city in the historic Jumeirah district of Dubai

* Bull's head, made of copper in the early period of Dilmun (ca. 2000 BC), Bahrain

* The head and body of a Saluki is made of stone from the Al-Magar civilization, in the Neolithic period (about 8000 BC)

* Midian

## See also

* Achaemenid Arabia
* Ancient history of Yemen
* Arabian Gulf Cup
* Arab League
* Arab world
* Eastern Arabia
* European exploration of Arabia
* Gulf Cooperation Council
* Iram of the Pillars
* Kingdom of Aksum
* List of Arabian cities by population
* Mashriq
* Musandam Peninsula

## Explanatory notes

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 As an island country, Bahrain is technically not a part of the Arabian Peninsula, but a part of the slightly larger geopolitical region called Arabia.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Southern region only

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Nijim, Basheer K.. "Arabia". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Arabia-peninsula-Asia. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
2. ↑ Niz, Ellen Sturm (2006-04-10). Peninsulas. Capstone. p. 19. ISBN 9780736861427. https://archive.org/details/peninsulas0000nize.
3. ↑ McColl, R. W. (2014-05-14). Encyclopedia of World Geography. Infobase. ISBN 9780816072293. https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA710. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
4. ↑ Condra, Jill (2013-04-09). Encyclopedia of National Dress: Traditional Clothing Around the World [2 Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313376375. https://books.google.com/books?id=lazWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA62. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
5. ↑ Dodge, Christine Huda (2003-04-01). The Everything Understanding Islam Book: A Complete and Easy to Read Guide to Muslim Beliefs, Practices, Traditions, and Culture. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781605505459. https://books.google.com/books?id=j47rDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT62. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
6. ↑ "15 Largest Peninsulas in the World". WorldAtlas. http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/15-largest-peninsulas-in-the-world.html.
7. ↑ Cohen, Saul Bernard (2003). Geopolitics of the World System. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 337. ISBN 9780847699070. https://books.google.com/books?id=QkMD8HKRlgoC&pg=PA337. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
8. ↑ Ibn al-Faqih (c. 903) (in ar). Mukhtasar Kitab al-Buldan. https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/mukhtasar-kitab-al-buldan/الفرق-بين-تهامة-والحجاز-COM_ARA_000011. Retrieved 20 April 2021.
9. ↑ "Arabia Petraea". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Arabia-Petraea. Retrieved 18 February 2021.
10. ↑ De Jong, Janneke (2017). Arabia, Arabs, and "Arabic" in Greek Documents From Egypt in "New Frontiers of Arabic Papyrology Arabic and Multilingual Texts from Early Islam". Brill. ISBN 9789004345171.
11. ↑ Frankfurter, David (1998). Pilgrimage and Holy Space in Late Antique Egypt. Leiden: Brill. p. 163. ISBN 90-04-11127-1.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Salibi, Kamal Suleiman (1988). A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. University of California Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-0-520-07196-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=4vOJ15vTZV4C&pg=PA60. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
13. ↑ See for example Palestine: The Reality, Joseph Mary Nagle Jeffries, Published by Longmans, Green and co., 1939, Page 11
14. ↑ see Review of Reviews and World's Work: An International Magazine, Albert Shaw ed., The Review of Reviews Corporation, 1919, page 408]
15. ↑ New International Encyclopedia (2nd ed.). 1914. https://books.google.com/books?id=GRUoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA795. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
16. ↑ Weinstein, Y. (1 January 2007). "A transition from strombolian to phreatomagmatic activity induced by a lava flow damming water in a valley". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 159 (1–3): 267–284. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.06.015. Bibcode: 2007JVGR..159..267W.
17. ↑ McLaughlin, Rob (2015). "The Continuing Conundrum of the Somali Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone". The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 30.2. 305–334.
18. ↑ A.S. Alsharhan, Z. A. Rizk, A. E. M. Nairn [et al.], 2001, Waterology of an Arid Region, Elsevier.
19. ↑ "International Programs". census.gov. https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/region.php?N= Results &T=6&A=separate&RT=0&Y=1950,1960,1970,1980,1990,2000,2010&R=-1&C=BA,KU,MU,QA,SA,AE,YM.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "Asia: Population Statistics in Maps and Charts for Cities, Agglomerations and Administrative Divisions of all Countries in Asia". citypopulation.de. http://www.citypopulation.de/Asia.html.
21. ↑ "International Programs". census.gov. https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/region.php?N= Results &T=6&A=both&RT=0&Y=1950,1960,1970,1980,1990,2000,2010&R=-1&C=BA,KU,QA,AE.
22. ↑ "The World Fact book". Central Intelligence Agency. 2007-08-07. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.
23. ↑ Alrouh, Hekmat, Awatef Ismail, and Sohaila Cheema. "Demographic and health indicators in Gulf Cooperation Council nations with an emphasis on Qatar." Journal of Local and Global Health Perspectives (2013): p 4
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "GASTAT Portal". https://portal.saudicensus.sa/portal/public/1/15/45?type=DASHBOARD.
25. ↑ "Dubai Population". 18 March 2022. https://www.globalmediainsight.com/blog/uae-population-statistics/.
26. ↑ "Sanaa Population 2024". https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/sanaa-population.
27. ↑ "Sharjah Population 2022 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs)". https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/sharjah-population.
28. ↑ Fulmer, Shane. "Muscat Population 2023" (in English). United States. https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/muscat-population.
29. ↑ "Abu Dhabi Population 2022 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs)". https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/abu-dhabi-population.
30. ↑ Prothero, G.W. (1920). Arabia. London: H.M. Stationery Office. p. 15. http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11767/view/1/15/. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Robert D. Burrowes (2010). Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 5–340. ISBN 978-0-8108-5528-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=tjXRfqBv_0UC. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 McLaughlin, Daniel (2008). "1: Background". Yemen. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-8416-2212-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=eQvhZaEVzjcC. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 33.6 Cavendish, Marshall (2007). "Geography and climate". World and Its Peoples. 1. Cavendish Square Publishing. pp. 8–19. ISBN 978-0-7614-7571-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=j894miuOqc4C&pg=PA8.
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 زبارة, محمد بن محمد بن يحيى اليمني/الصنعاني (1998-01-01) (in ar). نيل الوطر من تراجم رجال اليمن في القرن الثالث عشر 1–2 ج1. Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah (دار الكتب العلمية). ISBN 978-2-7451-2623-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=L4dyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT359. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Gazetteer of Arabia. II [1044] (81/688). Qatar Digital Library. 1917. https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023727632.0x000052. Retrieved 2020-04-17.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 "Jabal an-Nabī Shu'ayb, Bani Matar, Sanaa, Yemen". Mindat.org. https://www.mindat.org/feature-72377.html.
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Scoville, Sheila A. (2006). Gazetteer of Arabia: a geographical and tribal history of the Arabian Peninsula. 2. Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt. pp. 117–288. ISBN 978-0-7614-7571-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=AH8YAQAAMAAJ&q=hadhramaut+mountains. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
38. ↑ Ghazanfar, Shahina A.; Fisher, Martin (2013-04-17). "1–2". Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula. Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat: Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 27–55. ISBN 978-9-4017-3637-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=uc_tCAAAQBAJ&q=hadhramaut+highlands&pg=PA52. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
39. ↑ Overstreet, William Courtney (1977). Tertiary laterite of the As Sarat Mountains, Asir Province, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 2. Directorate General of Mineral Resources. pp. iii–2. https://books.google.com/books?id=KmxPAQAAIAAJ&q=sarat+mountains. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
40. ↑ Mandal, Ram Bahadur (1990). "VI: A Regional Geography". Patterns of Regional Geography: World regions. New Delhi, India: Concept Publishing Company. p. 354. ISBN 978-8-1702-2292-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=XWwCHWwgKt0C&q=sarawat+mountains&pg=PA354. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
41. ↑ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2013). "1: The Holiest Cities of Islam". Mecca the Blessed, Medina the Radiant: The Holiest Cities of Islam. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4629-1365-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=4RvQAgAAQBAJ&q=sarat+mountains. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
42. ↑ Gardner, Andrew Somerville (January 2004). "The reptiles of Jebel Hafeet". ADCO and Emirates Natural History Group. pp. 149–168. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235918847.
43. ↑ "Reclamation potentials of saline degraded lands in Abu Dhabi eastern region using high salinity-tolerant woody plants and some salt marsh species". Towards the rational use of high salinity tolerant plants: Vol 2: Agriculture and forestry under marginal soil water conditions. 2: Agriculture and forestry under marginal soil water conditions. Springer Science+Business Media. 2012-12-06. pp. 271–274. ISBN 978-9-4011-1860-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-fqCAAAQBAJ&q=hafit. Retrieved 13 January 2019.
44. ↑ Riegl, Bernhard; Purkis, Samuel (2011). "Persian/Arabian Gulf Coral Reefs". in Hopley, D. Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs. Springer. pp. 790–798. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2639-2_123. ISBN 978-90-481-2639-2.
45. ↑ Sorkhabi, Rasoul (June 2008). "The Emergence of the Arabian Oil Industry". https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2008/06/the-emergence-of-the-arabian-oil-industry.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "Study: Third of Big Groundwater Basins in Distress", NASA, 16 June 2015, http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=4626, retrieved 26 June 2015
47. ↑ "History and Archaeology of Ancient Arabia". https://madainproject.com/arabia.
48. ↑ Roberts, Patrick; Stewart, Mathew; Alagaili, Abdulaziz N.; Breeze, Paul; Candy, Ian; Drake, Nick; Groucutt, Huw S.; Scerri, Eleanor M. L. et al. (29 October 2018). "Fossil herbivore stable isotopes reveal middle Pleistocene hominin palaeoenvironment in 'Green Arabia'". Nature Ecology & Evolution (Nature) 2 (12): 1871–1878. doi:10.1038/s41559-018-0698-9. PMID 30374171. Bibcode: 2018NatEE...2.1871R. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0698-9.epdf. Retrieved 1 November 2018.
49. ↑ "Saudi Arabia's Qassim stone axe find points to prehistoric 'crossroads'". 2 January 2021. https://www.arabnews.com/node/1785951/saudi-arabia.
50. ↑ Scerri, Eleanor M. L.; Shipton, Ceri; Clark-Balzan, Laine; Frouin, Marine; Schwenninger, Jean-Luc; Groucutt, Huw S.; Breeze, Paul S.; Parton, Ash et al. (29 November 2018). "The expansion of later Acheulean hominins into the Arabian Peninsula". Scientific Reports 8 (1): 17165. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-35242-5. PMID 30498259. Bibcode: 2018NatSR...817165S.
51. ↑ Uerpmann, Hans-Peter; Usik, Vitaly I.; Parker, Adrian G.; Marks, Anthony E.; Jasim, Sabah A.; Armitage, Simon J. (2011-01-28). "The Southern Route "Out of Africa": Evidence for an Early Expansion of Modern Humans into Arabia" (in en). Science 331 (6016): 453–456. doi:10.1126/science.1199113. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 21273486. Bibcode: 2011Sci...331..453A.
52. ↑ "First human migration out of Africa more geographically widespread than previously thought". Eurek Alert. 9 April 2018. https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-04/mpif-fhm040418.php.
53. ↑ Vallini, Leonardo; Zampieri, Carlo; Shoaee, Mohamed Javad; Bortolini, Eugenio; Marciani, Giulia; Aneli, Serena; Pievani, Telmo; Benazzi, Stefano et al. (2024-03-25). "The Persian plateau served as hub for Homo sapiens after the main out of Africa dispersal" (in en). Nature Communications 15 (1): 1882. doi:10.1038/s41467-024-46161-7. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 38528002. Bibcode: 2024NatCo..15.1882V.
54. ↑ Robert D. Burrowes (2010). Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 319. ISBN 978-0810855281.
55. ↑ Kenneth Anderson Kitchen (2003). On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 116. ISBN 978-0802849601. https://archive.org/details/onreliabilityold00kitc.
56. ↑ Taylor, Jane (2005). Petra. London: Aurum Press Ltd. pp. 25–31. ISBN 9957-451-04-9.
57. ↑ Philip Khuri Hitti (2002), History of the Arabs, Revised: 10th Edition
58. ↑ Gray, Louis Herbert (2006) Introduction to Semitic Comparative Linguistics
59. ↑ Courtenay, James John (2009) The Language of Palestine and Adjacent Regions
60. ↑ Kienast, Burkhart. (2001). Historische semitische Sprachwissenschaft.
61. ↑ Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995) The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
62. ↑ See:
* Holt (1977a), p.57
* Hourani (2003), p.22
* Lapidus (2002), p.32
* Madelung (1996), p.43
* Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50
63. ↑ See: Holt (1977a), p.57, Hourani (2003), p.22, Lapidus (2002), p.32, Madelung (1996), p.43, Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50
64. ↑ Gardet, L.; Jomier, J.. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
65. ↑ Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.), pp.145–147 ISBN 978-0-8120-1853-0
66. ↑ Goldschmidt, Arthur Jr.; Lawrence Davidson (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.), p.48 ISBN 978-0-8133-4275-7
67. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica Online: History of Arabia retrieved 18 January 2011
68. ↑ see History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Stanford J. Shaw, Ezel Kural Shaw, Cambridge University Press, 1977, ISBN 0-521-29166-6, page 85
69. ↑ The Politics of Interventionism in Ottoman Lebanon, 1830–1861, by Caesar E. Farah , explains that Mount Lebanon was in the jurisdiction of the Arabistan Army, and that its headquarters was briefly moved to Beirut.
70. ↑ Harris, Ian; Mews, Stuart; Morris, Paul; Shepherd, John (1992). Contemporary Religions: A World Guide. Longman. p. 369. ISBN 978-0-582-08695-1.
71. ↑ "The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam ". Library of Congress Country Studies.
72. ↑ As cited by R, John and S. Hadawi's, Palestine Diary, pp. 30–31, the 'Damascus Protocol' stated: "The recognition by Great Britain of the independence of the Arab countries lying within the following frontiers: North: The Line Mersin_Adana to parallel 37N. and thence along the line Birejek-Urga-Mardin-Kidiat-Jazirat (Ibn 'Unear)-Amadia to the Persian frontier; East: The Persian frontier down to the Persian Gulf; South: The Indian Ocean (with the exclusion of Aden, whose status was to be maintained). West: The Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea back to Mersin. The abolition of all exceptional privileges granted to foreigners under the capitulations. The conclusion of a defensive alliance between Great Britain and the future independent Arab State. The grant of economic preference to Great Britain." see King Husain and the Kingdom of Hejaz , By Randall Baker, Oleander Press, 1979, ISBN 0-900891-48-3, pages 64–65
73. ↑ King Hussein and the Kingdom of Hejaz, Randall Baker, Oleander Press 1979, ISBN 0-900891-48-3, page 18
74. ↑ Aboul-Enein, Youssef (2004-01-01). "The Egyptian-Yemen War: Egyptian perspectives on Guerrilla warfare". Infantry Magazine (Jan–Feb, 2004). http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0IAV/is_1_93/ai_n6123802.
75. ↑ see Richard Schofield, Kuwait and Iraq: Historical Claims and Territorial. Disputes, London: Royal Institute of International Affairs 1991, ISBN 0-905031-35-0 and The Kuwait Crisis: Basic Documents, By E. Lauterpacht, C. J. Greenwood, Marc Weller, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1991, ISBN 0-521-46308-4
76. ↑ Egypt's Bid for Arab Leadership: Implications for U.S. Policy, By Gregory L. Aftandilian, Published by Council on Foreign Relations, 1993, ISBN 0-87609-146-X, pages 6–8
77. ↑ BBC World News, Arab Uprising:Country by Country -Yemen
78. ↑ Cornell University Library. Arab Spring:A Research & Study Guide:Yemen guides. library.cornell.edu. Last Updated: May 9, 2019
79. ↑ Britannica.com. "Yemen Uprising of 2011–12". Written By:The editors of Encyclopedia Britannica.
80. ↑ University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-champaign. guides.library.edu. Arab Spring Workshop:Yemen
81. ↑ Kasinof, Laura (2015). "How the Houthis Did It". https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/01/23/how-the-houthis-did-it-yemen-hadi-arab-spring/.
82. ↑ Wintour, Patrick (3 September 2019). "UK, US and France may be complicit in Yemen war crimes – UN report". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/03/uk-us-and-france-may-be-complicit-in-yemen-war-crimes-un-report.
83. ↑ Kristof, Nicholas (31 August 2017). "The Photos the U.S. and Saudi Arabia Don't Want You to See". https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/08/31/opinion/columnists/yemen-famine-cholera.html.

## Further reading

* Travels in Arabia (1892)
* High resolution scan of old map of Arabia..
* The Coast of Arabia the Red Sea, and Persian Sea of Bassora Past the Straits of Hormuz to India, Gujarat and Cape Comorin from the World Digital Library, depicts a map from 1707.
* Arabia: Cultural-Historical Zones
* Old maps of Arabia, Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel

## External links

| Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

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| Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Arabian Peninsula.

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* Karakoram
* Saltoro Mountains
* Siachen Glacier
* Bengal
* Bay of Bengal
* Gulf of Khambhat
* Gulf of Kutch
* Halar
* Gulf of Mannar
* Trans-Karakoram Tract
* Wakhan Corridor
* Wakhjir Pass
* Lakshadweep
* Laccadive Islands
* Amindivi Islands
* Paropamisadae
* Andaman and Nicobar Islands
* Andaman Islands
* Nicobar Islands
* Maldive Islands
* Alpide belt
* Asia-Pacific
* Tropical Asia

Southeast|

* Orient
* Sundaland
* Mainland
* Indochina
* Malay Peninsula
* Northern Triangle temperate forests
* Maritime
* Peninsular Malaysia
* Sunda Islands
* Greater Sunda Islands
* Lesser Sunda Islands
* Indonesian Archipelago
* Wallacea
* Timor
* Philippine Archipelago
* Luzon
* Visayas
* Mindanao
* Leyte Gulf
* Gulf of Thailand
* East Indies
* Nanyang
* Alpide belt
* Far East
* Ring of Fire
* Asia-Pacific
* Tropical Asia

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Europe

North|

* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Nordic
* Northwestern
* Scandinavia
* Scandinavian Peninsula
* Fennoscandia
* Baltoscandia
* Jutland
* Gotland
* Sápmi
* Ingria
* West Nordic
* Baltic
* Baltic Sea
* Gulf of Bothnia
* Gulf of Finland
* Iceland
* Faroe Islands
* British Isles

East|

* Danubian countries
* Prussia
* Galicia
* Volhynia
* Wallachia
* Transylvania
* Moldavia
* Bukovina
* Bessarabia
* Livonia
* Ruthenia
* Carpathian Ruthenia
* Donbass
* Sloboda Ukraine
* Sambia Peninsula
* Amber Coast
* Curonian Spit
* Izyum Trail
* Lithuania Minor
* Nemunas Delta
* Baltic
* Baltic Sea
* Vyborg Bay
* Karelia
* East Karelia
* Karelian Isthmus
* Lokhaniemi
* Southeastern
* Crimea
* Epirus
* Rumelia
* Balkans
* Aegean Sea
* Aegean Islands
* Attica
* Boeotia
* Opuntian Locris
* Phocis
* Megaris
* Peloponnese
* Chalkidiki
* Aetolia
* Gulf of Chania
* North Caucasus
* Greater Caucasus
* Kabardia
* Istria
* European Russia
* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Taman Peninsula
* Southern Russia
* Kola Peninsula

Central|

* North European Plain
* Baltic
* Baltic Sea
* Alpine states
* Alpide belt
* Visegrád Group
* Rhineland
* Eastphalia
* Westphalia
* Prussia
* Lusatia
* Bohemia
* Moravia
* Silesia
* Czech Silesia
* Pomerania
* Pomerelia
* Kashubia
* Bukovina
* Istria
* Transdanubia
* Polesia
* Germania
* Germania Slavica

West|

* Benelux
* Low Countries
* Northwest
* British Isles
* English Channel
* Channel Islands
* Cotentin Peninsula
* Doggerland
* Upper Rhine Plain
* Upper Rhine
* Gaul
* Gascony
* Normandy
* Brittany
* Septimania
* Batavia
* Gulf of Lion
* Iberia
* Al-Andalus
* Baetic System
* Pyrenees
* Alpide belt

South|

* Po Valley (Padania)
* Italian Peninsula
* Tuscan Archipelago
* Insular Italy
* Aegadian Islands
* Occitania
* Iberia
* Al-Andalus
* Baetic System
* Gibraltar Arc
* Southeastern
* Mediterranean
* Alpide belt

* Germanic
* Romance
* Celtic
* Slavic countries
* European Plain
* Eurasian Steppe
* Pontic–Caspian steppe
* Wild Fields
* Pannonian Basin
* Great Hungarian Plain
* Little Hungarian Plain
* Eastern Slovak Lowland

* v
* t
* e

Regions of North America

North
(Canada)|

| Eastern|

* Central Canada
* Atlantic Canada
* Atlantic Northeast
* The Maritimes
* Great Lakes region

|

Western|

* Pacific Northwest
* Prairie Pothole Region

Northern|

* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Canadian Arctic Archipelago
* Greenland

* Canadian Prairies
* The Maritimes
* French Canada
* English Canada
* Acadia
* Acadian Peninsula
* Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
* Peace River Country
* Cypress Hills
* Palliser's Triangle
* Canadian Shield
* Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
* Kodiak Island
* Newfoundland (island)
* Vancouver Island
* Gulf Islands
* Strait of Georgia
* Labrador Peninsula
* Gaspé Peninsula
* Avalon Peninsula
* Bay de Verde Peninsula
* Brodeur Peninsula
* Melville Peninsula
* Bruce Peninsula
* Banks Peninsula (Nunavut)
* Cook Peninsula
* Gulf of Boothia
* Georgian Bay
* Hudson Bay
* James Bay

North
(United States)|

| Arctic|

* Aleutian Arc
* Aleutian Range
* Alaska Peninsula
* Aleutian Islands
* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Bering Strait
* Gulf of Alaska

|

Eastern|

* East Coast
* Northeast
* Atlantic Northeast
* The Maritimes
* New England
* Mid-Atlantic
* Commonwealth
* Southeast

Western|

* West Coast
* Mountain states
* Intermountain West
* Great Basin
* Basin and Range Province
* Northwestern United States
* Inland Northwest
* Pacific Northwest
* Southwest
* Old Southwest
* Four Corners

Central|

* Great Lakes
* Tallgrass prairie
* Midwest
* Upper Midwest
* South Central
* Gulf Coast

Southern|

* Deep South
* Old South
* Upland South
* Santa Fe de Nuevo México

* Pacific Coast Ranges
* Oregon Trail
* Mormon Corridor
* Calumet Region
* Llano Estacado
* Third Coast
* Backcountry
* Trans-Mississippi
* Great North Woods
* Great Plains
* Interior Plains
* Great Basin
* Great Basin Desert
* Acadia
* Ozarks
* Ark-La-Tex
* Waxhaws
* Siouxland
* Twin Tiers
* Driftless Area
* Palouse
* Piedmont
* Atlantic coastal plain
* Outer Lands
* Black Dirt Region
* Blackstone Valley
* Piney Woods
* Rocky Mountains
* Mojave Desert
* The Dakotas
* The Carolinas
* Shawnee Hills
* San Fernando Valley
* Tornado Alley
* North Coast
* Lost Coast
* Emerald Triangle
* San Francisco Bay Area
* San Francisco Bay
* North Bay
* East Bay
* Silicon Valley
* Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
* Gulf of Mexico
* Lower Colorado River Valley
* Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
* Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta
* Colville Delta
* Arkansas Delta
* Mobile–Tensaw River Delta
* Mississippi Delta
* Mississippi River Delta
* Columbia River Estuary
* Great Basin
* High Desert
* Monterey Peninsula
* Upper Peninsula of Michigan
* Lower Peninsula of Michigan
* Virginia Peninsula
* Keweenaw Peninsula
* Middle Peninsula
* Delmarva Peninsula
* Alaska Peninsula
* Kenai Peninsula
* Niagara Peninsula
* "Belt" regions
* Bible Belt
* Black Belt
* Corn Belt
* Cotton Belt
* Frost Belt
* Rice Belt
* Rust Belt
* Sun Belt
* Snow Belt

Middle|

| Northern|

* Basin and Range Province
* Baja California Peninsula
* Gulf of California
* Colorado River Delta
* Gulf of Mexico

|

Southern|

* Soconusco
* Tierra Caliente
* La Mixteca
* La Huasteca
* Bajío
* Valley of Mexico
* Mezquital Valley
* Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
* Yucatán Peninsula
* Gulf of Mexico

Central|

* Northern Triangle of Central America
* Western Caribbean Zone
* Isthmus of Panama
* Gulf of Panama
* Pearl Islands
* Azuero Peninsula
* Mosquito Coast

Caribbean|

* Antilles
* Greater Antilles
* Lesser Antilles
* Leeward
* Leeward Antilles
* Windward
* Lucayan Archipelago
* Southern Caribbean
* West Indies

* Aridoamerica
* Mesoamerica
* Oasisamerica
* Anglo
* Latin
* French
* Hispanic
* American Cordillera
* Ring of Fire
* LAC

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Oceania

Australia|

| Australian Capital Territory|

* Australian Capital Territory

|

New South Wales|

* Central Coast
* Central Tablelands
* Central Western Slopes
* Greater Western Sydney
* Hunter
* Mid North Coast
* Northern Rivers
* North West Slopes
* Northern Tablelands
* Riverina
* South Coast
* South West Slopes
* Southern Tablelands
* Western Plains

Northern Territory|

* Arnhem Land
* Barkly Tableland
* Central Australia
* Darwin
* Katherine

Queensland|

* Central West
* Central
* Darling Downs
* Far North
* Gulf Country
* North
* South East
* South West
* Wide Bay–Burnett

South Australia|

* Adelaide Hills
* Barossa Light and Lower North
* Eastern Adelaide
* Eyre Western
* Far North
* Fleurieu and Kangaroo Island
* Limestone Coast
* Murray and Mallee
* Northern Adelaide
* Southern Adelaide
* Western Adelaide
* Yorke and Mid North

Tasmania|

* Central Highlands
* East Coast
* Midlands
* North East
* North West
* Northern
* South West
* Southern
* West Coast

Victoria|

* Barwon South West
* Gippsland
* Grampians
* Greater Melbourne
* Hume
* Loddon Mallee

Western Australia|

* Gascoyne
* Goldfields-Esperance
* Great Southern
* Kimberley
* Mid West
* Peel
* Pilbara
* South West
* Wheatbelt

Melanesia|

* Islands Region
* Bismarck Archipelago
* Solomon Islands
* North Solomon Islands
* Solomon Islands
* Fiji
* New Caledonia
* New Guinea
* Bonis Peninsula
* Papuan Peninsula
* Huon Peninsula
* Huon Gulf
* Bird's Head Peninsula
* Gazelle Peninsula
* Vanuatu

Micronesia|

* Caroline Islands
* Federated States of Micronesia
* Palau
* Kiribati
* Mariana Islands
* Guam
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Marshall Islands
* Nauru
* Wake Island

Polynesia|

* Easter Island
* Hawaiian Islands
* Cook Islands
* French Polynesia
* Austral Islands
* Gambier Islands
* Mangareva Islands
* Marquesas Islands
* Society Islands
* Tuamotus
* Kermadec Islands
* New Zealand
* South Island
* North Island
* Niue
* Pitcairn Islands
* Samoan Islands
* American Samoa
* Independent State of Samoa
* Tokelau
* Tonga
* Tuvalu

* Asia-Pacific
* Ring of Fire

* v
* t
* e

Regions of South America

East|

* Amazon basin
* Atlantic Forest
* Caatinga
* Cerrado

North|

* Caribbean South America
* West Indies
* Los Llanos
* The Guianas
* Amazon basin
* Amazon rainforest
* Gulf of Paria
* Paria Peninsula
* Paraguaná Peninsula
* Orinoco Delta

South|

* Tierra del Fuego
* Patagonia
* Pampas
* Pantanal
* Gran Chaco
* Chiquitano dry forests
* Valdes Peninsula
* Triple Frontier
* Río de la Plata
* Río de la Plata Basin

West|

* Andes
* Tropical Andes
* Wet Andes
* Dry Andes
* Pariacaca mountain range
* Altiplano
* Atacama Desert

* Latin
* Hispanic
* Bolivarian
* American Cordillera
* Ring of Fire
* LAC

* v
* t
* e

Earth's Polar regions of Earth

Antarctic|

* Antarctic Peninsula
* East Antarctica
* West Antarctica
* Eklund Islands
* Ecozone
* Extreme points
* Islands

Arctic|

* Arctic Alaska
* British Arctic Territories
* Canadian Arctic Archipelago
* Finnmark
* Greenland
* Northern Canada
* Northwest Territories
* Nunavik
* Nunavut
* Russian Arctic
* Sakha
* Sápmi
* Yukon
* North American Arctic

* v
* t
* e

Earth's Borders of the oceans

Arctic Ocean|

* Amundsen Gulf
* Barents Sea
* Beaufort Sea
* Chukchi Sea
* East Siberian Sea
* Greenland Sea
* Gulf of Boothia
* Kara Sea
* Laptev Sea
* Lincoln Sea
* Prince Gustav Adolf Sea
* Pechora Sea
* Queen Victoria Sea
* Wandel Sea
* White Sea

Atlantic Ocean|

* Adriatic Sea
* Aegean Sea
* Alboran Sea
* Archipelago Sea
* Argentine Sea
* Baffin Bay
* Balearic Sea
* Baltic Sea
* Bay of Biscay
* Bay of Bothnia
* Bay of Campeche
* Bay of Fundy
* Black Sea
* Bothnian Sea
* Caribbean Sea
* Celtic Sea
* English Channel
* Foxe Basin
* Greenland Sea
* Gulf of Bothnia
* Gulf of Finland
* Gulf of Lion
* Gulf of Guinea
* Gulf of Maine
* Gulf of Mexico
* Gulf of Saint Lawrence
* Gulf of Sidra
* Gulf of Venezuela
* Hudson Bay
* Ionian Sea
* Irish Sea
* Irminger Sea
* James Bay
* Labrador Sea
* Levantine Sea
* Libyan Sea
* Ligurian Sea
* Marmara Sea
* Mediterranean Sea
* Myrtoan Sea
* North Sea
* Norwegian Sea
* Sargasso Sea
* Sea of Åland
* Sea of Azov
* Sea of Crete
* Sea of the Hebrides
* Thracian Sea
* Tyrrhenian Sea
* Wadden Sea

Indian Ocean|

* Andaman Sea
* Arabian Sea
* Bali Sea
* Bay of Bengal
* Flores Sea
* Great Australian Bight
* Gulf of Aden
* Gulf of Aqaba
* Gulf of Khambhat
* Gulf of Kutch
* Gulf of Oman
* Gulf of Suez
* Java Sea
* Laccadive Sea
* Mozambique Channel
* Persian Gulf
* Red Sea
* Timor Sea

Pacific Ocean|

* Arafura Sea
* Banda Sea
* Bering Sea
* Bismarck Sea
* Bohai Sea
* Bohol Sea
* Camotes Sea
* Celebes Sea
* Chilean Sea
* Coral Sea
* East China Sea
* Gulf of Alaska
* Gulf of Anadyr
* Gulf of California
* Gulf of Carpentaria
* Gulf of Fonseca
* Gulf of Panama
* Gulf of Thailand
* Gulf of Tonkin
* Halmahera Sea
* Koro Sea
* Mar de Grau
* Molucca Sea
* Moro Gulf
* Philippine Sea
* Salish Sea
* Savu Sea
* Sea of Japan
* Sea of Okhotsk
* Seram Sea
* Seto Inland Sea
* Shantar Sea
* Sibuyan Sea
* Solomon Sea
* South China Sea
* Sulu Sea
* Tasman Sea
* Visayan Sea
* Yellow Sea

Southern Ocean|

* Amundsen Sea
* Bellingshausen Sea
* Cooperation Sea
* Cosmonauts Sea
* Davis Sea
* D'Urville Sea
* King Haakon VII Sea
* Lazarev Sea
* Mawson Sea
* Riiser-Larsen Sea
* Ross Sea
* Scotia Sea
* Somov Sea
* Weddell Sea

Endorheic basins|

* Aral Sea
* Caspian Sea
* Dead Sea
* Salton Sea

* Book
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Continents of the world

|  |

Africa

Antarctica

Asia

Australia

Europe

North America

South America

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

|  |

Afro-Eurasia

America

Eurasia

Oceania

|
|
|
|

|  |

* Prehistoric supercontinents
Gondwana
* Laurasia
* Pangaea
* Pannotia
* Rodinia
* Columbia
* Kenorland
* Nena
* Sclavia
* Ur
* Vaalbara

* Other prehistoric continents
Amazonia
* Arctica
* Asiamerica
* Atlantica
* Avalonia
* Baltica
* Cimmeria
* Congo Craton
* Euramerica
* Kalaharia
* Kazakhstania
* Laurentia
* North China
* Siberia
* South China
* East Antarctica
* Pampia
* Cuyania
* Chilenia

|
|

|  |

* Submerged continents
Kerguelen Plateau
* Zealandia
* Sahul
* Sunda

* Possible future supercontinents
Pangaea Ultima
* Amasia
* Novopangaea

* Mythical and hypothesised continents
Atlantis
* Kumari Kandam
* Lemuria
* Meropis
* Mu
* Hyperborea
* Terra Australis

* Subcontinents
Arabian Peninsula
* Indian subcontinent
* Madagascar

|
|
|
|

* See also Regions of the world
* Continental fragment

* Book
* Category

Template:Mountains on the Arabian Peninsula Template:History of Ottoman [ ⚑ ]  23°N 46°E﻿ / ﻿23°N 46°E﻿ / 23; 46

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