Discovery of chemical elements

Short description: List of history of chemical elements

Part of a series on the

Periodic table

Periodic table forms

* 18-column

* 32-column

* Alternative forms

* Janet's left step

* Beyond period 7

* Aufbau
* Fricke
* Pyykkö

Periodic table history

* Dmitri Mendeleev
* predictions

* Discovery of elements

* Naming & etymology

*     * for places
* for people
* controversies

* (in East Asia)

* Systematic element names

Sets of elements

By periodic table structure

* Groups (1–18)

* 1 (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr — lithium family, s¹ metals" class="nowrap">alkali metals)
* Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra — beryllium group, s² metals" class="nowrap">2 (alkaline earth metals)
* Sc, Y… — scandium group, s² d¹ metals">3
* Ti, Zr, Hf, Rf — titanium and analogs, transition metals with 4 valence electrons">4
* V, Nb, Ta, Db — vanadium and analogs, transition metals with 5 valence electrons">5
* Cr, Mo, W, Sg — chromium and analogs, transition metals with 6 valence electrons">6
* Mn, Tc, Re, Bh — manganese and analogs, transition metals with 7 valence electrons">7
* Fe, Ru, Os, Hs — iron and analogs, transition metals with 8 valence electrons">8
* Co, Rh, Ir, Mt — cobalt and analogs, transition metals with 9 valence electrons">9
* Ni, Pd, Pt, Ds — nickel and analogs, transition metals with 10 valence electrons">10
* Cu, Ag, Au, Rg — coinage metals, transition metals with 11 valence electrons">11
* Zn, Cd, Hg, Cn — zinc group, s² d¹⁰ metals">12
* B, Al, Ga, In, Tl, Nh — boron group, s² p¹ elements">13
* C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Fl — carbon group, s² p² elements">14
* N, P, As, Sb, Bi, Mc — nitrogen group, s² p³ elements" class="nowrap">15 (pnictogens)
* O, S, Se, Te, Po, Lv — oxygen group, s² p⁴ elements" class="nowrap">16 (chalcogens)
* F, Cl, Br, I, At, Ts — fluorine group, s² p⁵ elements" class="nowrap">17 (halogens)
* He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn, Og — elements having a complete valence shell" class="nowrap">18 (noble gases)

* Periods (1–7, ...)

* H, He, Z = 1–2">1
* Li … Ne, Z = 3–10">2
* Na … Ar, Z = 11–18">3
* K … Kr, Z = 19–36">4
* Rb … Xe, Z = 37–54">5
* Cs … Rn, Z = 55–86">6
* Fr … Og, Z = 87–118">7

* 8+
* Aufbau
* Fricke
* Pyykkö

* Blocks (s, p, d, f, ...)

*     * Atomic orbitals
* Aufbau principle

By metallic classification

* Metals

* alkali
* alkaline earth

* transition
* post-transition

* lanthanide
* actinide (superactinide)

* Metalloids

*     * dividing metals & nonmetals

* Nonmetals

* reactive nonmetals
* noble gases

By other characteristics

* Coinage metals
* Platinum-group metals

* Precious metals
* Refractory metals

* Heavy metals
* Light metals

* Native metals
* Noble metals

* Main-group elements
* Rare-earth elements

* Transuranium, transplutonium elements

* Major, minor & trans- actinides

Elements

List of chemical elements

* by abundance (in human body)

* by atomic properties
* by isotope stability

* by annual production
* by symbol

Properties of elements

* Atomic weight
* Crystal structure

* Electron affinity
* configuration

* Electronegativity (Allen, Electronegativity#Pauling_electronegativity

Data pages for elements

* Abundance
* Atomic radius
* Boiling point
* Critical point
* Density
* Elasticity
* Electrical resistivity
* Electron affinity / configuration
* Electronegativity
* Hardness
* Heat capacity / of fusion / of vaporization
* Ionization energy
* Melting point
* Oxidation state
* Speed of sound
* Thermal conductivity / expansion coefficient
* Vapor pressure

* Book
* Category
* Chemistry Portal

* v
* t
* e

The discoveries of the 118 chemical elements known to exist as of 2025 are presented here in chronological order. The elements are listed generally in the order in which each was first defined as the pure element, as the exact date of discovery of most elements cannot be accurately determined. There are plans to synthesize more elements, and it is not known how many elements are possible.

Each element's name, atomic number, year of first report, name of the discoverer, and notes related to the discovery are listed.

## Contents

* 1 Periodic table of elements
* 2 Graphical timeline
* 3 Cumulative diagram
* 4 Pre-modern and early modern discoveries
* 5 Modern discoveries
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 8 External links

## Periodic table of elements

Periodic table by era of discovery

| 1 | 2 |  | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18
Group →  |
↓ Period |
1 | 1
H |  |  |  | 2

2 | 3
Li | 4
Be |  | 5
B | 6
C | 7
N | 8
O | 9
F | 10

3 | 11
Na | 12
Mg |  | 13
Al | 14
Si | 15
P | 16
S | 17
Cl | 18

4 | 19
K | 20
Ca |  | 21
Sc | 22
Ti | 23
V | 24
Cr | 25
Mn | 26
Fe | 27
Co | 28
Ni | 29
Cu | 30
Zn | 31
Ga | 32
Ge | 33
As | 34
Se | 35
Br | 36

5 | 37
Rb | 38
Sr |  | 39
Y | 40
Zr | 41
Nb | 42
Mo | 43
Tc | 44
Ru | 45
Rh | 46
Pd | 47
Ag | 48
Cd | 49
In | 50
Sn | 51
Sb | 52
Te | 53
I | 54

6 | 55
Cs | 56
Ba |  | 71
Lu | 72
Hf | 73
Ta | 74
W | 75
Re | 76
Os | 77
Ir | 78
Pt | 79
Au | 80
Hg | 81
Tl | 82
Pb | 83
Bi | 84
Po | 85
At | 86

7 | 87
Fr | 88
Ra |  | 103
Lr | 104
Rf | 105
Db | 106
Sg | 107
Bh | 108
Hs | 109
Mt | 110
Ds | 111
Rg | 112
Cn | 113
Nh | 114
Fl | 115
Mc | 116
Lv | 117
Ts | 118

| 57
La | 58
Ce | 59
Pr | 60
Nd | 61
Pm | 62
Sm | 63
Eu | 64
Gd | 65
Tb | 66
Dy | 67
Ho | 68
Er | 69
Tm | 70
Yb |
| 89
Ac | 90
Th | 91
Pa | 92
U | 93
Np | 94
Pu | 95
Am | 96
Cm | 97
Bk | 98
Cf | 99
Es | 100
Fm | 101
Md | 102
No |

| Background color shows age of discovery:

Antiquity to Middle Ages  | Middle Ages-​1799  | 1800–​1849  | 1850–​1899  | 1900–​1949  | 1950–​1999  | Since 2000
(12 elements)
Antiquity to Middle Ages: unrecorded discoveries up into the Middle Ages  | (22 elements)
Discoveries during the age of enlightenment
| (25 elements)
Scientific and industrial revolutions  | (24 elements)
The age of classifying elements; application of spectrum analysis techniques: Boisbaudran, Bunsen, Crookes, Kirchhoff, and others "hunting emission line signatures"  | (14 elements)
Development of old quantum theory and quantum mechanics | (16 elements)
Post Manhattan project; synthesis of atomic numbers 98 and above (colliders, bombardment techniques)  | (5 elements)
Recent synthesis

1 (red)=Gas 3 (black)=Solid 80 (green)=Liquid 109 (gray)=Unknown Color of the atomic number shows state of matter (at 0 °C and 1 atm)

Primordial From decay Synthetic Border shows natural occurrence of the element

## Graphical timeline

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id:gray1  value:gray(0.85) legend:Independent
id:gray2  value:gray(0.95)

DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:1665 till:2025 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1670 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1665 TextData =

textcolor:black fontsize:s
pos:(10,110) text:"Au: 40000 BC"
pos:(10,100) text:"C: 26000 BC"
pos:(10,90) text:"Cu: 9000 BC"
pos:(10,80) text:"Pb: 7000 BC"
pos:(10,70) text:"Ag,"
pos:(28,70) text:"Fe: by 5000 BC"
pos:(110,110) text:"Sn: 3500 BC"
pos:(110,100) text:"Sb: 3000 BC"
pos:(110,90) text:"S: by 2000 BC"
pos:(110,80) text:"Hg: 1500 BC"
pos:(110,70) text:"Zn: by 1000 BC"
pos:(200,110) text:"Pt: c. 600 BC–AD 200"
# pos:(200,110) text:"Au: 6000 BC"
pos:(200,100) text:"As: c. AD 300"
pos:(200,90) text:"Bi: c. 1500"

PlotData =

# bar:elements width:20 from:1660 till:2020
align:center fontsize:S width:15 shift:(0,10)
at:1671 mark:(line,black) text:"H"
shift:(0,10)
at:1868 mark:(line,black) text:"He"
shift:(0,10)
at:1817 mark:(line,black) text:"Li"
shift:(0,20)
at:1798 mark:(line,black) text:"Be"
shift:(-2,10)
at:1787 mark:(line,black) text:"B"
shift:(0,40)
at:1772 mark:(line,black) text:"N"
shift:(0,20)
at:1771 mark:(line,black) text:"O"
shift:(0,30)
at:1771 mark:(line,black) text:"F"
shift:(0,30)
at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Ne"
shift:(0,10)
at:1702 mark:(line,black) text:"Na"
at:1755 mark:(line,black) text:"Mg"
at:1746 mark:(line,black) text:"Al"
shift:(0,10)
at:1739 mark:(line,black) text:"Si"
at:1669 mark:(line,black) text:"P"
shift:(0,10)
at:1774 mark:(line,black) text:"Cl"
shift:(0,10)
at:1894 mark:(line,black) text:"Ar"
shift:(0,20)
at:1702 mark:(line,black) text:"K"
shift:(0,20)
at:1739 mark:(line,black) text:"Ca"
shift:(0,30)
at:1879 mark:(line,black) text:"Sc"
shift:(0,10)
at:1791 mark:(line,black) text:"Ti"
shift:(0,10)
at:1801 mark:(line,black) text:"V"
shift:(0,10)
at:1797 mark:(line,black) text:"Cr"
shift:(0,10)
at:1770 mark:(line,black) text:"Mn"
shift:(0,10)
at:1735 mark:(line,black) text:"Co"
at:1751 mark:(line,black) text:"Ni"
shift:(0,10)
at:1875 mark:(line,black) text:"Ga"
shift:(0,20)
at:1886 mark:(line,black) text:"Ge"
shift:(0,20)
at:1817 mark:(line,black) text:"Se"
shift:(0,10)
at:1825 mark:(line,black) text:"Br"
shift:(0,40)
at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Kr"
shift:(0,20)
at:1861 mark:(line,black) text:"Rb"
shift:(-2,30)
at:1790 mark:(line,black) text:"Sr"
shift:(0,10)
at:1794 mark:(line,black) text:"Y"
shift:(0,10)
at:1789 mark:(line,black) text:"Zr"
shift:(0,20)
at:1801 mark:(line,black) text:"Nb"
shift:(0,10)
at:1778 mark:(line,black) text:"Mo"
shift:(0,10)
at:1937 mark:(line,black) text:"Tc"
shift:(0,10)
at:1844 mark:(line,black) text:"Ru"
at:1804 mark:(line,black) text:"Rh"
shift:(0,30)
at:1802 mark:(line,black) text:"Pd"
shift:(0,30)
at:1817 mark:(line,black) text:"Cd"
shift:(0,10)
at:1863 mark:(line,black) text:"In"
shift:(0,20)
at:1782 mark:(line,black) text:"Te"
shift:(0,10)
at:1811 mark:(line,black) text:"I"
shift:(0,50)
at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Xe"
shift:(0,10)
at:1860 mark:(line,black) text:"Cs"
shift:(0,50)
at:1772 mark:(line,black) text:"Ba"
shift:(0,10)
at:1838 mark:(line,black) text:"La"
shift:(0,50)
at:1803 mark:(line,black) text:"Ce"
shift:(0,10)
at:1885 mark:(line,black) text:"Pr"
shift:(0,20)
at:1841 mark:(line,black) text:"Nd"
shift:(0,10)
at:1945 mark:(line,black) text:"Pm"
shift:(0,40)
at:1879 mark:(line,black) text:"Sm"
shift:(0,20)
at:1896 mark:(line,black) text:"Eu"
shift:(0,60)
at:1880 mark:(line,black) text:"Gd"
shift:(0,30)
at:1843 mark:(line,black) text:"Tb"
shift:(0,30)
at:1886 mark:(line,black) text:"Dy"
shift:(0,10)
at:1878 mark:(line,black) text:"Ho"
shift:(0,40)
at:1843 mark:(line,black) text:"Er"
shift:(0,50)
at:1879 mark:(line,black) text:"Tm"
shift:(0,20)
at:1878 mark:(line,black) text:"Yb"
shift:(0,10)
at:1906 mark:(line,black) text:"Lu"
shift:(0,10)
at:1922 mark:(line,black) text:"Hf"
shift:(0,40)
at:1802 mark:(line,black) text:"Ta"
shift:(0,10)
at:1781 mark:(line,black) text:"W"
shift:(0,20)
at:1908 mark:(line,black) text:"Re"
shift:(0,60)
at:1803 mark:(line,black) text:"Os"
shift:(0,70)
at:1803 mark:(line,black) text:"Ir"
shift:(0,30)
at:1861 mark:(line,black) text:"Tl"
shift:(0,60)
at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Po"
shift:(0,30)
at:1940 mark:(line,black) text:"At"
shift:(0,10)
at:1899 mark:(line,black) text:"Rn"
shift:(0,20)
at:1939 mark:(line,black) text:"Fr"
shift:(0,70)
at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Ra"
shift:(0,10)
at:1902 mark:(line,black) text:"Ac"
shift:(0,10)
at:1829 mark:(line,black) text:"Th"
shift:(0,10)
at:1913 mark:(line,black) text:"Pa"
shift:(0,20)
at:1789 mark:(line,black) text:"U"
shift:(0,40)
at:1940 mark:(line,black) text:"Np"
shift:(0,10)
at:1941 mark:(line,black) text:"Pu"
shift:(0,30)
at:1944 mark:(line,black) text:"Am"
shift:(0,20)
at:1944 mark:(line,black) text:"Cm"
shift:(0,10)
at:1949 mark:(line,black) text:"Bk"
shift:(0,20)
at:1950 mark:(line,black) text:"Cf"
shift:(0,10)
at:1952 mark:(line,black) text:"Es"
shift:(0,20)
at:1953 mark:(line,black) text:"Fm"
shift:(0,10)
at:1955 mark:(line,black) text:"Md"
shift:(0,10)
at:1965 mark:(line,black) text:"No"
shift:(0,10)
at:1961 mark:(line,black) text:"Lr"
shift:(0,10)
at:1969 mark:(line,black) text:"Rf"
shift:(0,20)
at:1970 mark:(line,black) text:"Db"
shift:(0,10)
at:1974 mark:(line,black) text:"Sg"
shift:(0,10)
at:1981 mark:(line,black) text:"Bh"
shift:(0,10)
at:1984 mark:(line,black) text:"Hs"
shift:(0,20)
at:1982 mark:(line,black) text:"Mt"
shift:(0,10)
at:1994 mark:(line,black) text:"Ds"
shift:(0,20)
at:1994 mark:(line,black) text:"Rg"
shift:(0,30)
at:1996 mark:(line,black) text:"Cn"
shift:(0,20)
at:2003 mark:(line,black) text:"Nh"
shift:(0,10)
at:1999 mark:(line,black) text:"Fl"
shift:(0,30)
at:2003 mark:(line,black) text:"Mc"
shift:(0,20)
at:2000 mark:(line,black) text:"Lv"
shift:(0,10)
at:2009 mark:(line,black) text:"Ts"
shift:(0,10)
at:2002 mark:(line,black) text:"Og"

</timeline>

## Cumulative diagram

Cumulative diagram of element discoveries

## Pre-modern and early modern discoveries

Z | Element  | Earliest use  | Oldest
existing
sample  | Discoverer(s)  | Place of
oldest
sample  | Notes

|
|
|
|
|
|

79  | Gold | 40000 BC  | 4600 BC – 4200 BC  | Earliest humans  | Varna Necropolis | Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c. 40000 BC.[1] The earliest gold artifacts dating to 4600 BC to 4200 BC were discovered at the site of Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria.[2] Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.[3]
6  | Carbon | 26000 BC  | 26000 BC  | Earliest humans  |  | Charcoal and soot were known to the earliest humans, with the oldest known charcoal paintings dating to about 28000 years ago, e.g. Gabarnmung in Australia.[3][4] The earliest known industrial use of charcoal was for the reduction of copper, zinc, and tin ores in the manufacture of bronze, by the Egyptians and Sumerians.[5] Diamonds were probably known as early as 2500 BC.[6] True chemical analyses were made in the 18th century,[7] and in 1772 Antoine Lavoisier demonstrated that diamond, graphite, and charcoal are all composed of the same substance.[3] In 1787, de Morveau, Fourcroy, and Lavoisier listed carbon (in French, carbone) as an element, distinguishing it from coal (in French, charbon).[3]
29  | Copper | 9000 BC  | 6000 BC  | Middle East | Asia Minor | It was originally obtained as a native metal and later from the smelting of ores. Earliest estimates of the discovery of copper suggest around 9000 BC in the Middle East. It was one of the most important materials to humans throughout the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages. Copper beads dating from 6000 BC have been found in Çatalhöyük, Anatolia[8] and the archaeological site of Belovode on the Rudnik mountain in Serbia contains the world's oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting from 5000 BC.[9][10] Recognised as an element by Louis Guyton de Morveau, Antoine Lavoisier, Claude Berthollet, and Antoine-François de Fourcroy in 1787.[3]
82  | Lead | 7000 BC  | 3800 BC  | Asia Minor | Abydos, Egypt  | It is believed that lead smelting began at least 9,000 years ago, and the oldest known artifact of lead is a statuette found at the temple of Osiris on the site of Abydos dated around 3800 BC.[11] Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.[3]
47  | Silver | Before 5000 BC  | ca. 4000 BC  | Asia Minor | Asia Minor | Estimated to have been discovered in Asia Minor shortly after copper and gold.[12][13] Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.[3]
26  | Iron | Before 5000 BC  | 4000 BC  | Middle East | Egypt
50  | Tin | 3500 BC  | 2000 BC  | Asia Minor | Kestel  | First smelted in combination with copper around 3500 BC to produce bronze (and thus giving place to the Bronze Age in those places where Iron Age did not intrude directly on Neolithic of the Stone Age).[clarification needed][14] Kestel, in southern Turkey, is the site of an ancient Cassiterite mine that was used from 3250 to 1800 BC.[15] The oldest artifacts date from around 2000 BC.[16] Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.[3]
51  | Antimony | 3000 BC  | 3000 BC  | Sumerians  | Middle East  | An artifact, said to be part of a vase, made of very pure antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Telloh, Chaldea (part of present-day Iraq).[17] Dioscorides and Pliny both describe the accidental production of metallic antimony from stibnite, but only seem to recognize the metal as lead.[18] The intentional isolation of antimony is described in the works attributed to the Muslim alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (c. 850–950).[19] In Europe, the metal was being produced and used by 1540, when it was described by Vannoccio Biringuccio.[20] Described again by Georgius Agricola De re metallica in 1556. Probably first recognised as an element by Lavoisier in 1787.[3]
16  | Sulfur | Before 2000 BC  |  | Middle East | Middle East
80  | Mercury | 1500 BC  | 1500 BC  | Egyptians | Egypt | Cinnabar (the most common mineral form of mercury(II) sulfide, HgS) was used as a pigment from prehistory, dating as far back as the 9th millennium BC in the Middle East.[21] Cinnabar deposits in Turkey, exploited from 8000 years ago, also contain minor amounts of mercury metal.[22] Found in Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BC.[23] Recognised as an element, first by medieval alchemists, and later by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.[3]
30  | Zinc | Before 1000 BC  | 1000 BC  | Indian metallurgists  | Indian subcontinent
78  | Platinum | c. 600 BC – AD 200  | c. 600 BC – AD 200  | Pre-Columbian South Americans | South America  | Used by pre-Columbian Americans near modern-day Esmeraldas, Ecuador to produce artifacts of a white gold-platinum alloy, although precise dating is difficult.[24] A small box from the burial of the Pharaoh Shepenupet II (died around 650 BC) was found to be decorated with gold-platinum hieroglyphics,[25] but the Egyptians may not have recognised that there was platinum in their gold.[26][27] First European description of a metal found in South American gold was in 1557 by Julius Caesar Scaliger. Antonio de Ulloa was on an expedition to Peru in 1735, where he observed the metal; he published his findings in 1748. Charles Wood also investigated the metal in 1741. First reference to it as a new metal was made by William Brownrigg in 1750.[28]
33  | Arsenic | c. AD 300  | c. AD 300  | Egyptians  | Middle East
83  | Bismuth | c. 1500[29] | c. 1500 | European alchemists and Inca civilisation  | Europe and South America

## Modern discoveries

For 18th-century discoveries, around the time that Antoine Lavoisier first questioned the phlogiston theory, the recognition of a new "earth" has been regarded as being equivalent to the discovery of a new element (as was the general practice then). For some elements (e.g. Be, B, Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, Mn, Co, Ni, Zr, Mo),[30] this presents further difficulties as their compounded forms were widely known since medieval or even ancient times, even though the elements as "elemental" constituents of those compounds were not. Since the true nature of those compounds was sometimes only gradually discovered, it is sometimes very difficult to name one specific discoverer.[3][31] In such cases the first publication on their chemistry is noted, and a longer explanation given in the notes.[3][31]

Z  | Element  | Observed  | Isolated (widely known) | Notes

|
|
|
|

Year | By | Year | By
15  | Phosphorus | 1669  | H. Brand | 1669  | H. Brand  | Prepared and isolated from urine, it was the first element whose discovery date and discoverer are recorded.[32] Its name first appears in print in the work of Georg Kaspar Kirchmaier (de) in 1676. Recognised as an element by Lavoisier.[3]
1  | Hydrogen | 1671  | R. Boyle | 1671  | R. Boyle  | Robert Boyle produced it by reacting iron filings with dilute acid.[33][34] Henry Cavendish in 1766 was the first to distinguish H2 from other gases.[35] Lavoisier named it in 1783.[36][37] It was the first elemental gas known.
11  | Sodium | 1702  | G. E. Stahl  | 1807  | H. Davy  | Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence that led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702,[38] and Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this difference in 1736.[39] Andreas Sigismund Marggraf again recognised the difference between soda ash and potash in 1758, but not all chemists accepted his conclusion. In 1797, Martin Heinrich Klaproth suggested the names natron and kali for the two alkalis (whence the symbols). Davy isolated sodium metal a few days after potassium, by using electrolysis on sodium hydroxide[40] and potash[41] respectively.
19  | Potassium | 1702  | G. E. Stahl  | 1807  | H. Davy
27  | Cobalt | 1735  | G. Brandt | 1735  | G. Brandt  | Proved that the blue color of glass is due to a new kind of metal and not bismuth as thought previously.[42]
20  | Calcium | 1739  | J. H. Pott  | 1808  | H. Davy  | Lime was known as a substance for centuries, but only in the 18th century was its chemical nature recognised. Pott recognised terra calcarea (calcareous earth) as an individual "earth" in his treatise of 1739. Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy suggested in 1787 that it was the oxide of an element. Davy isolated the metal electrochemically from quicklime.[3]
14  | Silicon | 1739  | J. H. Pott  | 1823  | J. Berzelius  | Silicon compounds (rock crystals and glass) were known to the ancients, but its chemical investigation dates only to the 17th century. Johann Joachim Becher (of the phlogiston theory) identified silica as the terra vitrescibilis, and Johann Heinrich Pott recognised it as an individual "earth" in his treatise of 1739.[3] Silica appears as a "simple earth" in the Méthode de nomenclature chimique, and in 1789 Lavoisier concluded that the element must exist.[3] Davy thought in 1800 that silica was a compound, not an element, and in 1808 he proved this although he could not isolate the element, and suggested the name silicium.[43][44]: 362–364 In 1811 Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard probably prepared impure silicon,[45] and Berzelius obtained the pure element in 1823.[46] The name was proposed to be changed to silicon by Thomas Thomson in 1817, and this was eventually accepted because of its analogies to boron and carbon.
13  | Aluminium | 1746  | J. H. Pott  | 1825  | H.C.Ørsted | Paracelsus recognised aluminis as separate from vitriol in 1570, and Andreas Libavius proposed in his 1597 treatise to name the unknown earth of alum alumina. In 1746, Johann Heinrich Pott published a treatise distinguishing alum from lime and chalk, and Marggraf precipitated the new earth in 1756.[3] Antoine Lavoisier predicted in 1787 that alumina is the oxide of an undiscovered element, and in 1808 Davy tried to decompose it. Although he failed, he proved Lavoisier correct and suggested the present name.[43][44]: 354–357 Hans Christian Ørsted was the first to isolate metallic aluminium in 1825.[47][48] However, some scientists questioned his isolation. The first undisputed isolation of aluminium was done by Friedrich Wöhler in 1827.[3]
28  | Nickel | 1751  | F. Cronstedt | 1751  | F. Cronstedt  | Found by attempting to extract copper from the mineral known as fake copper (now known as niccolite).[49]
12  | Magnesium | 1755  | J. Black | 1808  | H. Davy | Joseph Black observed that magnesia alba (MgO) was not quicklime (CaO) in 1755; until then, both substances had been confused. Davy isolated the metal electrochemically from magnesia.[50]
25  | Manganese | 1770  | T. O. Bergman  | 1774  | J. G. Gahn | Torbern Olof Bergman distinguished pyrolusite as the calx of a new metal, but failed to reduce it. Ignatius Gottfred Kaim might have isolated it in 1770, but there is uncertainty on that. It was isolated by reduction of manganese dioxide with carbon. Given its present name in 1779 by Guyton de Morveau; prior to that it was called magnesia.[3][51]
9  | Fluorine | 1771  | W. Scheele | 1886  | H. Moissan
8  | Oxygen | 1771  | W. Scheele | 1771  | W. Scheele  | Scheele obtained it by heating mercuric oxide and nitrates in 1771, but did not publish his findings until 1777. Joseph Priestley also prepared this new air by 1774, but only Lavoisier recognized it as a true element; he named it in 1777.[52][53] Before him, Sendivogius had produced oxygen by heating saltpetre, correctly identifying it as the "food of life".[54]
7  | Nitrogen | 1772  | D. Rutherford | 1772  | D. Rutherford  | Rutherford discovered nitrogen while studying at the University of Edinburgh.[55] He showed that the air in which animals had breathed, even after removal of the exhaled carbon dioxide, was no longer able to burn a candle. Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley also studied the element at about the same time, and Lavoisier named it in 1775–6.[56]
56  | Barium | 1772  | W. Scheele  | 1808  | H. Davy  | Scheele distinguished a new earth (BaO) in baryte in 1772. He did not name his discovery; Guyton de Morveau suggested barote in 1782.[3] It was changed to baryte in the Méthode de nomenclature chimique of Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Antoine Lavoisier, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy (1787). Davy isolated the metal by electrolysis.[57]
17  | Chlorine | 1774  | W. Scheele | 1774  | W. Scheele  | Obtained it from hydrochloric acid, but thought it was an oxide. Only in 1810 did Humphry Davy recognize it as an element.[58][59]
42  | Molybdenum | 1778  | W. Scheele | 1788  | J. Hjelm  | Scheele recognised the metal as a constituent of molybdena.[60] Before that, Axel Cronstedt had assumed that molybdena contained a new earth in 1758.[3]
74  | Tungsten | 1781  | W. Scheele | 1783  | J. and F. Elhuyar | Scheele showed that scheelite (then called tungsten) was a salt of calcium with a new acid, which he called tungstic acid. The Elhuyars obtained tungstic acid from wolframite and reduced it with charcoal, naming the element "volfram".[3][61] Since that time both names, tungsten and wolfram, have been used depending on language.[3] In 1949 IUPAC made wolfram the scientific name, but this was repealed after protest in 1951 in favour of recognising both names pending a further review (which never materialised). Currently only tungsten is recognised for use in English.[59]
52  | Tellurium | 1782  | F.-J.M. von Reichenstein | 1798  | H. Klaproth | Muller observed it as an impurity in gold ores from Transylvania.[62] Klaproth isolated it in 1798.[59]
5  | Boron | 1787  | L. Guyton de Morveau, A. Lavoisier, C. L. Berthollet, and A. de Fourcroy  | 1809  | H. Davy | Borax was known from ancient times. In 1787, radical boracique appeared in the Méthode de nomenclature chimique of Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Antoine Lavoisier, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy.[3] It also appears in Lavoisier's Traité Élémentaire de Chimie from 1789.[63] In 1808, Lussac and Thénard announced a new element in sedative salt and named it bore. Davy announced the isolation of a new substance from boracic acid in 1809, naming it boracium.[64] As the element turned out not to be a metal, he revised his proposal to boron in 1812.[3]
|  | 1789 | A. Lavoisier |  |  | Lavoisier writes the first modern list of chemical elements – containing 33 elements including light and heat but omitting Na, K (he was unsure of whether soda and potash without carbonic acid, i.e. Na2O and K2O, are simple substances or compounds like NH3),[65] Te; some elements were listed in the table as unextracted "radicals" (Cl, F, B) or as oxides (Ca, Mg, Ba, Al, Si).[63] He also redefines the term "element".
40  | Zirconium | 1789  | H. Klaproth | 1824  | J. Berzelius  | Martin Heinrich Klaproth identified a new oxide in zircon in 1789,[66][67] and in 1808 Davy showed that this oxide has a metallic base although he could not isolate it.[43][44]: 360–362
92  | Uranium | 1789  | H. Klaproth | 1841  | E.-M. Péligot | Klaproth mistakenly identified a uranium oxide obtained from pitchblende as the element itself and named it after the recently discovered planet Uranus.[68][69]
38  | Strontium | 1790  | A. Crawford | 1808  | H. Davy  | Adair Crawford in 1790 found that strontianite (strontium carbonate) and witherite (barium carbonate) have different chemical properties, and suspected strontianite contained a new earth. Before him, strontianite is seen as a type of witherite. Strontium was eventually isolated electrochemically in 1808 by Davy.[70]
22  | Titanium | 1791  | W. Gregor | 1875  | D. K. Kirillov[71] | Gregor found an oxide of a new metal in ilmenite; Klaproth independently discovered the element in rutile in 1795 and named it. In 1825, Jöns Jacob Berzelius claimed isolation of metallic titanium, but his substance did not react with hydrofluoric acid, whereas titanium does. In 1910, Matthew A. Hunter obtained metallic titanium of 99% purity.[72][73]
39  | Yttrium | 1794  | J. Gadolin | 1843  | H. Rose
24  | Chromium | 1797  | N. Vauquelin | 1798  | N. Vauquelin  | Vauquelin analysed the composition of crocoite ore in 1797, and later isolated the metal by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven.[3][74][75]
4  | Beryllium | 1798  | N. Vauquelin | 1828  | F. Wöhler and A. Bussy  | Vauquelin discovered the oxide in beryl and emerald in 1798, and in 1808 Davy showed that this oxide has a metallic base although he could not isolate it.[43][44]: 358–359 Vauquelin was uncertain about the name to give to the oxide: in 1798 he called it la terre du beril, but the journal editors named it glucine after the sweet taste of beryllium compounds (which are highly toxic). Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link proposed in 1799 to change the name from Glucine to Beryllerde or Berylline, a suggestion taken up by Klaproth in 1800 in the form beryllina. Klaproth had independently worked on beryl and emerald and likewise concluded that a new element was present. The name beryllium for the element was first used by Wöhler upon its isolation (Davy used the name glucium). Both names beryllium and glucinium were used (the latter mostly in France) until IUPAC decided on the name beryllium in 1949.[3]
23  | Vanadium | 1801  | A. M. del Río | 1867  | H. E. Roscoe  | Andrés Manuel del Río found the metal (calling it erythronium) in vanadinite in 1801, but the claim was rejected after Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils dismissed it as chromium based on erroneous and superficial testing.[76] Nils Gabriel Sefström rediscovered the element in 1830 and named it vanadium. Friedrich Wöhler then showed that vanadium was identical to erythronium and thus that del Río had been right in the first place.[77][78] Del Río then argued passionately that his old claim be recognised, but the element kept the name vanadium.[78] Roscoe eventually produced the metal in 1867 by reduction of vanadium(II) chloride, VCl2, with hydrogen.[79]
41  | Niobium | 1801  | C. Hatchett | 1864  | W. Blomstrand  | Hatchett found the element in columbite ore and named it columbium. In 1809, W. H. Wollaston claimed that columbium and tantalum are identical, which proved to be false.[59] Heinrich Rose proved in 1844 that the element is distinct from tantalum, and renamed it niobium. American scientists generally used the name columbium, while European ones used niobium. Niobium was officially accepted by IUPAC in 1949.[80]
73  | Tantalum | 1802  | G. Ekeberg | 1864  | J.C.G. de Marignac | Ekeberg found another element in minerals similar to columbite, and named it after Tantalus from Greek mythology because of its inability to be dissolved by acids (just as Tantalus was tantalised by water that receded when he tried to drink it).[59] In 1809, W. H. Wollaston claimed that columbium and tantalum are identical, which proved to be false.[59] In 1844, Heinrich Rose proved that the elements were distinct and renamed columbium to niobium (Niobe is the daughter of Tantalus).[81] De Marignac's sample contained impurities; relatively pure tantalum was produced by Werner von Bolton in 1903.
46  | Palladium | 1802  | W. H. Wollaston | 1802  | W. H. Wollaston  | Wollaston discovered it in samples of platinum from South America, but did not publish his results immediately. He had intended to name it after the newly discovered asteroid, Ceres, but by the time he published his results in 1804, cerium had taken that name. Wollaston named it after the more recently discovered asteroid Pallas.[82]
58  | Cerium | 1803  | H. Klaproth, W. Hisinger, and J. Berzelius  | 1875  | W. F. Hillebrand and T. H. Norton  | Hisinger and Berzelius discovered a new earth in cerite, considered it to be an oxide of a new element and named the element after the newly discovered asteroid (then considered a planet), Ceres. Klaproth discovered it simultaneously and independently in some tantalum samples.[83] Mosander (1825) and Wöhler (1867) claimed to have isolated metallic cerium, but their samples were rather impure. |-  | 76  | Osmium | 1803  | S. Tennant | 1803  | S. Tennant  | Tennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he named osmium and iridium,[84] and published the iridium results in 1804.[85] Collet-Descotils also found iridium the same year, but not osmium.[59]
77  | Iridium | 1803  | S. Tennant and H.-V. Collet-Descotils  | 1803  | S. Tennant
45  | Rhodium | 1804  | H. Wollaston | 1804  | H. Wollaston  | Wollaston discovered and isolated it from crude platinum samples from South America.[86]
53  | Iodine | 1811  | B. Courtois | 1811  | B. Courtois  | Courtois discovered it in the ashes of seaweed.[87] The name iode was given in French by Gay-Lussac and published in 1813.[31] Davy gave it the English name iodine in 1814.[31]
3  | Lithium | 1817  | A. Arfwedson | 1821  | W. T. Brande  | Arfwedson, a student of Berzelius, discovered the alkali in petalite.[88] Brande isolated it electrolytically from lithium oxide.[31]
48  | Cadmium | 1817  | S. L Hermann, F. Stromeyer, and J.C.H. Roloff  | 1817  | S. L Hermann, F. Stromeyer, and J.C.H. Roloff  | All three found an unknown metal in a sample of zinc oxide from Silesia, but the name that Stromeyer gave became the accepted one.[89]
34  | Selenium | 1817  | J. Berzelius and G. Gahn  | 1817  | J. Berzelius and G. Gahn  | While working with lead they discovered a substance that they thought was tellurium, but realized after more investigation that it was different.[90]
35  | Bromine | 1825  | J. Balard and C. Löwig | 1825  | J. Balard and C. Löwig  | They both discovered the element in the autumn of 1825. Balard published his results the next year,[91] but Löwig did not publish until 1827.[92]
90  | Thorium | 1829  | J. Berzelius  | 1914  | D. Lely, Jr. and L. Hamburger  | Berzelius obtained a new earth (the oxide of a new element) in thorite.[93]
57  | Lanthanum | 1838  | G. Mosander | 1904  | W. Muthmann, L. Weiss  | Mosander found a new earth in samples of ceria in 1838.[94]
60  | Neodymium | 1841  | G. Mosander | 1901  | W. Muthmann, H. Hofer, L. Weiss  | Discovered by Mosander and called didymium. Carl Auer von Welsbach later split it into two elements, praseodymium and neodymium. Neodymium had formed the greater part of the old didymium and received the prefix "neo-".[59][95]
68  | Erbium | 1843  | G. Mosander | 1934  | W. Klemm and H. Bommer  | Mosander managed to split the old yttria into yttria proper, erbia, and terbia.[96] The names underwent some confusion: Mosander's erbia was yellow and his terbia was red. But in 1860, Nils Johan Berlin could only find the rose-coloured earth, confusingly renamed as erbia, and questioned the existence of the yellow earth. Marc Delafontaine adopted Berlin's nomenclature where erbia was the rose-coloured earth, but proved in 1878 that the yellow earth also existed. At the prompting of Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac, he named the yellow earth terbia; thus Mosander's names were swapped from his original choices.[31]
65  | Terbium | 1843  | G. Mosander | 1937  | W. Klemm and H. Bommer
44  | Ruthenium | 1844  | K. Claus | 1844  | K. Claus  | Gottfried Wilhelm Osann thought that he found three new metals in Russian platinum samples in 1826, which he named polinium, pluranium, and ruthenium in 1828. But his results were questioned and he did not have enough quantities to isolate them, so he withdrew his claims in 1829.[97] However, in 1844 Karl Karlovich Klaus confirmed that there was one new metal, and reused Osann's name "ruthenium".[98]
55  | Caesium | 1860  | G. R. Kirchhoff and R. Bunsen | 1882  | C. Setterberg  | Kirchhoff and Bunsen were the first to suggest finding new elements by spectrum analysis. They discovered caesium by its two blue emission lines in a sample of Dürkheim mineral water.[99] The pure metal was eventually isolated in 1882 by Setterberg.[100]
37  | Rubidium | 1861  | G. R. Kirchhoff and R. Bunsen | 1863  | R. Bunsen  | Kirchhoff and Bunsen discovered it just a few months after caesium, by observing new spectral lines in the mineral lepidolite.[101] The metal was isolated by Bunsen around 1863.[31]
81  | Thallium | 1861  | W. Crookes | 1862  | C.-A. Lamy | Shortly after the discovery of rubidium, Crookes found a new green line in a selenium sample; later that year, Lamy found the element to be metallic.[102]
49  | Indium | 1863  | F. Reich and T. Richter | 1864  | T. Richter  | Reich and Richter first identified it in sphalerite by its bright indigo-blue spectroscopic emission line.[103] Richter isolated the metal the next year.[31]
2  | Helium | 1868  | N. Lockyer  | 1895  | W. Ramsay, T. Cleve, and N. Langlet  | P. Janssen and Lockyer observed independently a yellow line in the solar spectrum that did not match any other element. However, only Lockyer made the correct conclusion that it was due to a new element. This was the first observation of a noble gas, located in the Sun. Years later after the isolation of argon on Earth, Ramsay, Cleve, and Langlet observed independently helium trapped in cleveite.[104]
|  | 1869 | D. I. Mendeleev |  |  | Mendeleev arranges the 63 elements known at that time (omitting terbium, as chemists were unsure of its existence, and helium, as it was not found on Earth) into the first modern periodic table and correctly predicts several others.
31  | Gallium | 1875  | P. E. L. de Boisbaudran  | 1878  | P. E. L. de Boisbaudran and E. Jungfleisch  | Boisbaudran observed on a pyrenea blende sample some emission lines corresponding to the eka-aluminium that was predicted by Mendeleev in 1871. He and Jungfleisch isolated the metal three years later by electrolysis.[105][106][31]
70  | Ytterbium | 1878  | J.C.G. de Marignac | 1936  | W. Klemm and H. Bommer  | On 22 October 1878, Marignac reported splitting erbia (Mosander's terbia) into two new earths, erbia proper and ytterbia.[107]
67  | Holmium | 1878  | J.-L. Soret and M. Delafontaine | 1939  | H. Bommer  | Soret found it in samarskite and later, Per Teodor Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium. Delafontaine's philippium turned out to be identical to what Soret found.[108][109]
21  | Scandium | 1879  | F. Nilson | 1937  | W. Fischer, K. Brünger, H. Grieneisen[110] | Nilson split Marignac's ytterbia into pure ytterbia and a new element that matched Mendeleev's 1871 predicted eka-boron.[111]
69  | Thulium | 1879  | T. Cleve  | 1936  | W. Klemm and H. Bommer  | Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium.[112]
62  | Samarium | 1879  | P.E.L. de Boisbaudran  | 1903  | W. Muthmann  | Boisbaudran noted a new earth in samarskite and named it samaria after the mineral.[113]
64  | Gadolinium | 1880  | J. C. G. de Marignac  | 1935  | Félix Trombe  | Marignac initially observed the new earth in terbia, and later Boisbaudran obtained a pure sample from samarskite.[114]
59  | Praseodymium | 1885  | C. A. von Welsbach | 1904  | W. Muthmann, L. Weiss  | Carl Auer von Welsbach discovered it in Mosander's didymia.[115]
32  | Germanium | 1886  | C. A. Winkler | 1886  | C. A. Winkler  | In February 1886 Winkler found in argyrodite the eka-silicon that Mendeleev had predicted in 1871.[116]
66  | Dysprosium | 1886  | P.E.L. de Boisbaudran  | 1937  | W. Klemm and H. Bommer  | De Boisbaudran found a new earth in erbia.[117]
18  | Argon | 1894  | Lord Rayleigh and W. Ramsay | 1894  | Lord Rayleigh and W. Ramsay  | They discovered the gas by comparing the molecular weights of nitrogen prepared by liquefaction from air and nitrogen prepared by chemical means. It is the first noble gas to be isolated.[118]
63  | Europium | 1896  | E.-A. Demarçay | 1937  | W. Klemm and H. Bommer  | Demarçay found spectral lines of a new element in Lecoq's samarium, provisionally designated the element as Σ, and gave it its present name in 1901.[119] Metallic europium was isolated in 1937.[120]
36  | Krypton | 1898  | W. Ramsay and W. Travers  | 1898  | W. Ramsay and W. Travers  | On May 30, 1898, Ramsay separated a noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.[121]
10  | Neon | 1898  | W. Ramsay and W. Travers  | 1898  | W. Ramsay and W. Travers  | In June 1898 Ramsay separated a new noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.[121]
54  | Xenon | 1898  | W. Ramsay and W. Travers  | 1898  | W. Ramsay and W. Travers  | After neon, Ramsay separated a third noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.[122][123]
84  | Polonium | 1898  | P. and M. Curie | 1946  | W. H. Beamer and C. R. Maxwell  | In an experiment done on 13 July 1898, the Curies noted an increased radioactivity in the uranium obtained from pitchblende, which they ascribed to an unknown element. Independently rediscovered and isolated in 1902 by Marckwald, who named it radiotellurium.[124] Pure polonium was obtained in 1946.[125]
88  | Radium | 1898  | P. and M. Curie | 1910  | Marie Curie and André-Louis Debierne | The Curies reported on 26 December 1898, a new element different from polonium, which Marie later isolated from uraninite.[126] In September 1910, Marie Curie and André-Louis Debierne announced that they had isolated radium as a pure metal.[127][128]
86  | Radon | 1899  | E. Rutherford and R. B. Owens  | 1910  | W. Ramsay and R. Whytlaw-Gray | Rutherford and Owens discovered a radioactive gas resulting from the radioactive decay of thorium, isolated later by Ramsay and Gray. In 1900, Friedrich Ernst Dorn discovered a longer-lived isotope of the same gas from the radioactive decay of radium. Since "radon" was first used to specifically designate Dorn's isotope before it became the name for the element, he is often mistakenly given credit for the latter instead of the former.[129][130]
89  | Actinium | 1902  | F. O. Giesel | 1955  | Joseph G. Stites, Murrell L. Salutsky, Bob D. Stone  | Giesel obtained from pitchblende a substance that had properties similar to those of lanthanum and named it emanium.[131] André-Louis Debierne had previously (in 1899 and 1900) reported the discovery of a new element actinium that was supposedly similar to titanium and thorium, which cannot have included much actual element 89. But by 1904, when Giesel and Debierne met, both had samples containing element 89, and so Debierne has generally been given credit for the discovery.[132]
71  | Lutetium | 1906  | C. A. von Welsbach and G. Urbain | 1937  | W. Klemm and H. Bommer  | von Welsbach proved that the old ytterbium also contained a new element, which he named cassiopeium (he renamed the larger part of the old ytterbium to aldebaranium). Urbain also proved this at about the same time (von Welsbach's paper was published first, but Urbain sent his to the editor first), naming the new element lutetium and the old one neoytterbium (which later reverted to ytterbium). However, Urbain's samples were very impure and only contained trace quantities of the new element. Despite this, his chosen name lutetium was adopted by the International Committee of Atomic Weights, whose membership included Urbain. The German Atomic Weights Commission adopted cassiopeium for the next forty years. Finally in 1949 IUPAC decided in favour of the name lutetium as it was more often used.[59][133]
75  | Rhenium | 1908  | M. Ogawa | 1908  | M. Ogawa  | Masataka Ogawa found it in thorianite in 1908, but assigned it as element 43 and named it nipponium. (Elements 43 and 75 are in the same group of the periodic table.)[134] Because of the erroneous assignment, and because some of his key results were published only in Japanese, his claim was not widely recognised. However, the optical emission spectrum described by Ogawa and the X-ray photographic plate for one of his samples match element 75, and his claim has thus been rehabilitated in much of the modern literature.[135] In 1925 Walter Noddack, Ida Eva Tacke and Otto Berg announced its separation from gadolinite, identified it correctly as element 75, and gave it the present name.[136][137]
91  | Protactinium | 1913  | K. Fajans and O. H. Göhring | 1934  | A. von Grosse | The two obtained the first isotope of this element, 234mPa, that had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871, as a member of the natural decay of 238U: they named it brevium. A longer-lived isotope 231Pa was found in 1918 by Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner, and was named by them protactinium: since it is longer-lived, it gave the element its name.[138][139] William Crookes in 1900 reported his discovery of the radioelement "uranium X", that later was proven to be mixture of uranium X1 (234Th) and uranium X2 (234mPa).[140]
72  | Hafnium | 1922  | D. Coster and G. von Hevesy  | 1924  | Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer
43  | Technetium | 1937  | C. Perrier and E. Segrè | 1947  | S. Fried[141] | The two discovered a new element in a molybdenum sample that was used in a cyclotron, the first element to be discovered by synthesis. It had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as eka-manganese.[142][143][144] In 1952, Paul W. Merrill found its spectral lines in S-type red giants.[145] Minuscule trace quantities were finally found on Earth in 1962 by B. T. Kenna and Paul K. Kuroda: they isolated it from Belgian Congo pitchblende, where it occurs as a spontaneous fission product of uranium.[146] The Noddacks (rediscoverers of rhenium) claimed to have discovered element 43 in 1925 as well and named it masurium (after Masuria), but their claims were disproven by Kuroda, who calculated that there cannot have been enough technetium in their samples to have enabled a true detection.[147]
87  | Francium | 1939  | M. Perey |  |  | Perey discovered it as a decay product of 227Ac.[148] Francium was the last element to be discovered in nature, rather than synthesized in the lab, although four of the "synthetic" elements that were discovered later (plutonium, neptunium, astatine, and promethium) were eventually found in trace amounts in nature as well.[149] Before Perey, it is likely that Stefan Meyer, Viktor F. Hess, and Friedrich Paneth had observed the decay of 227Ac to 223Fr in Vienna in 1914, but they could not follow up and secure their work because of the outbreak of World War I.[149]
93  | Neptunium | 1940  | E.M. McMillan and H. Abelson  | 1945  | S. Fried  | Obtained by irradiating uranium with neutrons, it was the first transuranium element discovered.[150] Shortly before that, Yoshio Nishina and Kenjiro Kimura discovered the uranium isotope 237U and found that it beta decays into 23793, but were unable to measure the activity of the element 93 product because its half-life was too long. McMillan and Abelson succeeded because they used 239U, as 23993 has a much shorter half-life.[151] McMillan and Abelson found that 23993 itself undergoes beta decay and must produce an isotope of element 94, but the quantities they used were not enough to isolate and identify element 94 along with 93.[152] Natural traces were found in Belgian Congo pitchblende by D. F. Peppard et al. in 1952.[153]
85  | Astatine | 1940  | D. R. Corson, K. R. MacKenzie and E. Segrè |  |  | Obtained by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles.[154] In 1943, Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert found it in nature; due to World War II, they were initially unaware of Corson et al.'s results.[155] Horia Hulubei and Yvette Cauchois had previously claimed its discovery as a natural radioelement from 1936, naming it dor: they likely did have the isotope 218At, and probably did have enough sensitivity to distinguish its spectral lines. But they could not chemically identify their discovery, and their work was doubted because of an earlier false claim by Hulubei to having discovered element 87.[155][156]
94  | Plutonium | 1941  | Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl, W. Kennedy and E.M. McMillan  | 1943  | H. L. Baumbach, S. Fried, P. L. Kirk and, R. S. Rosenfels[157] | Prepared by bombardment of uranium with deuterons.[158] Seaborg and Morris L. Perlman then found it as traces in natural Canadian pitchblende in 1941–1942, though this work was kept secret until 1948.[159] The first sample of plutonium metal was created from the reduction of plutonium trifluoride in November 1943.[160]
96  | Curium | 1944  | Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James and Albert Ghiorso | 1950  | J. C. Wallmann, W. W. T. Crane and B. B. Cunningham  | Prepared by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles during the Manhattan Project.[161] Curium metal was produced in 1950 by reduction of CmF3 with barium.[162]
95  | Americium | 1944  | G. T. Seaborg, R. A. James, O. Morgan and A. Ghiorso  | 1951  | Edgar F. Westrum Jr. and LeRoy Eyring  | Prepared by irradiating plutonium with neutrons during the Manhattan Project.[163] Americium metal was produced in 1951 by reduction of AmF3 with barium.[164]
61  | Promethium | 1945  | Jacob A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin, and Charles D. Coryell | 1963  | F. Weigel  | It was probably first prepared at the Ohio State University in 1942 by bombarding neodymium and praseodymium with neutrons, but separation of the element could not be carried out. Isolation was performed under the Manhattan Project in 1945.[165] The metal was later isolated by F. Weigel in 1963, by reducing promethium fluoride with lithium.[166] Found on Earth in trace quantities by Olavi Erämetsä in 1965; so far, promethium is the most recent element to have been found on Earth.[167]
97  | Berkelium | 1949  | G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso and G. T. Seaborg (University of California, Berkeley) | 1969  | J. R. Peterson, J. A. Fahey, and R. D. Baybarz  | Created by bombardment of americium with alpha particles.[168]
98  | Californium | 1950  | S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso and G. T. Seaborg (University of California, Berkeley) | 1974  | R. G. Haire and R. D. Baybarz  | Bombardment of curium with alpha particles.[169] Californium metal was produced in 1974 by reduction of Cf2O3 with lanthanum.[170]
99  | Einsteinium | 1952  | A. Ghiorso et al. (Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley) | 1979  | R. G. Haire and R. D. Baybarz  | Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons; kept secret for several years.[171] Einsteinium metal was produced in 1979 by reduction of Es2O3 with lanthanum.[172]
100  | Fermium | 1953  | A. Ghiorso et al. (Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley) |  |  | Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons; first identified in early 1953; kept secret for several years.[173]
101  | Mendelevium | 1955  | A. Ghiorso, G. Harvey, G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson and G. T. Seaborg (Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of einsteinium with alpha particles.[174]
103  | Lawrencium | 1961  | A. Ghiorso, T. Sikkeland, E. Larsh and M. Latimer (Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) |  |  | First prepared by bombardment of californium with boron atoms.[175]
102  | Nobelium | 1965  | E. D. Donets, V. A. Shchegolev and V. A. Ermakov (JINR in Dubna) |  |  | First prepared by bombardment of uranium with neon atoms.[176] Although earlier claims exist, the first complete and incontrovertible report of its detection only came in 1966 from JINR in Dubna, on the basis of experiments done in 1965.[177]
104  | Rutherfordium | 1969  | A. Ghiorso et al. (Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) and I. Zvara et al. (JINR in Dubna) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of californium with carbon atoms by Albert Ghiorso's team and by bombardment of plutonium with neon atoms by Zvara's team.[178]
105  | Dubnium | 1970  | A. Ghiorso et al. (Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) and V. A. Druin et al. (JINR in Dubna) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of californium with nitrogen atoms by Ghiorso's team and by bombardment of americium with neon atoms by Druin's team.[179]
106  | Seaborgium | 1974  | A. Ghiorso et al. (Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of californium with oxygen atoms.[180]
107  | Bohrium | 1981  | G.Münzenberg et al. (GSI in Darmstadt) |  |  | Obtained by bombarding bismuth with chromium.[181]
109  | Meitnerium | 1982  | G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster et al. (GSI in Darmstadt) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with iron atoms.[182]
108  | Hassium | 1984  | G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster et al. (GSI in Darmstadt) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of lead with iron atoms[183]
110  | Darmstadtium | 1994  | S. Hofmann et al. (GSI in Darmstadt) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of lead with nickel[184]
111  | Roentgenium | 1994  | S. Hofmann et al. (GSI in Darmstadt) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with nickel[185]
112  | Copernicium | 1996  | S. Hofmann et al. (GSI in Darmstadt) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of lead with zinc.[186][187]
114  | Flerovium | 1999  | Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of plutonium with calcium. It may have already been found at Dubna in 1998, but that result has not been confirmed.[188]
116  | Livermorium | 2000  | Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of curium with calcium[189]
118  | Oganesson | 2002  | Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of californium with calcium[190]
115  | Moscovium | 2003  | Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of americium with calcium[191]
113  | Nihonium | 2003–2004  | Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) and K. Morita et al. (RIKEN in Wako, Japan) |  |  | Prepared by decay of moscovium by Oganessian's team[191] and bombardment of bismuth with zinc by Morita's team.[192] Both teams began their experiments in 2003; Oganessian's team detected its first atom in 2003, but Morita's only in 2004. However, both teams published in 2004.
117  | Tennessine | 2009  | Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) |  |  | Prepared by bombardment of berkelium with calcium[193]

## See also

* History of the periodic table
* Periodic table
* Extended periodic table
* The Mystery of Matter: Search for the Elements (2014/2015 PBS film)
* Transfermium Wars

## References

1. ↑ Yannopoulos, J. C. (1991) (in en). The Extractive Metallurgy of Gold. Boston, MA: Springer US. p. ix. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8425-0. ISBN 978-1-4684-8427-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=hE7uBwAAQBAJ&dq=history+of+gold+begins+in+antiquity.+Bits+of+gold+were+found+in+Spanish+caves+that+were+used+by+Paleolithic+people+around+40,000+B.C.&pg=PP8.
2. ↑ Grande, L.; Augustyn, A.; Weinstein, J. (2009). Gems and Gemstones: Timeless Natural Beauty of the Mineral World. University of Chicago Press. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-226-30511-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=RnE9Fa4pbn0C&pg=PA290. Retrieved 2025-02-23.
3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5.
4. ↑ McGuirk, Rod (18 June 2012). "Australian rock art among the world's oldest". Christian Science Monitor. AP. https://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2012/0618/Australian-rock-art-among-world-s-oldest.
5. ↑ "History of Carbon and Carbon Materials – Center for Applied Energy Research – University of Kentucky". Caer.uky.edu. http://www.caer.uky.edu/carbon/history/carbonhistory.shtml.
6. ↑ "Chinese made first use of diamond". BBC News. 17 May 2005. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4555235.stm.
7. ↑ Ferchault de Réaumur, R-A (1722). L'art de convertir le fer forgé en acier, et l'art d'adoucir le fer fondu, ou de faire des ouvrages de fer fondu aussi finis que le fer forgé (English translation from 1956). Paris, Chicago.
8. ↑ "CSA – Discovery Guides, A Brief History of Copper". http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/copper/overview.php.
9. ↑ "Serbian site may have hosted first copper makers". UCL Institute of Archaeology. 23 September 2010. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/calendar/articles/20100924.
10. ↑ Bruce Bower (17 July 2010). "Serbian site may have hosted first copper makers". ScienceNews. http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/60563/description/Serbian_site_may_have_hosted_first_copper_makers.
11. ↑ "The History of Lead – Part 3". Lead.org.au. http://www.lead.org.au/lanv2n3/lanv2n3-22.html.
12. ↑ "47 Silver". http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ag.
13. ↑ "Silver Facts – Periodic Table of the Elements". Chemistry.about.com. http://chemistry.about.com/od/elementfacts/a/silver.htm.
14. ↑ "50 Tin". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=sn.
15. ↑ Hauptmann, A.; Maddin, R.; Prange, M. (2002), "On the structure and composition of copper and tin ingots excavated from the shipwreck of Uluburun", Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research (American Schools of Oriental Research) 328 (328): pp. 1–30
16. ↑ "History of Metals". Neon.mems.cmu.edu. http://neon.mems.cmu.edu/cramb/Processing/history.html.
17. ↑ Moorey, P. R. S. (1994). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: the Archaeological Evidence. New York: Clarendon Press. p. 241. ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA241.
18. ↑ Healy, John F. (1999). Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814687-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=Hz6D4H-s5psC. Retrieved 26 January 2018.
19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Sarton`
20. ↑ Biringuccio, Vannoccio (1959). Pirotechnia. Courier Corporation. pp. 91–92. ISBN 978-0-486-26134-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=HKVGDwAAQBAJ. Retrieved 31 January 2018. "Probably metallic antimony was being produced in Germany in Biringuccio's time, for later in this chapter he mentions importation of cakes of the smelted (or melted) metal to alloy with pewter or bell metal."
21. ↑ Gliozzo, Elisabetta (2021). "Pigments – Mercury-based red (cinnabar-vermilion) and white (calomel) and their degradation products". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 13 (210). doi:10.1007/s12520-021-01402-4. Bibcode: 2021ArAnS..13..210G.
22. ↑ Yıldız, Mehmet; Bailey, Edgar H. (1978). ﻿Geological Survey Bulletin 1456: Mercury Deposits in Turkey﻿ (Report). U.S. Government Printing Office. https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1456/report.pdf. Retrieved 7 January 2024.
23. ↑ "Mercury and the environment – Basic facts". Environment Canada, Federal Government of Canada. 2004. http://www.ec.gc.ca/MERCURY/EN/bf.cfm.
24. ↑ David A. Scott and Warwick Bray (1980). "Ancient Platinum Technology in South America: Its use by the Indians in Pre-Hispanic Times". Platinum Metals Review. https://www.technology.matthey.com/article/24/4/147-157/. Retrieved 5 Nov 2018.
25. ↑ Berthelot, M. (1901). "Sur les métaux égyptiens: Présence du platine parmi les caractères d'inscriptions hiéroglyphiques, confié à mon examn" (in fr). Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences 132: 729. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30888/f778.image.
26. ↑ Rayner W. Hesse (2007). Jewelrymaking Through History: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 155–6. ISBN 978-0-313-33507-5.
27. ↑ Ogden, Jack M. (1976). "The So-Called 'Platinum' Inclusions in Egyptian Goldwork". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology (SAGE Publications) 62 (1): 138–144. doi:10.1177/030751337606200116. ISSN 0307-5133.
28. ↑ "78 Platinum". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=pt.
29. ↑ Bismuth - Royal Society of Chemistry
30. ↑ Marshall, James L. (2002). Discovery of the Elements (2nd ed.). Pearson Custom Publishing. ISBN 0-536-67797-2. https://www.chem.unt.edu/~jimm/REDISCOVERY 6-10-2021/Tables and Text Files/HISTORICAL SKETCH OF DISCOVERIES version 13.pdf.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 31.6 31.7 31.8 Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 2—turbulent nineteenth century". Foundations of Chemistry 25 (2): 215–234. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09451-w.
32. ↑ "15 Phosphorus". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=p.
33. ↑ Boyle, R. (1672). Tracts written by the Honourable Robert Boyle containing New experiments, touching the relation betwixt flame and air, and about explosions, an hydrostatical discourse occasion'd by some objections of Dr. Henry More against some explications of new experiments made by the author of these tracts: To which is annex't, an hydrostatical letter, dilucidating an experiment about a way of weighing water in water, new experiments, of the positive or relative levity of bodies under water, of the air's spring on bodies under water, about the differing pressure of heavy solids and fluids.. Printed for Richard Davis.. pp. 64–65. https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo2/A29057.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext.
34. ↑ Weeks, Mary Elvira. (1945). Discovery of the elements (5th ed.). Journal of Chemical Education. p. 83. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015039738292&view=1up&seq=103.
35. ↑ Cavendish, H. (1766). "XIX. Three papers, containing experiments on factitious air". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 56: 141–184. doi:10.1098/rstl.1766.0019. ISSN 0261-0523. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1766.0019.
36. ↑ "01 Hydrogen". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=h.
37. ↑ Andrews, A. C. (1968). "Oxygen". in Clifford A. Hampel. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 272. https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp.
38. ↑ Marggraf, Andreas Siegmund (1761). Chymische Schriften. p. 167. https://books.google.com/books?id=b-ATAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA167.
39. ↑ du Monceau, H. L. D. (1702–1797). "Sur la Base de Sel Marin" (in fr). Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences: 65–68. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3533j/f73.image.r=Memoires de l'Academie royale des Sciences.langEN.
40. ↑ "11 Sodium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=na.
41. ↑ "19 Potassium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=k.
42. ↑ "27 Cobalt". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=co.
43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 Bache, Franklin (1819). A System of Chemistry for the Use of Students of Medicine. Philadelphia: William Fry. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-608-43506-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=TPY4AAAAMAAJ&dq=ittrium+1808&pg=PA135.
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 Davy, Humphry (1812). Elements of Chemical Philosophy. London: W. Bulmer and Co. Cleveland-row. ISBN 978-0-598-81883-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=d6Y5AAAAcAAJ.
45. ↑ "14 Silicon". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=si.
46. ↑ "Silicon". The Environmental Literacy Council. https://enviroliteracy.org/special-features/its-element-ary/silicon/.
47. ↑ "13 Aluminium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=al.
48. ↑ Örsted, H. C. (1825). "Oversigt over det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhanlingar og dets Medlemmerz Arbeider, fra 31 Mai 1824 til 31 Mai 1825" (in da). pp. 15–16. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435054254693&view=1up&seq=17.
49. ↑ "28 Nickel". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ni.
50. ↑ "12 Magnesium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=mg.
51. ↑ "25 Manganese". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=mn.
52. ↑ "08 Oxygen". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=o.
53. ↑ Cook, Gerhard A.; Lauer, Carol M. (1968). "Oxygen". in Clifford A. Hampel. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 499–500. https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp.
54. ↑ Stasińska, Grażyna (2012). "The discovery of oxygen in the universe". http://ppgfsc.posgrad.ufsc.br/files/2012/09/oxygen-grazyna.pdf.
55. ↑ Roza, Greg (2010). The Nitrogen Elements: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4358-5335-5.
56. ↑ "07 Nitrogen". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=n.
57. ↑ "56 Barium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ba.
58. ↑ "17 Chlorine". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=cl.
59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 59.3 59.4 59.5 59.6 59.7 59.8 Holden, Norman E. (2019). History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers. https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
60. ↑ "42 Molybdenum". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=mo.
61. ↑ IUPAC. "74 Tungsten". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=w.
62. ↑ "52 Tellurium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=te.
63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 "Lavoisier 1789 – 33 elements". Elementymology & Elements Multidict. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/chemical_symbols.php.
64. ↑ "05 Boron". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=b.
65. ↑ Œuvres de Lavoisier, Paris, 1864, vol. 1, p. 116–120.
66. ↑ "40 Zirconium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=zr.
67. ↑ Lide, David R., ed (2007–2008). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 4. New York: CRC Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-8493-0488-0.
68. ↑ M. H. Klaproth (1789). "Chemische Untersuchung des Uranits, einer neuentdeckten metallischen Substanz". Chemische Annalen 2: 387–403.
69. ↑ E.-M. Péligot (1842). "Recherches Sur L'Uranium". Annales de chimie et de physique 5 (5): 5–47. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k34746s/f4.table.
70. ↑ Weeks, Mary Elvira. (1945) (in en). Discovery of the elements (5th ed.). Journal of Chemical Education. pp. 302–305.
71. ↑ "Популярная библиотека химических элементов. Титан". http://n-t.ru/ri/ps/pb022.htm.
72. ↑ "Titanium". Los Alamos National Laboratory. 2004. http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/22.html.
73. ↑ Barksdale, Jelks (1968). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. Skokie, Illinois: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 732–38 "Titanium". LCCCN 68-29938.
74. ↑ Vauquelin, Louis Nicolas (1798). "Memoir on a New Metallic Acid which exists in the Red Lead of Sibiria". Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts 3: 146. https://books.google.com/books?id=6dgPAAAAQAAJ.
75. ↑ Glenn, William (1896). "Chrome in the Southern Appalachian Region". Transactions of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers 25: 482. https://books.google.com/books?id=5gc2AQAAMAAJ.
76. ↑ Marshall, James L.; Marshall, Virginia R. (2004). "Rediscovery of the Elements: The "Undiscovery" of Vanadium". The Hexagon. https://chemistry.unt.edu/sites/default/files/users/owj0001/vanadium II.pdf.
77. ↑ "23 Vanadium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=v.
78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 Marshall, James L.; Marshall, Virginia R. (2004). "Rediscovery of the Elements: The Second Discovery of Vanadium". The Hexagon. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc111200/m2/1/high_res_d/metadc111200.pdf.
79. ↑ "XIX. Researches on vanadium". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 18 (114–122): 37–42. 31 December 1870. doi:10.1098/rspl.1869.0012. https://zenodo.org/record/1432055. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
80. ↑ "41 Niobium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=nb.
81. ↑ "73 Tantalum". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ta.
82. ↑ "46 Palladium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=pd.
83. ↑ "58 Cerium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ce.
84. ↑ "76 Osmium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=os.
85. ↑ "77 Iridium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ir.
86. ↑ "45 Rhodium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=rh.
87. ↑ "53 Iodine". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=i.
88. ↑ "03 Lithium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=li.
89. ↑ "48 Cadmium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=cd.
90. ↑ "34 Selenium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=se.
91. ↑ "35 Bromine". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=br.
92. ↑ Carl Löwig (1827) "Über Brombereitung und eine auffallende Zersetzung des Aethers durch Chlor" (On the preparation of bromine and a striking decomposition of ether by chlorine), Magazine für Pharmacie, vol. 21, pages 31–36.
93. ↑ "90 Thorium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=th.
94. ↑ "57 Lanthanum". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=la.
95. ↑ "60 Neodymium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=nd.
96. ↑ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. XVI. The rare earth elements" (in en). Journal of Chemical Education 9 (10): 1758. doi:10.1021/ed009p1751. ISSN 0021-9584. Bibcode: 1932JChEd...9.1751W.
97. ↑ Gottfried Osann (1829). "Berichtigung, meine Untersuchung des uralschen Platins betreffend" (in German). Poggendorffs Annalen der Physik und Chemie 15: 158. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15100n.image.f168.langDE.
98. ↑ "44 Ruthenium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ru.
99. ↑ "55 Caesium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=cs.
100. ↑ Caesium
101. ↑ "37 Rubidium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=rb.
102. ↑ "81 Thallium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=tl.
103. ↑ "49 Indium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=in.
104. ↑ "02 Helium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=he.
105. ↑ "31 Gallium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ga.
106. ↑ "The New Metal Gallium". 15 June 1878. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-new-metal-gallium-1878-06-15/.
107. ↑ "70 Ytterbium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=yb.
108. ↑ "67 Holmium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ho.
109. ↑ Fontani, Marco; Costa, Mariagrazia; Orna, Mary Virginia (2014). The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side. Oxford University Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-19-938334-4. ""...today's inclination to re-evaluate the work of Delafontaine and Soret has led justifiably to their being included as co-discoverers of holmium.""
110. ↑ Fischer, Werner; Brünger, Karl; Grieneisen, Hans (1937). "Über das metallische Scandium" (in de). Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie 231 (1–2): 54–62. doi:10.1002/zaac.19372310107. Bibcode: 1937ZAACh.231...54F.
111. ↑ "21 Scandium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=sc.
112. ↑ "69 Thulium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=tm.
113. ↑ "62 Samarium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=sm.
114. ↑ "64 Gadolinium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=gd.
115. ↑ "59 Praseodymium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=pr.
116. ↑ "32 Germanium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ge.
117. ↑ "66 Dysprosium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Dy.
118. ↑ "18 Argon". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ar.
119. ↑ "63 Europium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=eu.
120. ↑ "Популярная библиотека химических элементов. Европий". http://n-t.ru/ri/ps/pb063.htm.
121. ↑ 121.0 121.1 "10 Neon". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ne.
122. ↑ "54 Xenon". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=xe.
123. ↑ Ramsay, Sir William (December 12, 1904). "Nobel Lecture – The Rare Gases of the Atmosphere". Nobel Media AB. https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay-lecture.html.
124. ↑ "84 Polonium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=po.
125. ↑ Skwarzec, Bogdan; Boryło, Alicja; Wieczorek, Jarosław; Lanczewska, Klaudia (2023). "Polonium on the 125th anniversary of its discovery: its chemistry, radiotoxicity and application". Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 268-269. doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2023.107259. PMID 37523833. Bibcode: 2023JEnvR.26807259S.
126. ↑ "88 Radium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ra.
127. ↑ Frank Moore Colby; Allen Leon Churchill (1911). New International Yearbook: A Compendium of the World's Progress. Dodd, Mead and Co.. p. 152 ff. https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_KWEMAAAAYAAJ.
128. ↑ Curie, Marie; Debierne, André (1910). "Sur le radium métallique" (in fr). Comptes Rendus 151: 523–525. http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-3104&I=523&M=tdm. Retrieved 1 August 2009.
129. ↑ Partington, J. R. (May 1957). "Discovery of Radon". Nature 179 (4566): 912. doi:10.1038/179912a0. Bibcode: 1957Natur.179..912P.
130. ↑ Ramsay, W.; Gray, R. W. (1910). "La densité de l'emanation du radium". Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences 151: 126–128. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k31042/f126.table.
131. ↑ "89 Actinium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ac.
132. ↑ Kirby, Harold W. (1971). "The Discovery of Actinium". Isis 62 (3): 290–308. doi:10.1086/350760.
133. ↑ van der Krogt, Peter. "71. Lutetium". Elementymology & Elements Multidict. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=lu.
134. ↑ Yoshihara, H. K. (February 3, 2000). "Nipponium: The Element Z = 75 (Re) Instead of Z = 43 (Tc)Template:Superscript". http://www.maik.ru/abstract/radchem/0/radchem0535_abstract.pdf.
135. ↑ Hisamatsu, Yoji; Egashira, Kazuhiro; Maeno, Yoshiteru (2022). "Ogawa's nipponium and its re-assignment to rhenium". Foundations of Chemistry 24: 15–57. doi:10.1007/s10698-021-09410-x.
136. ↑ Noddack, W.; Tacke, I.; Berg, O (1925). "Die Ekamangane". Naturwissenschaften 13 (26): 567. doi:10.1007/BF01558746. Bibcode: 1925NW.....13..567..
137. ↑ "75 Rhenium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Re.
138. ↑ Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner: Die Muttersubstanz des Actiniums, ein Neues Radioaktives Element von Langer Lebensdauer. In: Physikalische Zeitschrift. 1918, 19, S. 208–218 (doi:10.1002/bbpc.19180241107).
139. ↑ Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn: Über das Protactinium und die Frage nach der Möglichkeit seiner Herstellung als chemisches Element. In: Die Naturwissenschaften. 1919, 7 (33), S. 611–612 (doi:10.1007/BF01498184).
140. ↑ Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks ((Hardcover, First Edition) ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 347. ISBN 0-19-850340-7. https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/347.
141. ↑ Fried, Sherman (1948). "The Preparation of Technetium Metal". Journal of the American Chemical Society 70 (1): 442. doi:10.1021/ja01181a537. PMID 18918853. Bibcode: 1948JAChS..70..442F. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ja01181a537. Retrieved 19 February 2025.
142. ↑ "43 Technetium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=tc.
143. ↑ History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers, Individual Element Names and History, "Technetium"
144. ↑ "Chemical Elements Discovered at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. http://www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/new-elements-here.html.
145. ↑ Merrill, P. W. (1952). "Technetium in the stars". Science 115 (2992): 479–489 [484]. doi:10.1126/science.115.2992.479. PMID 17792758. Bibcode: 1952Sci...115..479..
146. ↑ Kenna, B. T.; Kuroda, P. K. (1964). "Technetium in Nature". Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry 26 (4): 493–499. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(64)80280-3.
147. ↑ Habashi, Fathi (2006). "The History of Element 43—Technetium". Journal of Chemical Education 83 (2): 213. doi:10.1021/ed083p213.1. Bibcode: 2006JChEd..83..213H. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/ed083p213.1. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
148. ↑ "87 Francium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=fr.
149. ↑ 149.0 149.1 Adloff, Jean-Pierre; Kaufman, George B. (2005-09-25). Francium (Atomic Number 87), the Last Discovered Natural Element . The Chemical Educator 10 (5). [2007-03-26]
150. ↑ "93 Neptunium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=np.
151. ↑ Ikeda, Nagao (25 July 2011). "The discoveries of uranium 237 and symmetric fission — From the archival papers of Nishina and Kimura". Proceedings of the Japan Academy, Series B: Physical and Biological Sciences 87 (7): 371–6. doi:10.2183/pjab.87.371. PMID 21785255. Bibcode: 2011PJAB...87..371I.
152. ↑ Clark, David L.; Hecker, Siegfried S.; Jarvinen, Gordon D.; Neu, Mary P. (2006). "Neptunium". in Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean. The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements. 3 (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. p. 814. doi:10.1007/1-4020-3598-5_7. ISBN 978-1-4020-3555-5. http://radchem.nevada.edu/classes/rdch710/files/plutonium.pdf. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
153. ↑ Peppard, D. F.; Mason, G. W.; Gray, P. R.; Mech, J. F. (1952). "Occurrence of the (4n + 1) series in nature". Journal of the American Chemical Society 74 (23): 6081–6084. doi:10.1021/ja01143a074. Bibcode: 1952JAChS..74.6081P. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc172698/m2/1/high_res_d/metadc172698.pdf.
154. ↑ "85 Astatine". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=at.
155. ↑ 155.0 155.1 Burdette, S. C.; Thornton, B. F. (2010). "Finding Eka-Iodine: Discovery Priority in Modern Times". Bulletin for the History of Chemistry 35 (2): 86–96. doi:10.70359/bhc2010v035p086. http://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/bulletin_open_access/v35-2/v35-2 p86-96.pdf.
156. ↑ Scerri, E. (2013). A Tale of 7 Elements (Google Play ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 188–190, 206. ISBN 978-0-19-539131-2. https://archive.org/details/taleofseveneleme0000scer/page/188.
157. ↑ Plutonium Metal, Los Alamos Science, Number 23, 1995.
158. ↑ "94 Plutonium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=pu.
159. ↑ Seaborg, Glenn T.; Perlman, Morris L. (1948). "Search for Elements 94 and 93 in Nature. Presence of 94239 in Pitchblende". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 70 (4): 1571–1573. doi:10.1021/ja01184a083. PMID 18915775. Bibcode: 1948JAChS..70.1571S.
160. ↑ Miner, William N.; Schonfeld, Fred W. (1968). "Plutonium". in Clifford A. Hampel. The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York (NY): Reinhold Book Corporation. p. 541. https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp.
161. ↑ "96 Curium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=cm.
162. ↑ Wallmann, J. C.; Crane, W. W. T.; Cunningham, B. B. (1951). "The Preparation and Some Properties of Curium Metal". Journal of the American Chemical Society 73 (1): 493–494. doi:10.1021/ja01145a537. Bibcode: 1951JAChS..73..493W. https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt51t3d12j/qt51t3d12j.pdf.
163. ↑ "95 Americium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=am.
164. ↑ Westrum, Edgar F.; Eyring, LeRoy (1951). "The Preparation and Some Properties of Americium Metal 1". Journal of the American Chemical Society 73 (7): 3396–3398. doi:10.1021/ja01151a116. ISSN 0002-7863. Bibcode: 1951JAChS..73.3396W.
165. ↑ "61 Promethium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Pm.
166. ↑ Emsley, John (2011). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. p. 429. ISBN 978-0-19-960563-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfYXzwPo3UC&pg=PA428.
167. ↑ McGill, Ian. "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 31. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. p. 188. doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_607.
168. ↑ "97 Berkelium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=bk.
169. ↑ "98 Californium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=cf.
170. ↑ Haire, R. G.; Baybarz, R. D. (1974). "Crystal Structure and Melting Point of Californium Metal". Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry 36 (6): 1295. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(74)80067-9.
171. ↑ "99 Einsteinium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=es.
172. ↑ Haire, R. G.; Baybarz, R. D. (1979). "Studies of einsteinium metal". Journal de Physique, Colloque C4, supplément au n° 4 40: C4-101–C4-102. doi:10.1051/jphyscol:1979431. https://hal.science/jpa-00218827.
173. ↑ "100 Fermium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=fm.
174. ↑ "101 Mendelevium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=md.
175. ↑ "103 Lawrencium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=lr.
176. ↑ "102 Nobelium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=no.
177. ↑ Barber, Robert C.; Greenwood, Norman N.; Hrynkiewicz, Andrzej Z.; Jeannin, Yves P.; Lefort, Marc; Sakai, Mitsuo; Úlehla, Ivan M.; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik et al. (1993). "Discovery of the transfermium elements. Part II: Introduction to discovery profiles. Part III: Discovery profiles of the transfermium elements". Pure and Applied Chemistry 65 (8): 1757. doi:10.1351/pac199365081757. (Note: for Part I see Pure and Applied Chemistry, vol. 63, no. 6, pp. 879–886, 1991)
178. ↑ "104 Rutherfordium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=rf.
179. ↑ "105 Dubnium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=db.
180. ↑ "106 Seaborgium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=sg.
181. ↑ "107 Bohrium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=bh.
182. ↑ "109 Meitnerium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=mt.
183. ↑ "108 Hassium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=hs.
184. ↑ "110 Darmstadtium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ds.
185. ↑ "111 Roentgenium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=rg.
186. ↑ "112 Copernicium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=cn.
187. ↑ "Discovery of the Element with Atomic Number 112". www.iupac.org. 2009-06-26. http://www.iupac.org/web/nt/2009-06-26_Uub.
188. ↑ Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Polyakov, A. N.; Shirokovsky, I. V.; Tsyganov, Yu. S.; Gulbekian, G. G. et al. (October 1999). "Synthesis of Superheavy Nuclei in the 48Ca + 244Pu Reaction". Physical Review Letters 83 (16): 3154. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.3154. Bibcode: 1999PhRvL..83.3154O.
189. ↑ Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Polyakov, A. N.; Shirokovsky, I. V.; Tsyganov, Yu. S.; Gulbekian, G. G. et al. (2000). "Observation of the decay of 292116". Physical Review C 63 (1). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.63.011301. Bibcode: 2000PhRvC..63a1301O.
190. ↑ Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Polyakov, A. N.; Sagaidak, R. N.; Shirokovsky, I. V.; Tsyganov, Yu. S. et al. (2006). "Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the 249Cf and 245Cm+48Ca fusion reactions". Physical Review C 74 (4). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602. Bibcode: 2006PhRvC..74d4602O.
191. ↑ 191.0 191.1 Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Dmitriev, S. N.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Itkis, M. G.; Polyakov, A. N.; Tsyganov, Yu. S.; Mezentsev, A. N. et al. (2005). "Synthesis of elements 115 and 113 in the reaction 243Am + 48Ca". Physical Review C 72 (3). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.72.034611. Bibcode: 2005PhRvC..72c4611O. https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/psi/islandora/object/psi:13194/datastream/PDF/view.
192. ↑ Morita, Kosuke; Morimoto, Kouji; Kaji, Daiya; Akiyama, Takahiro; Goto, Sin-ichi; Haba, Hiromitsu; Ideguchi, Eiji; Kanungo, Rituparna et al. (2004). "Experiment on the Synthesis of Element 113 in the Reaction 209Bi(70Zn,n)278113". Journal of the Physical Society of Japan 73 (10): 2593–2596. doi:10.1143/JPSJ.73.2593. Bibcode: 2004JPSJ...73.2593M.
193. ↑ Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Bailey, P. D.; Benker, D. E.; Bennett, M. E.; Dmitriev, S. N.; Ezold, J. G.; Hamilton, J. H. et al. (April 2010). "Synthesis of a New Element with Atomic Number Z=117". Physical Review Letters 104 (14). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.142502. PMID 20481935. Bibcode: 2010PhRvL.104n2502O.

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