Free speech on college campuses, 2015

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Note: Much of the information on this page is historical; it was current as of March 2016. To learn more about current developments relating to free speech on college campuses, see the news feeds below.

Beginning in the second half of the 20th century, colleges and universities implemented speech and student conduct codes designed to limit forms of expression that were considered to be harassing or offensive. Proponents argued that these policies helped foster more tolerant and welcoming learning environments for students, contributing ultimately to a fairer, more equitable society. Critics, however, alleged that these policies were tantamount to censorship, violating the principles embodied in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. In the fall of 2015, a series of alleged racist incidents triggered student protests on college campuses throughout the United States. These events prompted further debate about the tension between restricting hateful speech and promoting free expression.

HIGHLIGHTS

* A speech code is defined as any "rule or regulation that limits, restricts or bans speech beyond the strict legal limitations upon freedom of speech or press." According to a 2016 report from Newsweek, more than 50 percent of the nation's universities and colleges had implemented speech codes as of 2016.

* Proponents of speech codes argue that these policies serve an important function in protecting marginalized populations and encouraging civility. Opponents, however, argue that these policies inhibit free speech and discourage open discourse.

* According to the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education (FIRE), a free speech advocacy group, from 2000 to 2014 a total of 88 speakers were unable to speak at campus events to which they had been invited. These disinvitations occurred following protests by students or faculty, who objected to the speakers' beliefs, activities, or past statements.

This article provides the following information:

1. Background content describing free speech practices on college campuses, including information about speech codes and federal guidelines.
2. Data pertaining to incidents involving speakers who were disinvited from college campuses due to student and/or faculty protests.
3. Information about protests that occurred on college campuses in the fall of 2015, including reactions and videos .

Use the tabs below to learn more about free speech on college campuses.

## Contents

* 1 Background
* 1.1 Speech codes
* 1.2 Freedom of speech and the law
* 1.3 Federal guidelines for universities
* 2 Disinvited speakers
* 2.1 Correlations with political ideology
* 2.2 List of disinvitations
* 3 Student protests
* 3.1 University of Missouri
* 3.2 University of California, Los Angeles
* 3.3 Yale University
* 4 Reactions
* 4.1 Attitudes about limiting offensive speech
* 4.2 Arguments criticizing protesters
* 4.3 Arguments defending protesters
* 4.4 Reactions from politicians
* 4.4.1 Democrats
* 4.4.2 Republicans
* 5 Videos
* 5.1 Yale University protests (November 5, 2015)
* 5.2 University of Missouri protests
* 5.2.1 Protesters' encounter with Tim Tai and Mark Schierbecker (November 9, 2015)
* 5.2.2 Homecoming parade protest (October 10, 2015)
* 6 News feeds
* 6.1 Campus protests
* 6.2 Free speech on campus
* 6.3 See also
* 6.4 External links
* 6.4.1 Additional reading
* 6.5 Footnotes

# Background[edit]

### Speech codes[edit]

The text of the First Amendment is engraved on the side of the Newseum building in Washington, D.C.

A speech code is defined as any "rule or regulation that limits, restricts or bans speech beyond the strict legal limitations upon freedom of speech or press." According to the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education (FIRE), university and college speech codes came to prominence in the latter half of the 20th century; by "the early 1990s, at least 60 percent of all universities prohibited racist speech on campus." According to FIRE, some attribute the rise of speech codes to "a nationwide response to violent episodes of racial and other intolerance which took place on many college campuses in the 1980s and early 1990s, creating a generally unreceptive environment for racial and ethnic minorities, female students, and other historically disadvantaged groups." Others attribute the advent of speech codes to "a more general political correctness trend."[1][2]

Opponents of speech codes have alleged that they inhibit free expression, discourage open discourse, and coddle students. Conor Friedersdorf, an opponent speech codes, wrote the following for The Atlantic:[3][4]

“  | [Speech codes] were huge policy failures. There is no evidence that hate speech or bigotry decreased on any campus that adopted them. ... Twenty years ago, opponents of speech codes warned that those with impulse to suppress any speech were putting us on a slippery slope, that core, protected speech would inevitably be punished or chilled. Today's campus-speech battles suggest they were correct.[5] | ”

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—Conor Friedersdorf

Others have countered that speech codes serve an important function in protecting marginalized populations and encouraging civility. Reed McConnell wrote the following for The Harvard Crimson:

“  | When someone calls a black person the “n” word out of hatred, he or she is not expressing a new idea or outlining a valuable thought. They are committing an act of violence. Speech has great power. It can—and often does—serve as a tool to marginalize and oppress people. Laws that restrict hate speech simply seek to prevent violence against marginalized, oppressed groups in order to prevent them from becoming further marginalized and oppressed.[5] | ”

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—Reed McConnell

### Freedom of speech and the law[edit]

The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the right to free speech:

“  | Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.[5] | ”

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—U.S. Constitution

Protected speech has been further defined by a series of United States Supreme Court decisions. In Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire (1942), the court established that state and local governments can outlaw a particular class of speech called "fighting words." The court upheld a New Hampshire statute that stated, "No person shall address any offensive, derisive or annoying word to any other person who is lawfully in any street or other public place." The court reasoned that the statute only outlawed words addressed to a specific individual and "which, by their very utterance, inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach of the peace.[6]

The United States Supreme Court has issued a series of rulings defining the parameters of free speech.

However, the court has since ruled that the "fighting words" exception cannot be used to outlaw hate speech or even advocacy of violence.

In Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969), the court considered a case in which the Ku Klux Klan held a rally and burned a cross on private property while making statements about "revengeance." One member of the organization was convicted under a state law that made it a crime to advocate violence as a means of accomplishing political reform. The court struck the statute, stating that "the constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press do not permit a state to forbid or proscribe advocacy of the use of force or of law violation except where such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action."[7]

In R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul (1992), the court considered a local statute that criminalized placing "on public or private property, a symbol, object, appellation, characterization or graffiti, including, but not limited to, a burning cross or Nazi swastika, which one knows or has reasonable grounds to know arouses anger, alarm or resentment in others on the basis of race, color, creed, religion or gender." A teenager had burned a cross on another person's lawn and had been convicted under the statute. The Minnesota Supreme Court had upheld the statute on the grounds that cities are allowed to outlaw "fighting words." However, the United States Supreme Court struck the statute, stating that it engaged in unconstitutional viewpoint and content restriction by outlawing only fighting words "that communicate messages of racial, gender, or religious intolerance."[8]

The court's decision in R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul was later used by lower courts to strike speech policies at universities. For instance, in Dambrot v. Central Michigan University (1995), the United States Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit struck Central Michigan University's harassment code, which banned "any intentional, unintentional, physical, verbal, or nonverbal behavior that subjects an individual to an intimidating, hostile or offensive educational, employment or living environment by demeaning or slurring individuals through ... written literature because of their racial or ethnic affiliation; or using symbols, epitaphs [sic] or slogans that infer negative connotations about an individual's racial or ethnic affiliation." Citing R.A.V., the court found that the policy engaged in viewpoint and content discrimination by outlawing only "fighting words" that pertain to race or ethnicity. Moreover, the policy could be used to restrict legitimate academic discourse and not just fighting words; for instance, a student paper criticizing a certain ethnic group's traditions could be construed as harassment under the policy. This interpretation was followed by other federal courts to strike university codes that restrict free speech, in Corry v. Leland Stanford Junior University (1995), Booher v. Board of Regents of Northern Kentucky University (1998), Bair v. Shippensburg University (2003), Roberts v. Haragan (2004), and College Republicans v. Reed (2007).[9]

### Federal guidelines for universities[edit]

The Office for Civil Rights is a division of the U.S. Department of Education.

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 prohibits universities that receive federal funds (including student loans or research grants) from discriminating on the basis of sex. Under Title IX, universities are obligated to investigate and punish sexual harassment on campus. In 1994, two female students filed a complaint because sexually derogatory comments about them were posted on their community college's online bulletin board. The Office for Civil Rights, a division of the U.S. Department of Education, concluded that the college should prohibit online speech that "harass[es], denigrates, or shows hostility or aversion toward a particular individual or group based on that person's gender, race, color, national origin or disability" including "epithets, slurs, negative stereotyping ... or acts that purport to be 'jokes' or 'pranks'" and which have "the purpose or effect of creating a hostile, intimidating, or offensive educational environment."[10] Universities and colleges expanded their harassment policies in the wake of the ruling.[3]

In 2013, the Office for Civil Rights further expanded the definition of harassment when it issued a memo defining sexual harassment as "any unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature," including "verbal conduct."[11] The memo stated that the conduct need not be "objectively offensive" from the standpoint of a reasonable person in order to be considered harassment. The University of Montana, which was the immediate recipient of the memo, redefined its harassment and discrimination code broadly to include "name-calling or ... stereotypical notions of what is female/feminine vs. male/masculine."[12]

# Disinvited speakers[edit]

Student groups and administrators often invite individuals to speak at campus events, such as commencement ceremonies. These individuals may include politicians, authors, celebrities or other prominent individuals. Sometimes, students and faculty members may protest the appearance of a given speaker due to that speaker's beliefs, activities or past statements. As a result, the groups or individuals who invited the speaker to campus may be pressured to disinvite the speaker. The Foundation for Individual Rights in Education (FIRE), a free speech advocacy group, refers to these events as disinvitation incidents. According to FIRE, from 2000 to 2014 a total of 88 speakers were unable to speak at campus events to which they had been invited. Of this total, 57 speakers were formally disinvited, 19 withdrew voluntarily and another 12 were "prevented from speaking due to substantial disruption of their event." During that same period, FIRE recorded a total of 114 unsuccessful disinvitation efforts.[13][14]

The chart below breaks down disinvitation incidents from 2000 to 2014 by type.

The chart below tallies disinvitation incidents by year, demonstrating year-to-year changes.

Some critics have contended that disinvitations and forced withdrawals are tantamount to censorship and antithetical to the ideal of free expression.[13]

“  | The disinvitation phenomenon is important—and worrisome—because of what it portends for free speech on campus more generally. A faculty that is hostile to the mere presence of oppositional, inconvenient, or unpopular speakers and beliefs will likely be less adept at teaching students the values of critical thinking, open-mindedness, and free intellectual inquiry that universities are supposed to embody. Students who refuse to hear opposing viewpoints will be less likely to learn critical thinking skills and less able to defend their own beliefs once off-campus. Moreover, disinvitation efforts may be fueled by a campus climate that encourages disregard for free speech rights, as suggested by the correlation between successful disinvitations and restrictive speech codes.[5] | ”

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—Foundation for Individual Rights in Education

Others, however, have argued that it is sometimes appropriate to limit certain kinds of speech:[15]

“  | While free speech is important and there are problems with deeming speech unacceptable, students must not be unduly exposed to harmful stereotypes in order to live and learn here without suffering emotional injury. It is possible that some speech is too harmful to invite to campus.[5] | ”

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—The Williams Record

### Correlations with political ideology[edit]

Some have argued that disinvitation incidents disproportionately target conservative speakers. Susan Svrluga, writing for The Washington Post, asked "whether college campuses are places where intellectual inquiry has been smothered by political correctness, where conservative opinions are so unwelcome that they are shunned." According to a 2014 report by FIRE, conservative speakers were more frequently subject to disinvitation efforts than their liberal counterparts. See the chart below for further details.[13][16]

### List of disinvitations[edit]

Of the 202 disinvitation incidents recorded by FIRE from 2000 to 2014, 114 were unsuccessful. This accounts for 56.4 percent of all recorded disinvitations. Of the remaining 88 disinvitation incidents, 57 (28.2 percent) resulted in a formal disinvitation, and 19 (9.4 percent) resulted in the voluntary withdrawal of the speaker. In the remaining 12 incidents (5.9 percent), the speaker's presentation was disrupted by protesters. The table below lists campus disinvitation incidents from 2000 to 2014. This information was compiled by FIRE. To expand the table, click "[show]" on the right-hand side of the table title.[14]

Campus disinvitation incidents, 2014-2000

Year  | Institution  | State  | Speaker  | Outcome
2014 | Suffolk University | Massachusetts | Abraham Foxman | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2014 | Brandeis University | Massachusetts | Ayaan Hirsi Ali | Speaker formally disinvited
2014 | Barnard College | New York | Cecile Richards | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2014 | Azusa Pacific University | California | Charles Murray | Speaker formally disinvited
2014 | Smith College | Massachusetts | Christine Lagarde (IMF) | Speaker withdrew
2014 | Rutgers University | New Jersey | Condoleezza Rice | Speaker withdrew
2014 | University of Minnesota | Minnesota | Condoleezza Rice | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2014 | Pasadena City College | California | Dustin Lance Black | Speaker formally disinvited
2014 | Montana Tech of the University of Montana | Montana | Greg Gianforte | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2014 | University of California, Hastings College of Law | California | Janet Napolitano | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2014 | Harvard University | Massachusetts | Michael Bloomberg | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2014 | Harvard University Graduate School of Education | Massachusetts | Michael Johnston | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2014 | University of California – Irvine | California | Nonie Darwish | Speaker formally disinvited
2014 | Haverford College | Pennsylvania | Robert J. Birgeneau | Speaker withdrew
2014 | Howard University | Washington, D.C. | Sean “Diddy” Combs | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2014 | Laney College | California | Janet Napolitano | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | The George Washington University | Washington, D.C. | Alec Baldwin | Speaker formally disinvited
2013 | University of Michigan | Michigan | Alice Walker | Speaker formally disinvited
2013 | Xavier University | Ohio | Anthony Munoz | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | Johns Hopkins University | Maryland | Ben Carson | Speaker withdrew
2013 | Midwestern State University | Texas | Ben Carson | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | University of Montana – Western | Montana | Carol & Pat Williams | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | Skidmore College | New York | Cynthia Carroll | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | Boston College | Massachusetts | Enda Kenny | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | University of California, Berkeley | California | Eric Holder | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | University of Oklahoma | Oklahoma | Fareed Zakaria | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | Duquesne University | Pennsylvania | Geraldo Rivera | Speaker formally disinvited
2013 | Georgetown University | Washington, D.C. | Greta Van Susteren | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | Pasadena City College | California | James Deen | Speaker formally disinvited
2013 | University of Michigan | Michigan | Jennifer Gratz | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | Providence College | Rhode Island | John Corvino | Speaker formally disinvited
2013 | University of Massachusetts Amherst | Massachusetts | Karl Rove | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | Morehouse College | Georgia | Kevin Johnson | Speaker formally disinvited
2013 | Western New England University School of Law | Massachusetts | Lois Lerner | Speaker withdrew
2013 | University of Pennsylvania | Pennsylvania | Narendra Modi | Speaker formally disinvited
2013 | Benedictine College | Kansas | Paul Ryan | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | St. John’s University | New York | Peter King | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | Georgetown University | Washington, D.C. | Ramy Jan | Speaker formally disinvited
2013 | Brown University | Rhode Island | Ray Kelly | Speaker's presentation disrupted by protesters
2013 | Grand Valley State University | Michigan | Rick Snyder | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | Swarthmore College | Pennsylvania | Robert Zoellick | Speaker withdrew
2013 | Saint Louis University | Missouri | Scott Brown | Speaker formally disinvited
2013 | University of Illinois | Illinois | Shahid Khan | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | Coastal Carolina University | South Carolina | Tim Scott | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2013 | Millersville University | Pennsylvania | Tom Corbett | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2012 | Fordham University | New York | Ann Coulter | Speaker formally disinvited
2012 | Gonzaga University | Washington | Archbishop Desmond Tutu | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2012 | Emory University | Georgia | Ben Carson | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2012 | The George Washington University | Washington, D.C. | Carlos Slim | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2012 | Fordham University | New York | John Brennan | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2012 | Earlham College | Indiana | Jonah Lehrer | Speaker formally disinvited
2012 | Georgetown University | Washington, D.C. | Kathleen Sebelius | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2012 | University of North Carolina | North Carolina | Michael Bloomberg | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2012 | Cornish College of the Arts | Washington | Mike Daisey | Speaker formally disinvited
2012 | Liberty University | Virginia | Mitt Romney | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2012 | University of California, Irvine | California | Osama Shabaik | Speaker formally disinvited
2012 | Indiana University Bloomington | Indiana | Pastor Douglas Wilson | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2012 | Adrian College | Michigan | Pat Boone | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2012 | Mercy College: St. Elizabeth Campus | Ohio | Rep. Robert Hagan | Speaker formally disinvited
2012 | Michigan State University | Michigan | Rick Snyder | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2012 | Temple University | Pennsylvania | Robert Spencer, Nonie Darwish, Pamela Geller | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2012 | University of San Diego | California | Tina Beattie | Speaker formally disinvited
2011 | Villanova University | Pennsylvania | Anna Quindlen | Speaker withdrew
2011 | Washington University in St. Louis | Missouri | Bristol Palin | Speaker formally disinvited
2011 | University of California, Santa Barbara | California | David Horowitz | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2011 | San Diego City College | California | District Attorney Bonnie Dumanis | Speaker withdrew
2011 | University of Pennsylvania | Pennsylvania | Eric Cantor | Speaker withdrew
2011 | Messiah College | Pennsylvania | Frances Piven | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2011 | Dartmouth College | New Hampshire | George H.W. Bush | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2011 | Fontbonne University | Missouri | Greg Mortenson | Speaker formally disinvited
2011 | Messiah College | Pennsylvania | Jason Mattera | Speaker formally disinvited
2011 | The Catholic University of America | Washington, D.C. | John Boehner | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2011 | Washington University in St. Louis | Missouri | Marvin Casey | Speaker formally disinvited
2011 | Rutgers University | New Jersey | Nicole Polizzi | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2011 | Everett Community College | Washington | Raymond Ibrahim | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2011 | Worcester Polytechnic Institute | Massachusetts | Rex Tillerson | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2011 | University of Michigan | Michigan | Rick Snyder | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2011 | University of Wisconsin | Wisconsin | Roger Clegg | Speaker's presentation disrupted by protesters
2011 | Albright College | Pennsylvania | Tom Corbett | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2011 | City University of New York | New York | Tony Kushner | Speaker formally disinvited
2011 | Anna Maria College | Massachusetts | Victoria Reggie Kennedy | Speaker formally disinvited
2010 | Seton Hall University School of Law | New Jersey | Chris Christie | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | Temple University | Pennsylvania | Geert Wilders | Speaker's presentation disrupted by protesters
2010 | Syracuse University | New York | Jamie Dimon | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | Ohio Wesleyan University | Ohio | John McCain | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | State University of New York at Oswego | New York | John McHugh | Speaker withdrew
2010 | Butler University | Indiana | John Roberts | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | University of Minnesota | Minnesota | Karl Rove | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | Brandeis University | Massachusetts | Michael Oren | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | University of California, Irvine | California | Michael Oren | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | The George Washington University | Washington, D.C. | Michelle Obama | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | Saint Louis University | Missouri | Pietro Sambi | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | University of Arizona | Arizona | Sandra Soto | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill | North Carolina | Tom Tancredo | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | Indiana University | Indiana | Tom Woods | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | Columbia University, School of International and Public Affairs | New York | Vikram Pandit | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2010 | University of Wyoming | Wyoming | William Ayers | Speaker formally disinvited
2009 | Arizona State University | Arizona | Barack Obama | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2009 | University of Notre Dame | Indiana | Barack Obama | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2009 | University of Vermont | Vermont | Ben Stein | Speaker withdrew
2009 | King’s College | Pennsylvania | Bob Casey | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2009 | Saint Louis University | Missouri | David Horowitz | Speaker formally disinvited
2009 | University of Massachusetts Amherst | Massachusetts | Don Feder | Speaker's presentation disrupted by protesters
2009 | Xavier University of Louisiana | Louisiana | Donna Brazile | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2009 | University of California, Los Angeles | California | James Franco | Speaker withdrew
2009 | Harvard University | Massachusetts | Jim Gilchrist | Speaker formally disinvited
2009 | McHenry County College | Illinois | Marc Falkoff | Speaker formally disinvited
2009 | UCLA Anderson School of Management | California | Meg Whitman | Speaker withdrew
2009 | University of North Carolina School of Law | North Carolina | Michael Mukasey | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2009 | California Polytechnic State University | California | Michael Pollan | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2009 | Princeton University | New Jersey | Nonie Darwish | Speaker formally disinvited
2009 | University of Massachusetts | Massachusetts | Raymond Luc Levasseur | Speaker formally disinvited
2009 | University of Oklahoma | Oklahoma | Richard Dawkins | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2009 | University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill | North Carolina | Tom Tancredo | Speaker's presentation disrupted by protesters
2009 | Boston College | Massachusetts | William Ayers | Speaker formally disinvited
2009 | DePaul University | Illinois | Jacob Shrybman | Speaker's presentation disrupted by protesters
2009 | DePaul University | Illinois | Natan Sharansky | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2009 | Saint Louis University | Missouri | Jacob Shrybman | Speaker formally disinvited
2009 | University of Chicago | Illinois | Ehud Olmert | Speaker's presentation disrupted by protesters
2009 | University of Kentucky | Kentucky | Ehud Olmert | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2008 | St. Catherine University | Minnesota | Al Franken | Speaker formally disinvited
2008 | St. Catherine University | Minnesota | Bay Buchanan | Speaker formally disinvited
2008 | University of Georgia | Georgia | Clarence Thomas | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2008 | Furman University | South Carolina | George W. Bush | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2008 | St. Catherine University | Minnesota | Hillary Clinton | Speaker formally disinvited
2008 | Northwestern University | Illinois | Jeremiah Wright | Speaker formally disinvited
2008 | Northwestern School of Law | Illinois | Jerry Springer | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2008 | Aquinas College | Michigan | John Corvino | Speaker formally disinvited
2008 | The George Washington University | Washington, D.C. | Julian Bond | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2008 | Boston College | Massachusetts | Michael Mukasey | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2008 | Washington University in St. Louis | Missouri | Phyllis Schlafly | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2008 | Smith College | Massachusetts | Ryan Sorba | Speaker's presentation disrupted by protesters
2008 | University of Nebraska | Nebraska | William Ayers | Speaker formally disinvited
2007 | University of St. Thomas | Minnesota | Archbishop Desmond Tutu | Speaker formally disinvited
2007 | Brigham Young University | Utah | Dick Cheney | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2007 | Saint Vincent College | Pennsylvania | George W. Bush | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2007 | Columbia University | New York | Jim Gilchrist | Speaker formally disinvited
2007 | Saint Mary’s College | Indiana | Justice Samuel Alito | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2007 | University of California | California | Lawrence Summers | Speaker formally disinvited
2007 | Regent University | Virginia | Mitt Romney | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2007 | Harvard University | Massachusetts | Robert Trivers | Speaker formally disinvited
2007 | College of Saint Mary | Nebraska | Roberta Wilhelm | Speaker formally disinvited
2006 | Boston College | Massachusetts | Condoleezza Rice | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2006 | Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma | George W. Bush | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2006 | Columbia University | New York | Jim Gilchrist | Speaker's presentation disrupted by protesters
2006 | Columbia University | New York | John McCain | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2006 | The New School | New York | John McCain | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2006 | Columbia University | New York | Mahmoud Ahmadinejad | Speaker formally disinvited
2006 | Brown University | Rhode Island | Nonie Darwish | Speaker formally disinvited
2006 | Portland State University | Oregon | Peter DeFazio | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2006 | Nova Southeastern University | Florida | Salman Rushdie | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2006 | Brandeis University | Massachusetts | Tony Kushner | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2005 | Butler University | Indiana | David Horowitz | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2005 | Calvin College | Michigan | George W. Bush | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2005 | Santa Monica College | California | Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2005 | Rice University | Texas | Michelle Hebl | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2005 | California State University, East Bay | California | Richard Rodriguez | Speaker withdrew
2005 | Middlebury College | Vermont | Rudolph Giuliani | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2005 | New York University | New York | Shirley Tilghman | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2005 | Hamilton College | New York | Ward Churchill | Speaker formally disinvited
2005 | Earlham College | Indiana | William Kristol | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2005 | University of Wisconsin – Whitewater | Wisconsin | Ward Churchill | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2005 | Antioch College | Ohio | Ward Churchill | Speaker formally disinvited
2005 | Wheaton College | Illinois | Ward Churchill | Speaker formally disinvited
2005 | Eastern Washington University | Washington | Ward Churchill | Speaker formally disinvited
2004 | Mount Saint Mary’s College | Maryland | Alberto Gonzales | Speaker formally disinvited
2004 | University of Arizona | Arizona | Ann Coulter | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2004 | Villanova University | Pennsylvania | Caroll Spinney (Big Bird) | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2004 | University of Arizona | Arizona | George W. Bush | Speaker withdrew
2004 | American University | Washington, D.C. | Michelle Malkin | Speaker formally disinvited
2004 | University of Saint Francis | Indiana | Nancy Snyderman | Speaker formally disinvited
2004 | Hamilton College | New York | Susan Rosenberg | Speaker withdrew
2003 | Georgetown University | Washington, D.C. | Cardinal Francis Arinze | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2003 | Rockford College | Illinois | Chris Hedges | Speaker's presentation disrupted by protesters
2003 | College of the Holy Cross | Massachusetts | Chris Matthews | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2003 | Michigan State University | Michigan | Dan Flynn | Speaker's presentation disrupted by protesters
2003 | Saint Louis University | Missouri | Donald J. Carty | Speaker formally disinvited
2003 | Princeton University | New Jersey | Fred Hargadon | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2003 | Guilford College | North Carolina | Howard Coble | Speaker withdrew
2003 | Saint Joseph’s University | Pennsylvania | Rick Santorum | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2003 | University of California, Berkeley | California | Ward Connerly | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2003 | Rutgers University | New Jersey | Natan Sharansky | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2002 | Stanford University | California | Condoleezza Rice | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2002 | James Madison University | Virginia | Doris Kearns Goodwin | Speaker formally disinvited
2002 | University of Delaware | Delaware | Doris Kearns Goodwin | Speaker formally disinvited
2002 | Ohio State University | Ohio | George W. Bush | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2002 | California State University, Sacramento | California | Janis Besler Heaphy | Speaker's presentation disrupted by protesters
2002 | University of California, Berkeley | California | Jonny Moseley | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2002 | University of California, Los Angeles | California | Laura Bush | Speaker withdrew
2002 | Syracuse University | New York | Rudy Giuliani | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2002 | Harvard University | Massachusetts | Tom Paulin | Speaker formally disinvited
2002 | Harvard University | Massachusetts | Zayed Yasin | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2001 | Cornell University | New York | Ann Coulter | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2001 | Stanford University | California | Carly Fiorina | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2001 | Seton Hall University | New Jersey | Delores E. Cross | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2001 | Yale University | Connecticut | George W. Bush | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2000 | Marist College | New York | Bob Kerrey | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2000 | Old Dominion University | Virginia | Fred Rogers | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2000 | University of Texas at Austin | Texas | Henry Kissinger | Speaker withdrew
2000 | The George Washington University | Washington, D.C. | Madeline Albright | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2000 | University of California, Berkeley | California | Madeline Albright | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
2000 | Antioch College | Ohio | Mumia Abu-Jamal | Disinvitation effort unsuccessful
Source: Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, "List of Campus Disinvitation Attempts, 2000-2014," June 3, 2014

# Student protests[edit]

Although several demonstrations occurred on campuses nationwide beginning in the fall of 2015, protests concerning racism at the University of Missouri were the subject of extensive media coverage, prompting a wide array of responses from academics, pundits, and politicians. At the University of California, Los Angeles, a fraternity and sorority hosted a themed party with alleged racist overtones, which sparked a series of students protests; the fraternity and sorority were ultimately suspended, which struck some as an act of censorship. Protests at Yale University, which centered on issues of racial sensitivity and the role of the university in limiting offensive acts of expression, prompted a national debate about how best to protect free expression while combatting racism.

### University of Missouri[edit]

Memorial Union, University of Missouri

In the fall of 2015, a series of protests concerning racism on campus occurred at the University of Missouri:[17][18][19][20][21][22]

1. On September 12, 2015, University of Missouri Student Government President Payton Head penned a Facebook post detailing instances of racism he had experienced on the university campus, including the use of racial slurs. Additional protests occurred across campus throughout the fall.
2. On October 10, 2015, student protesters blocked president Tim Wolfe's car during the university's homecoming parade, calling for him to respond to their claims of racist activity on campus. Law enforcement offers cleared the street; some student protesters alleged that officers used excessive force.
3. On October 21, 2015, Concerned Student 1950, a student group, called for Wolfe's resignation.
4. In late October, the university's Residence Halls Association announced that an unknown individual had smeared feces on the wall of a restroom in the shape of a swastika. A police report later confirmed this incident.
5. Wolfe met with members of Concerned Student 1950 on October 27, 2015.
6. On November 2, 2015, student Jonathan Butler commenced a hunger strike to protest what he characterized as "a slew of racist, sexist, homophobic, etc., incidents that have dynamically disrupted the learning experience at MU."
7. On November 6, 2015, Wolfe issued an apology to student protesters. Later that same day, in response to a protester who asked him whether he knew what "systematic oppression" was, Wolfe said, "Systematic oppression is because you don't believe that you have the equal opportunity for success." Protesters denounced this response, claiming that it placed blame on the victims of systematic oppression.
8. On November 8, 2015, black members of the university's football team announced that they would neither practice nor play until Wolfe was removed from office.

On November 9, 2015, Wolfe announced his resignation. The university's Board of Curators also "announced that it was enacting a series of diversity initiatives—including the appointment of a chief diversity, inclusion, and equity officer and efforts to recruit and retain more faculty and staff of color—that would go into effect within the next three months."[22]

That same day, student photographer Tim Tai clashed with student protesters. These protesters, who had gathered in a public space on campus, repeatedly asked Tai to leave the area. Tai refused, asserting his First Amendment press rights. Student journalist Mark Schierbecker filmed the incident. Shortly after the confrontation between Tai and the protesters, assistant professor of communications Melissa Click accosted Schierbecker. According to a video of the incident, Click demanded that Schierbecker leave the area. Schierbecker refused, at which point Click called out, "Who wants to help me get this reporter out of here? I need some muscle over here." Critics denounced the exchange as an assault on the freedom of the press. Others, however, argued that the journalists, while within their legal rights, conducted themselves poorly during these exchanges.[23]

On January 25, 2016, Click was charged with third-degree assault, a misdemeanor offense. On February 25, 2016, the University of Missouri Board of Curators announced that Click's employment with the university had been terminated.[24][25][26]

### University of California, Los Angeles[edit]

Royce Hall, University of California, Los Angeles

On October 6, 2015, the Sigma Phi Epsilon fraternity and Alpha Phi sorority hosted a "Kanye Western" theme party, where attendees wore costumes inspired by musician Kanye West and television personality Kim Kardashian, West's wife. According to The Los Angeles Times, attendees "wore baggy clothes or dressed like the Kardashians, and some wore blackface." Photos of the party were posted to social media.[27][28]

This drew the ire of some students, who alleged that the party "was racist and mocked black culture." Shortly after the party, students began to protest, calling on university officials to take action to foster a more inclusive campus environment. On October 8, 2015, Sigma Phi Epsilon published a statement acknowledging the fraternity's "lack of judgment in not recognizing the inappropriateness of the party theme." The fraternity denied that any party-goers wore blackface, however.[27][28]

On October 8, 2015, university administrators released a media statement announcing the "immediate interim suspension" of both Sigma Phi Epsilon and Alpha Phi. The statement read, in part, as follows: "While we do not yet have all the facts, the alleged behavior is inconsistent with good judgment as well as our principles of community. We remind students that while they are free to celebrate in ways that draw on popular culture, their specific choices can cause harm and pain to fellow members of their community."[29]

Critics alleged that these suspensions violated the First Amendment of the United States Constitution, citing legal precedents establishing that "a university may not discriminate against student speech based on its viewpoint." Supporters of the suspensions, however, countered that the university was right to take action in the interest of fostering greater diversity and inclusiveness on campus.[30]

### Yale University[edit]

Harkness Tower, Yale University

On October 28, 2015, Yale University's Intercultural Affairs Council circulated a message to Yale students. This message urged Yale students to refrain from wearing Halloween costumes that might be deemed racially insensitive. The memo read, in part, "We would hope that people would actively avoid those circumstances that threaten our sense of community or disrespects, alienates or ridicules segments of our population based on race, nationality, religious belief or gender expression."[31]

Erika Christakis, a lecturer and an associate master of one of Yale's residential colleges, penned a critical response to this memo. Christakis wrote, "Is there no room anymore for a child or young person to be a little bit obnoxious… a little bit inappropriate or provocative or, yes, offensive? American universities were once a safe space not only for maturation but also for a certain regressive, or even transgressive, experience; increasingly, it seems, they have become places of censure and prohibition. And the censure and prohibition come from above, not from yourselves! Are we all okay with this transfer of power?"[32]

This response prompted negative reactions from some, who argued that Christakis was insensitive to the struggles of minority groups at Yale, particularly given her position as the associate master of a residence. A group of student protesters confronted Nicholas Christakis—Erika Christakis' husband and the master of Yale's Silliman College—on November 5, 2015. The Foundation for Individual Rights in Education (FIRE), a free speech advocacy group, released a video of the encounter.[33]

Critics alleged that the tenor of this exchange indicated hostility to the principles of free speech and civil discourse. Writing for The Atlantic, Conor Friedersdorf characterized the protesters as follows: "They see anything short of a confession of wrongdoing as unacceptable. In their view, one respects students by validating their subjective feelings. Notice that the student position allows no room for civil disagreement."[34]

Protesters called for the removal of Erika and Nicholas Christakis. On December 7, 2015, Yale officials announced that Erika Christakis had chosen to resign and that Nicholas Christakis would be taking a one-year sabbatical.[35]

# Reactions[edit]

Reactions to student protests beginning in 2015 were diverse. Some criticized student activists, arguing that their tactics undermined the principles of free speech and civil discourse. Further, some critics argued that these incidents indicated a level of intellectual immaturity on the part of the protesters, who critics alleged were intolerant of ideas other than their own. Others, however, defended the protesters, arguing that they themselves were exercising their free speech rights. Others still argued that the free speech debate resulting from these protests diverted attention from the more pressing issue (namely, racism, which was the subject around which most of these protests were organized).

### Attitudes about limiting offensive speech[edit]

In November 2015, Pew Research Center released a report summarizing attitudes toward "censoring offensive statements made about minorities." On the whole, Pew found that 67 percent of Americans believed that "people should be able say these things publicly." Among individuals aged 18-34, this number dropped to 58 percent, lower than any other age group. Pew's survey also found that opinions on this topic differed according to political party affiliation and race. See the graphs below for further details.[36]

### Arguments criticizing protesters[edit]

Student journalist Tim Tai confronts protesters at the University of Missouri

Some criticized student activists, arguing that they resorted to "stigma, call-outs and norm-shaping in their efforts to combat racism." Conor Friedersdorf, a staff writer for The Atlantic, criticized student activists at the University of Missouri for attempting to prevent a student journalist, Tim Tai, from photographing them:[37]

“  | In the video of Tim Tai trying to carry out his ESPN assignment, I see the most vivid example yet of activists twisting the concept of 'safe space' in a most confounding way. They have one lone student surrounded. They’re forcibly preventing him from exercising a civil right. At various points, they intimidate him. Ultimately, they physically push him. But all the while, they are operating on the premise, or carrying on the pretense, that he is making them unsafe.[5] | ”

|
|

—Conor Friedersdorf

Other critics argued that these protests were indicative of a larger problem on America's campuses: the "coddling of the American mind." Greg Lukianoff, president of the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, and Jonathan Haidt, a social psychologist and professor, said the following:[38]

“  | Attempts to shield students from words, ideas, and people that might cause them emotional discomfort are bad for the students. They are bad for the workplace, which will be mired in unending litigation if student expectations of safety are carried forward. And they are bad for American democracy, which is already paralyzed by worsening partisanship. When the ideas, values, and speech of the other side are seen not just as wrong but as willfully aggressive toward innocent victims, it is hard to imagine the kind of mutual respect, negotiation, and compromise that are needed to make politics a positive-sum game.[5] | ”

|
|

—Greg Lukianoff and Jonathan Haidt

### Arguments defending protesters[edit]

However, others defended the student activists, arguing that they themselves were exercising their rights to free expression and should not be shouted down for doing so. Angus Johnston, a historian specializing in student activism, wrote the following in a Rolling Stone commentary:[39][40]

“  | Those of us who would have today's student activists embrace free-speech principles, rather than grudgingly tolerate them, need to defend the activists' free-speech rights. When they are punished for marching, we must defend their right to march. When they say things we think are stupid, we must defend their right to say them. When they yell, we must defend their right to yell — even at professors, and especially at professors who are saying things we find sensible. When they engage in behavior that pushes at the boundaries of acceptable speech, we must remember that pushing at boundaries is what the First Amendment, and the university, are for.[5] | ”

|
|

—Angus Johnston

Jelani Cobb, a staff writer for The New Yorker, argued that the free speech controversies attending the protests at Yale and the University of Missouri were diversionary:[41]

“  | The default for avoiding discussion of racism is to invoke a separate principle, one with which few would disagree in the abstract—free speech, respectful participation in class—as the counterpoint to the violation of principles relating to civil rights. This is victim-blaming with a software update, with less interest in the kind of character assassination we saw deployed against Trayvon Martin and Michael Brown than in creating a seemingly right-minded position that serves the same effect.[5] | ”

|
|

—Jelani Cobb

### Reactions from politicians[edit]

#### Democrats[edit]

1. President Barack Obama: "I think it's a healthy thing for young people to be engaged and to question authority and to ask why this instead of that and to, you know, ask tough questions about social justice. So I don't want to discourage kids from doing that. As I've said before, I do think that there have been times on college campuses where I get concerned that the unwillingness to hear other points of view can be as unhealthy on the left as on the right. ... Well, you know, feel free to disagree with somebody. But don't try to just shut them up. If somebody doesn't believe in affirmative action, they may disagree. You may disagree with them. I disagree with them. But have an argument with them. It's possible for somebody not to be racist and want a just society but believe that that is something that is inconsistent with the Constitution. And you should engage."[42]
2. Hillary Clinton: "Obviously, I believe that on a college campus there should be enough respect so people hear each other, but what happened at [the University of Missouri], what’s happening at other universities, I think reflects the deep sense of, you know, concern, even despair that so many young people, particularly of color, have. You know, I recently met with a group of mothers who lost their children to, either killings by police, or random killings in their neighborhoods, and hearing their stories was so incredibly, profoundly heartbreaking."[43]
3. Bernie Sanders: "I'm listening to the #BlackOnCampus conversation. It's time to address structural racism on college campuses."[44]

#### Republicans[edit]

1. Jeb Bush: "I think people need to be sensitive to overt examples of racism, but there ought to be a climate where there's tolerance and free speech. The irony in Missouri is that they have one of the finest journalism schools in the country, and you had a journalism professor -- I don't think a tenured professor -- that basically shouted down a student journalist. And at Yale University, you'd think free expression would be allowed and tolerated. It looks like it isn't."[45]
2. Ben Carson: "We're being a little too tolerant, I guess you might say, accepting infantile behavior. I don't care which side it comes from. To say that I have the right to violate your civil rights because you're offending me is un-American."[46]
3. Ted Cruz: Regarding controversy at Princeton University, where student protesters argued that Princeton's Wilson School of Public and International Affairs should be renamed, given President Woodrow Wilson's racism, Cruz said, "I am not a fan of Woodrow Wilson. I think his policies did a great deal of damage to this country, but that being said I think the protesters at Princeton who are embracing this radical political correctness where they are claiming a right to be offended at anything they deem contrary to their vision of the world – that is completely antithetical to the mission of a university." He characterized protesters as "pampered teenagers who are scared of an idea that challenges their world view."[47]
4. Marco Rubio: "Freedom of speech on campuses seems to be under assault in some of the supposedly finest institutions in this country. In the case of Missouri, I'm still trying to figure out exactly what it is that got the president fired."[48]
5. Donald Trump: "I think it's disgusting. I think the two people that resigned [at the University of Missouri] are weak, ineffective people. I think that when they resigned, they set something in motion that's gonna be a disaster for the next long period of time."[46]

# Videos[edit]

Below is video footage from some of the protest incidents described on this page.

### Yale University protests (November 5, 2015)[edit]

### University of Missouri protests[edit]

#### Protesters' encounter with Tim Tai and Mark Schierbecker (November 9, 2015)[edit]

#### Homecoming parade protest (October 10, 2015)[edit]

# News feeds[edit]

### Campus protests[edit]

This section links to a Google news search for the terms "campus + protest".

Some of the stories below may not be relevant to this page due to the nature of Google's news search engine.

Campus protests – Google News Feed

### Free speech on campus[edit]

This section links to a Google news search for the terms "free + speech + campus".

Some of the stories below may not be relevant to this page due to the nature of Google's news search engine.

Free speech on campus – Google News Feed

## See also[edit]

* United States Constitution

* Civil liberties policy on Ballotpedia

* Affirmative action and anti-discrimination lawsuits

## External links[edit]

* Foundation for Individual Rights in Education
* Concerned Student 1950 – official Twitter account
* Black Lives Matter
* American Civil Liberties Union

### Additional reading[edit]

* The Atlantic, "Campus Politics: A Cheat Sheet," January 19, 2016
* Rolling Stone, "There's No College P.C. Crisis: In Defense of Student Protestors," December 17, 2015
* The New Yorker, "Race and the Free-Speech Diversion," November 10, 2015
* The Atlantic, "Campus Activists Weaponize 'Safe Space,'" November 10, 2015
* Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, "Disinvitation Report 2014: A Disturbing 15-Year Trend," May 28, 2014

## Footnotes[edit]

1. ↑ Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, "Defying the Constitution: The Rise, Persistence and Prevalence of Campus Speech Codes," November 18, 2009
2. ↑ USLegal.com, "Speech Code Law and Legal Definition," accessed February 17, 2016
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, "Spotlight on Speech Codes 2016," accessed February 17, 2016
4. ↑ The Atlantic, "The Lessons of Bygone Free-Speech Fights," December 10, 2015
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Note: This text is quoted verbatim from the original source. Any inconsistencies are attributable to the original source.
6. ↑ Legal Information Institute, "Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire," accessed February 17, 2016
7. ↑ Legal Information Institute, "Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)," accessed February 16, 2016
8. ↑ Legal Information Institute, "R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul," accessed February 17, 2016
9. ↑ Justia.com, "Dambrot v. Central Michigan University (1995)," accessed February 17, 2016
10. ↑ Law and Contemporary Problems, "Freedom of Speech, Cyberspace, Harassment Law, and the Clinton Administration," accessed February 17, 2016
11. ↑ Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, "Frequently Asked Questions Regarding the Federal Blueprint for Sexual Harassment Policies on Campus," May 28, 2013
12. ↑ University of Montana, "Discrimination, Harassment, Sexual Misconduct, Stalking, and Retaliation," August 2013
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, "Disinvitation Report 2014: A Disturbing 15-Year Trend," May 28, 2014
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, "List of Campus Disinvitation Attempts, 2000-2014," June 3, 2014
15. ↑ The Williams Record, "Uncomfortable or damaging?: Debating the merits and detriments of harmful speech on campus," October 21, 2015
16. ↑ The Washington Post, "A conservative speaker was uninvited from campus. And then re-invited." October 23, 2015
17. ↑ The Atlantic, "Campus Politics: A Cheat Sheet," January 19, 2016
18. ↑ The Washington Post, "Mizzou chancellor responds after student-body president is called the n-word," September 17, 2015
19. ↑ Columbia Daily Tribune, "Swastika found in MU bathroom," October 30, 2015
20. ↑ St. Louis Post-Dispatch, "Police report confirms University of Missouri swastika story," November 12, 2015
21. ↑ Mic.com, "Why This Black Student Is on Hunger Strike to Get a Missouri Colleges President Fired," November 5, 2015
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 CNN.com, "A timeline of the University of Missouri protests," November 10, 2015
23. ↑ The Washington Post, "There's a good reason protesters at the University of Missouri didn't want the media around," November 11, 2015
24. ↑ Fox News, "University of Missouri professor charged with assault in fracas with journalist," January 25, 2016
25. ↑ The Kansas City Star, "MU professor Melissa Click, who called for 'muscle' to remove reporter, charged with assault," January 25, 2016
26. ↑ Inside Higher Ed, "Missouri Board Voters to Fire Melissa Click," February 26, 2016
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 The Los Angeles Times, "Kanye West-themed frat party at UCLA sparks protests, claims of racism," October 9, 2015
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 The Huffington Post, "UCLA Frat Says No One Wore Blackface At 'Kanye Western' Party," October 11, 2015
29. ↑ UCLA Newsroom, "UCLA statement on ‘Kanye West’-themed fraternity party," October 8, 2015
30. ↑ The Washington Post, "UCLA likely violating First Amendment in its reaction to Kim-Kardashian/Kanye-West-themed fraternity/sorority party," October 12, 2015
31. ↑ Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, "Email From The Intercultural Affairs Committee," October 27, 2015
32. ↑ Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, "Email From Erika Christakis: “Dressing Yourselves,” email to Silliman College (Yale) Students on Halloween Costumes," October 30, 2015
33. ↑ The Washington Post, "A clash between administrators and students at Yale went viral. Why that is unfortunate for all concerned." November 9, 2015
34. ↑ The Atlantic, "The New Intolerance of Student Activism," November 9, 2015
35. ↑ The New York Times, "Yale Lecturer Resigns After Email on Halloween Costumes," December 7, 2015
36. ↑ Pew Research Center, "40% of Millennials OK with limiting speech offensive to minorities," November 20, 2015
37. ↑ The Atlantic, "Campus Activists Weaponize 'Safe Space,'" November 10, 2015
38. ↑ The Atlantic, "The Coddling of the American Mind," September 2015
39. ↑ Rolling Stone, "There's No College P.C. Crisis: In Defense of Student Protestors," December 17, 2015
40. ↑ Angus Johnston, "About Me," accessed March 11, 2016
41. ↑ The New Yorker, "Race and the Free-Speech Diversion," November 10, 2015
42. ↑ NPR, "Obama Warns Campus Protestors Against Urge To 'Shut Up' Opposition," December 21, 2015
43. ↑ Breitbart, "Hillary: Missouri Protests Reflect 'Concern' and 'Despair' of Students, I 'Appreciate' Way Young People Speaking Out," November 14, 2015
44. ↑ The Blaze, "Here’s How Presidential Candidates Are Responding to University of Missouri Race Controversy," November 12, 2015
45. ↑ The Washington Post, "Jeb Bush on college safe spaces: 'I mean, come on,'" November 13, 2015
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 NBC News, "Donald Trump: Mizzou Protests are 'Disgusting,'" November 12, 2015
47. ↑ The Guardian, "'Pampered teenagers': Ted Cruz condemns Princeton campus protesters," December 2, 2015
48. ↑ CBS News, "GOP candidates critical of University of Missouri resignations," November 13, 2015