Marxism

Marxism is a political philosophy[1] and method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a dialectical materialist interpretation of historical development,[2] known as historical materialism, to understand class relations and social conflict. Originating in the works of 19th-century German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, the Marxist approach views class struggle as the central driving force of historical change.[3][4][5]

Marxist analysis views a society's economic mode of production as the foundation of its social, political, and intellectual life, a concept known as the base and superstructure model. In its critique of capitalism, Marxism posits that the ruling class (the bourgeoisie), who own the means of production, systematically exploit the working class (the proletariat), who must sell their labour power to survive. This relationship, according to Marx, leads to alienation, periodic economic crises, and escalating class conflict.[6] Marx theorised that these internal contradictions would fuel a proletarian revolution, leading to the overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of a socialist mode of production. For Marxists, this transition represents a necessary step towards a classless, stateless communist society.[7]

Since Marx's death, his ideas have been elaborated and adapted by numerous thinkers and political movements, resulting in a wide array of schools of thought. The most prominent of these in the 20th century was Marxism–Leninism, which was developed after Vladimir Lenin's death and served as the official ideology of the Soviet Union and other Marxist states.[8] In contrast, various academic and dissident traditions, including Western Marxism, Marxist humanism, and libertarian Marxism, have emerged, often critical of state socialism and focused on aspects like culture, philosophy, and individual liberty. This diverse evolution means there is no single, definitive Marxist theory.[5]

Marxism stands as one of the most influential and controversial intellectual traditions in modern history. It has inspired revolutions, social movements, and political parties across the world, while also shaping numerous academic disciplines.[9] Marxist concepts such as alienation, exploitation, and class struggle have become integral to the social sciences and humanities, influencing fields from sociology and literary criticism to political science and cultural studies.[10] The interpretation and implementation of Marxist ideas remain subjects of intense debate, both politically and academically.

## Contents

* 1 Overview
* 1.1 Etymology
* 1.2 Historical materialism
* 1.3 Criticism of capitalism
* 1.4 Social classes
* 1.5 Communism, revolution and socialism
* 1.6 Democracy
* 2 Schools of thought
* 2.1 Classical
* 2.2 Libertarian
* 2.3 Humanist
* 2.4 Academic
* 2.5 Archaeology
* 2.6 Sociology
* 2.7 Economics
* 2.8 Education
* 2.9 Historiography
* 2.10 Literary criticism
* 2.11 Aesthetics
* 3 History
* 3.1 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
* 3.2 Russian Revolution and the Soviet Union
* 3.3 Onset
* 3.4 Chinese Revolution
* 3.5 Late 20th century
* 3.6 21st century
* 4 Criticism
* 4.1 General
* 4.2 Epistemological and empirical
* 4.3 Anarchist
* 4.4 Libertarian and classical liberal
* 4.5 Economic
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 6.1 Citations
* 6.2 Bibliography
* 7 Further reading
* 8 External links

## Overview

Karl Marx, after whom Marxism is named

Marxism seeks to explain social phenomena within any given society by analysing the material conditions and economic activities required to fulfill human material needs. It assumes that the form of economic organisation, or mode of production, influences all other social phenomena, including broader social relations, political institutions, legal systems, cultural systems, aesthetics and ideologies. These social relations and the economic system form a base and superstructure. As forces of production (e.g. technology) improve, existing forms of organising production become obsolete and hinder further progress. Karl Marx wrote: "At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production or—this merely expresses the same thing in legal terms—with the property relations within the framework of which they have operated hitherto. From forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution."[11]

These inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society which are, in turn, fought out at the level of class struggle.[12] Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materialises between the minority who own the means of production (the bourgeoisie) and the vast majority of the population who produce goods and services (the proletariat).[13] Starting with the conjectural premise that social change occurs due to the struggle between different classes within society who contradict one another,[14] a Marxist would conclude that capitalism exploits and oppresses the proletariat; therefore, capitalism will inevitably lead to a proletarian revolution.[15] In a socialist society, private property in the means of production would be replaced by cooperative ownership.[16][17] A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits but on the criteria of satisfying human needs—that is, production for use. Friedrich Engels explained that "the capitalist mode of appropriation, in which the product enslaves first the producer, and then the appropriator, is replaced by the mode of appropriation of the products that is based upon the nature of the modern means of production; upon the one hand, direct social appropriation, as means to the maintenance and extension of production—on the other, direct individual appropriation, as means of subsistence and of enjoyment."[18]

Marxian economics and its proponents view capitalism as economically unsustainable and incapable of improving the population's living standards due to its need to compensate for the falling rate of profit by cutting employees' wages and social benefits while pursuing military aggression. The socialist mode of production would succeed capitalism as humanity's mode of production through revolution by workers. According to Marxian crisis theory, socialism is not an inevitability but an economic necessity.[19]

### Etymology

The term Marxism was popularised by Karl Kautsky, who considered himself an orthodox Marxist during the dispute between Marx's orthodox and revisionist followers.[20] Kautsky's revisionist rival Eduard Bernstein also later adopted the term.[21]

Engels did not support using Marxism to describe either Marx's or his views.[22] He claimed that the term was being abusively used as a rhetorical qualifier by those attempting to cast themselves as genuine followers of Marx while casting others in different terms, such as Lassallians.[22] In 1882, Engels claimed that Marx had criticised self-proclaimed Marxist Paul Lafargue by saying that if Lafargue's views were considered Marxist, then "one thing is certain and that is that I am not a Marxist."[22]

### Historical materialism

Main article: Philosophy:Historical materialism

See also: Philosophy:Historical determinism, Historicism, Historiography, People's history, and Philosophy of history

The discovery of the materialist conception of history, or rather, the consistent continuation and extension of materialism into the domain of social phenomenon, removed two chief defects of earlier historical theories. In the first place, they at best examined only the ideological motives of the historical activity of human beings, without grasping the objective laws governing the development of the system of social relations. ... in the second place, the earlier theories did not cover the activities of the masses of the population, whereas historical materialism made it possible for the first time to study with scientific accuracy the social conditions of the life of the masses and the changes in these conditions.

— Russian Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, 1913[23]

> Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand.

— Karl Marx, Grundrisse, 1858[24]

Marxism uses a materialist methodology, referred to by Marx and Engels as the materialist conception of history and later better known as historical materialism, to analyse the underlying causes of societal development and change from the perspective of the collective ways in which humans make their living.[25][26] Marx's account of the theory is in The German Ideology (1845)[27] and the preface A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859).[11] All constituent features of a society (social classes, political pyramid and ideologies) are assumed to stem from economic activity, forming what is considered the base and superstructure.[28][26] The base and superstructure metaphor describes the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, the "sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society" and forms a society's economic base.[29]

The base includes the material forces of production such as the labour, means of production and relations of production, i.e. the social and political arrangements that regulate production and distribution. From this base rises a superstructure of legal and political "forms of social consciousness" that derive from the economic base that conditions both the superstructure and the dominant ideology of a society. Conflicts between the development of material productive forces and the relations of production provoke social revolutions, whereby changes to the economic base lead to the superstructure's social transformation.[11][30]

This relationship is reflexive in that the base initially gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organisation. Those newly formed social organisations can then act again upon both parts of the base and superstructure so that rather than being static, the relationship is dialectic, expressed and driven by conflicts and contradictions. Engels clarified: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes."[31]

Marx considered recurring class conflicts as the driving force of human history as such conflicts have manifested as distinct transitional stages of development in Western Europe. Accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production:

1. Primitive communism: cooperative tribal societies.
2. Slave society: development of tribal to city-state in which aristocracy is born.
3. Feudalism: aristocrats are the ruling class, while merchants evolve into the bourgeoisie.
4. Capitalism: capitalists are the ruling class who create and employ the proletariat.

While historical materialism has been referred to as a materialist theory of history, Marx did not claim to have produced a master key to history and that the materialist conception of history is not "an historico-philosophic theory of the marche générale, imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself."[32] In a letter to the editor of the Russian newspaper paper Otechestvennye Zapiski (1877),[33] he explained that his ideas were based upon a concrete study of the actual conditions in Europe.[34] In Theses on Feuerbach (1845) Marx notes that one "must prove the truth — i.e. the reality and power, the this-sidedness of his thinking in practice."[35]

### Criticism of capitalism

The "Pyramid of Capitalist System" cartoon made by the Industrial Workers of the World in 1911 criticising capitalism and social stratification.

According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary socialist Vladimir Lenin, "the principal content of Marxism" was "Marx's economic doctrine."[36] Marx demonstrated how the capitalist bourgeoisie and their economists were promoting what he saw as the lie that "the interests of the capitalist and of the worker are ... one and the same." He believed that they did this by purporting the concept that "the fastest possible growth of productive capital" was best for wealthy capitalists and workers because it provided them with employment.[37]

Exploitation is a matter of surplus labour—the amount of labour performed beyond what is received in goods.[38][39] Exploitation has been a socioeconomic feature of every class society and is one of the principal features distinguishing the social classes.[40][41] The power of one social class to control the means of production enables its exploitation of other classes.[42] Under capitalism, the labour theory of value is the operative concern, whereby the value of a commodity equals the socially necessary labour time required to produce it. Under such conditions, surplus value—the difference between the value produced and the value received by a labourer—is synonymous with surplus labour, and capitalist exploitation is thus realised as deriving surplus value from the worker.[38][43]

In pre-capitalist economies, exploitation of the worker was achieved via physical coercion. Under the capitalist mode of production, workers do not own the means of production and must "voluntarily" enter into an exploitative work relationship with a capitalist to earn the necessities of life. The worker's entry into such employment is voluntary because they choose which capitalist to work for. However, the worker must work or starve. Thus, exploitation is inevitable, and the voluntary nature of a worker participating in a capitalist society is illusory; it is production, not circulation, that causes exploitation. Marx emphasised that capitalism per se does not cheat the worker.[44]

Alienation (German: Entfremdung) is the estrangement of people from their humanity and a systematic result of capitalism. Under capitalism, the fruits of production belong to employers, who expropriate the surplus created by others and generate alienated labourers. In Marx's view, alienation is an objective characterisation of the worker's situation in capitalism—his or her self-awareness of this condition is not prerequisite.[45] In addition to criticism, Marx has also praised some of the results of capitalism stating that it "has created more massive and more colossal productive forces than have all preceding generations together"[46] and that it "has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal arrangements."[46]

### Social classes

Main article: Social:Marxian class theory

See also: Social:Class conflict, Classless society, Social class, and Three-component theory of stratification

Marx distinguishes social classes based on two criteria, i.e. ownership of means of production and control over the labour power of others. Following this criterion of class based on property relations, Marx identified the social stratification of the capitalist mode of production with the following social groups:

* Proletariat: "[T]he class of modern wage labourers who, having no means of production of their own, are reduced to selling their labour power in order to live."[47][48] The capitalist mode of production establishes the conditions that enable the bourgeoisie to exploit the proletariat as the worker's labour generates a surplus value greater than the worker's wage.[49]⁠
* Lumpenproletariat: the outcasts of society, such as the criminals, vagabonds, beggars, or prostitutes, without any political or class consciousness.[50] Having no interest in national, let alone international, economic affairs, Marx claimed that this specific sub-division of the proletariat would play no part in the eventual social revolution.
* Bourgeoisie: those who "own the means of production" and buy labour power from the proletariat, thus exploiting the proletariat. They subdivide as bourgeoisie and the petite bourgeoisie.[51]
* Petite bourgeoisie: those who work and can afford to buy little labour power (i.e. small business owners, peasants, landlords and trade workers). Marxism predicts that the continual reinvention of the means of production eventually would destroy the petite bourgeoisie, degrading them from the middle class to the proletariat.[51]
* Landlords: a historically significant social class that retains some wealth and power.
* Peasantry and farmers: a scattered class incapable of organising and effecting socioeconomic change, most of whom would enter the proletariat while some would become landlords.[52]

Class consciousness denotes the awareness—of itself and the social world—that a social class possesses and its capacity to act rationally in its best interests.[53][54] Class consciousness is required before a social class can affect a successful revolution and, thus, the dictatorship of the proletariat.[55]

Without defining ideology,[56] Marx used the term to describe the production of images of social reality. According to Engels, "ideology is a process accomplished by the so-called thinker consciously, it is true, but with a false consciousness. The real motive forces impelling him remain unknown to him; otherwise it simply would not be an ideological process. Hence he imagines false or seeming motive forces."[57]

Because the ruling class controls the society's means of production, the superstructure of society (i.e. the ruling social ideas) is determined by the best interests of the ruling class. In The German Ideology, Marx says that "[t]he ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas, i.e. the class which is the ruling material force of society, is, at the same time, its ruling intellectual force."[58] The term political economy initially referred to the study of the material conditions of economic production in the capitalist system. In Marxism, political economy is the study of the means of production, specifically of capital and how that manifests as economic activity.[59]

Marxism taught me what society was. I was like a blindfolded man in a forest, who doesn't even know where north or south is. If you don't eventually come to truly understand the history of the class struggle, or at least have a clear idea that society is divided between the rich and the poor, and that some people subjugate and exploit other people, you're lost in a forest, not knowing anything.

— Cuban revolutionary and Marxist–Leninist politician Fidel Castro on discovering Marxism, 2009[60]

This new way of thinking was invented because socialists believed that common ownership of the means of production (i.e. the industries, land, wealth of nature, trade apparatus and wealth of the society) would abolish the exploitative working conditions experienced under capitalism.[18][61] Through working class revolution, the state (which Marxists saw as a weapon for the subjugation of one class by another)[62][63] is seized and used to suppress the hitherto ruling class of capitalists and (by implementing a commonly owned, democratically controlled workplace) create the society of communism which Marxists see as true democracy.[64] An economy based on cooperation on human need and social betterment, rather than competition for profit of many independently acting profit seekers, would also be the end of class society, which Marx saw as the fundamental division of all hitherto existing history.[46] Marx saw the fundamental nature of capitalist society as little different from that of a slave society in that one small group of society exploits the larger group.[65]

Through common ownership of the means of production, the profit motive is eliminated, and the motive of furthering human flourishing is introduced. Because the surplus produced by the workers is the property of the society as a whole, there are no classes of producers and appropriators. Additionally, as the state originates in the bands of retainers hired by the first ruling classes to protect their economic privilege, it will wither away as its conditions of existence have disappeared.[66][67][68]

### Communism, revolution and socialism

May Day protester in Spain, 2006, waving a red flag with a raised fist, both symbols of socialism

According to The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx, "Marx used many terms to refer to a post-capitalist society—positive humanism, socialism, Communism, realm of free individuality, free association of producers, etc. He used these terms completely interchangeably. The notion that 'socialism' and 'Communism' are distinct historical stages is alien to his work and only entered the lexicon of Marxism after his death."[69]

According to orthodox Marxist theory, overthrowing capitalism by a socialist revolution in contemporary society is inevitable. While the inevitability of an eventual socialist revolution is a controversial debate among many different Marxist schools of thought, all Marxists believe socialism is a necessity. Marxists argue that a socialist society is far better for most of the populace than its capitalist counterpart. Prior to the Russian Revolution, Vladimir Lenin wrote: "The socialisation of production is bound to lead to the conversion of the means of production into the property of society. ... This conversion will directly result in an immense increase in productivity of labour, a reduction of working hours, and the replacement of the remnants, the ruins of small-scale, primitive, disunited production by collective and improved labour."[70] The failure of the 1905 Russian Revolution, along with the failure of socialist movements to resist the outbreak of World War I, led to renewed theoretical effort and valuable contributions from Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg towards an appreciation of Marx's crisis theory and efforts to formulate a theory of imperialism.[7]

### Democracy

The Soviet of Workers' Deputies of St. Petersburg in 1905: Leon Trotsky in the centre. The Soviets were an early example of a workers council.

Karl Marx criticised liberal democracy as not democratic enough due to the unequal socio-economic situation of the workers during the Industrial Revolution which undermines the democratic agency of citizens.[71] Marxists differ in their positions towards democracy.[72] [73] Types of democracy in Marxism include Soviet democracy, New Democracy, and Whole-process people's democracy, and can include voting on how surplus labour is to be organised.[74] Karl Marx saw freedom of speech and freedom of the press as requirements of democracy.[75]

## Schools of thought

Main article: Social:Marxist schools of thought

See also: Social:List of communist ideologies

As a school of thought, Marxism has had a profound effect on society and global academia. To date, it has influenced many fields, including anthropology,[76][77] archaeology,[78] art theory,[79] criminology,[80] cultural studies,[81][82] economics,[10] education,[83] ethics, film theory,[84] geography,[85] media studies,[86][87] philosophy, political science, political economy, psychoanalysis,[88] science studies,[89] sociology,[90] theatre, and urban planning.

### Classical

Main article: Philosophy:Classical Marxism

Classical Marxism denotes the collection of socio-eco-political theories expounded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.[91] As Ernest Mandel remarked, "Marxism is always open, always critical, always self-critical."[92] Classical Marxism distinguishes Marxism as broadly perceived from "what Marx believed." In 1883, Marx wrote to his son-in-law Paul Lafargue and French labour leader Jules Guesde—both of whom claimed to represent Marxist principles—accusing them of "revolutionary phrase-mongering" and denying the value of reformist struggle.[93] From Marx's letter derives Marx's famous remark that, if their politics represented Marxism, 'ce qu'il y a de certain c'est que moi, je ne suis pas Marxiste' ('what is certain is that I myself am not a Marxist')."[93][94]

### Libertarian

Libertarian Marxism emphasises the anti-authoritarian and libertarian aspects of Marxism. Early currents of libertarian Marxism, such as left communism, emerged in opposition to Marxism–Leninism.[95][96]

Libertarian Marxism is often critical of reformist positions such as those held by social democrats.[97] Libertarian Marxist currents often draw from Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels' later works, specifically the Grundrisse and The Civil War in France;[98] emphasising the Marxist belief in the ability of the working class to forge its destiny without the need for a vanguard party to mediate or aid its liberation.[99] Along with anarchism, libertarian Marxism is one of the main currents of libertarian socialism.[100]

Libertarian Marxism includes currents such as autonomism, council communism, De Leonism, Lettrism, parts of the New Left, Situationism, Freudo-Marxism (a form of psychoanalysis),[101] Socialisme ou Barbarie[102] and workerism.[103] Libertarian Marxism has often strongly influenced both post-left and social anarchists. Notable theorists of libertarian Marxism have included Maurice Brinton, Cornelius Castoriadis, Guy Debord, Raya Dunayevskaya, Daniel Guérin, C. L. R. James, Rosa Luxemburg, Antonio Negri, Anton Pannekoek, Fredy Perlman, Ernesto Screpanti, E. P. Thompson, Raoul Vaneigem, and Yanis Varoufakis,[104] the latter claiming that Marx himself was a libertarian Marxist.[105]

### Humanist

Main article: Philosophy:Marxist humanism

Marxist humanism was born in 1932 with the publication of Marx's Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 and reached a degree of prominence in the 1950s and 1960s. Marxist humanists contend that there is continuity between the early philosophical writings of Marx, in which he develops his theory of alienation, and the structural description of capitalist society found in his later works, such as Capital.({{{1}}}, {{{2}}}) They hold that grasping Marx's philosophical foundations is necessary to understand his later works properly.[106]

Contrary to the official dialectical materialism of the Soviet Union and interpretations of Marx rooted in the structural Marxism of Louis Althusser, Marxist humanists argue that Marx's work was an extension or transcendence of enlightenment humanism.[107] Whereas other Marxist philosophies see Marxism as natural science, Marxist humanism reaffirms the doctrine that "man is the measure of all things"—that humans are essentially different to the rest of the natural order and should be treated so by Marxist theory.[108]

### Academic

V. Gordon Childe, an Australian archaeologist and one of the 20th century's most prominent Marxist academics

According to a 2007 survey of American professors by Neil Gross and Solon Simmons, 17.6% of social science professors and 5.0% of humanities professors identify as Marxists, while between 0 and 2% of professors in all other disciplines identify as Marxists.[109]

### Archaeology

The theoretical development of Marxist archaeology was first developed in the Soviet Union in 1929, when a young archaeologist named Vladislav I. Ravdonikas published a report entitled "For a Soviet history of material culture"; within this work, the very discipline of archaeology as it then stood was criticised as being inherently bourgeois, therefore anti-socialist and so, as a part of the academic reforms instituted in the Soviet Union under the administration of General Secretary Joseph Stalin, a great emphasis was placed on the adoption of Marxist archaeology throughout the country.[110]

These theoretical developments were subsequently adopted by archaeologists working in capitalist states outside of the Leninist bloc, most notably by the Australian academic V. Gordon Childe, who used Marxist theory in his understandings of the development of human society.[111]

### Sociology

Marxist sociology, as the study of sociology from a Marxist perspective,[90] is "a form of conflict theory associated with ... Marxism's objective of developing a positive (empirical) science of capitalist society as part of the mobilisation of a revolutionary working class."[112] The American Sociological Association has a section dedicated to the issues of Marxist sociology that is "interested in examining how insights from Marxist methodology and Marxist analysis can help explain the complex dynamics of modern society."[113]

Influenced by the thought of Karl Marx, Marxist sociology emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. With Marx, Max Weber and Émile Durkheim are considered seminal influences in early sociology. The first Marxist school of sociology was known as Austro-Marxism, of which Carl Grünberg and Antonio Labriola were among its most notable members. During the 1940s, the Western Marxist school became accepted within Western academia, subsequently fracturing into several different perspectives, such as the Frankfurt School or critical theory. The legacy of Critical Theory as a major offshoot of Marxism is controversial. The common thread linking Marxism and Critical theory is an interest in struggles to dismantle structures of oppression, exclusion, and domination.[114] Due to its former state-supported position, there has been a backlash against Marxist thought in post-communist states, such as Poland. However, it remains prominent in the sociological research sanctioned and supported by communist states, such as in China.[115]

### Economics

Main article: Finance:Marxian economics

Marxian economics is a school of economic thought tracing its foundations to the critique of classical political economy first expounded upon by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.[5] Marxian economics concerns itself with the analysis of crisis in capitalism, the role and distribution of the surplus product and surplus value in various types of economic systems, the nature and origin of economic value, the impact of class and class struggle on economic and political processes, and the process of economic evolution. Although the Marxian school is considered heterodox, ideas that have come out of Marxian economics have contributed to mainstream understanding of the global economy. Certain concepts of Marxian economics, especially those related to capital accumulation and the business cycle, such as creative destruction, have been fitted for use in capitalist systems.[116][117][118]

### Education

Marxist education develops Marx's works and those of the movements he influenced in various ways. In addition to the educational psychology of Lev Vygotsky[119] and the pedagogy of Paulo Freire, Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis' Schooling in Capitalist America is a study of educational reform in the U.S. and its relationship to the reproduction of capitalism and the possibilities of utilising its contradictions in the revolutionary movement. The work of Peter McLaren, especially since the turn of the 21st century, has further developed Marxist educational theory by developing revolutionary critical pedagogy,[120] as has the work of Glenn Rikowski,[121] Dave Hill,[122] Other Marxists have an l processes of capitalist and communist education, such as Tyson E. Lewis,[123] Noah De Lissovoy,[124] Gregory Bourassa,[125] and Derek R. Ford.[126] Curry Malott has education in the U.S.,[127] and [[Marvin Gettleman unist education.[128] Sandy Grande has synthesised Marxist educational theory with Indigenous pedagogy,[129] while others like John Holt analyse adult education >Holst (2002). Bergin & Garvey. ISBN 978-0-89789-811-9. OCLC 47142191. {{page needed|date=Apr Other developments include:

* the educational aesthetics of Marxist education[130]
* Marxist analyses of the role of fixed capital in capitalist education[131]
* the educational psychology of capital[132]
* the educational theory of Lenin[133][134]
* the pedagogical function of the Communist Party[135][136]

The latest field of research examines and develops Marxist pedagogy in the postdigital era.[137][138][139]

### Historiography

Main article: History:Marxist historiography

Marxist historiography is a school of historiography influenced by Marxism, the chief tenets of which are the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes. Marxist historiography has contributed to the history of the working class, oppressed nationalities, and the methodology of history from below. Friedrich Engels' most important historical contribution was Der deutsche Bauernkrieg about the German Peasants' War which analysed social warfare in early Protestant Germany regarding emerging capitalist classes.[140] The German Peasants' War indicates the Marxist interest in history from below with class analysis and attempts a dialectical analysis.[141][142][143]

Engels' short treatise The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 was salient in creating the socialist impetus in British politics. Marx's most important works on social and political history include The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, The Communist Manifesto, The German Ideology, and those chapters of Capital dealing with the historical emergence of capitalists and proletarians from pre-industrial English society.[144] Marxist historiography suffered in the Soviet Union as the government requested overdetermined historical writing. Notable histories include the History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks), published in the 1930s to justify the nature of Bolshevik party life under Joseph Stalin. A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) formed in 1946.[145]

While some members of the group, most notably Christopher Hill and E. P. Thompson, left the CPGB after the 1956 Hungarian Revolution,[146] the common points of British Marxist historiography continued in their works. Thompson's The Making of the English Working Class is one of the works commonly associated with this group.[147][148] Eric Hobsbawm's Bandits is another example of this group's work. C. L. R. James was also a great pioneer of the 'history from below' approach. Living in Britain when he wrote his most notable work, The Black Jacobins (1938), he was an anti-Stalinist Marxist and so outside of the CPGB. In India, B. N. Datta and D. D. Kosambi are the founding fathers of Marxist historiography. Today, the senior-most scholars of Marxist historiography are R. S. Sharma, Irfan Habib, Romila Thapar, D. N. Jha, and K. N. Panikkar, most of whom are now over 75 years old.[149]

### Literary criticism

Marxist literary criticism is a loose term describing literary criticism based on socialist and dialectic theories.[150] Marxist criticism views literary works as reflections of the social institutions from which they originate. According to Marxists, even literature is a social institution with a specific ideological function based on the background and ideology of the author. Marxist literary critics include Mikhail Bakhtin, Walter Benjamin, Terry Eagleton, and Fredric Jameson.[151]

### Aesthetics

Marxist aesthetics is a theory of aesthetics based on or derived from the theories of Karl Marx. It involves a dialectical and materialist, or dialectical materialist, approach to the application of Marxism to the cultural sphere, specifically areas related to taste, such as art and beauty, among others.[152] Marxists believe that economic and social conditions, and especially the class relations that derive from them affect every aspect of an individual's life, from religious beliefs to legal systems to cultural frameworks.[79]

## History

### Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

Main articles: Biography:Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

Karl Marx (left) and Friedrich Engels (right), who co-developed Marxism.

Marx addressed the alienation and exploitation of the working class, the capitalist mode of production and historical materialism.[153][154] He is famous for analysing history in terms of class struggle, summarised in the initial line introducing The Communist Manifesto (1848): "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles."[46]

Together with Marx, Engels co-developed communist theory. Marx and Engels first met in September 1844. Discovering that they had similar views of philosophy and socialism, they collaborated and wrote works such as Die heilige Familie (The Holy Family). After Marx was deported from France in January 1845, they moved to Belgium, which permitted greater freedom of expression than other European countries. In January 1846, they returned to Brussels to establish the Communist Correspondence Committee.[155]

In 1847, they began writing The Communist Manifesto (1848), based on Engels' The Principles of Communism. Six weeks later, they published the 12,000-word pamphlet in February 1848. In March, Belgium expelled them, and they moved to Cologne, where they published the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, a politically radical newspaper.[156]

After Marx died in 1883, Engels became the editor and translator of Marx's writings. With his Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884)—analysing monogamous marriage as guaranteeing male social domination of women, a concept analogous, in communist theory, to the capitalist class's economic domination of the working class—Engels made intellectually significant contributions to feminist theory and Marxist feminism.[157][158]

### Russian Revolution and the Soviet Union

### Onset

Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Bolsheviks, who was the founder and first leader of the Soviet Union from 1917 until 1924

Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union from 1924 to 1953, who developed the Marxist school of thought known as Marxism–Leninism

With the October Revolution in 1917, the Bolsheviks took power from the Russian Provisional Government.[159] The Bolsheviks established the first socialist state based on the ideas of soviet democracy and Leninism.[160] Their newly formed federal state promised to end Russian involvement in World War I and create a revolutionary worker's state. Lenin's government also instituted several progressive measures such as universal education, universal healthcare and expanding women's rights.[161][162] 50,000 workers had passed a resolution in favour of Bolshevik demand for transfer of power to the soviets.[163][164] Following the October Revolution, the Soviet government struggled with the White Movement and several independence movements in the Russian Civil War.

In 1919, the nascent Soviet Government established the Communist Academy and the Marx–Engels–Lenin Institute for doctrinal Marxist study and to publish official ideological and research documents for the Russian Communist Party.[165][166] With Lenin's death in 1924, there was an internal struggle in the Soviet Communist movement, mainly between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky, in the form of the Troika of Stalin, Zinoviev and Kamenev[167] and the Left Opposition, respectively. These struggles were based on both sides' different interpretations of Marxist and Leninist theory based on the situation of the Soviet Union at the time.[168] This period is marked by the development of Marxism–Leninism and it becoming the dominant ideological strain.[8][169]

### Chinese Revolution

The theory of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin is universally applicable. We should regard it not as a dogma, but as a guide to action. Studying it is not merely a matter of learning terms and phrases but of learning Marxism-Leninism as the science of revolution. It is not just a matter of understanding the general laws derived by Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin from their extensive study of real life and revolutionary experience, but of studying their standpoint and method in examining and solving problems.

— Mao Zedong, Little Red Book[170]

At the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War and, more widely, World War II, the Chinese Communist Revolution occurred within the context of the Chinese Civil War. The Chinese Communist Party, founded in 1921, conflicted with the Kuomintang over the country's future. Throughout the Civil War, Mao Zedong developed a theory of Marxism for the Chinese historical context. Mao found a large base of support in the peasantry as opposed to the Russian Revolution, which found its primary support in the urban centres of the Russian Empire. Some significant ideas contributed by Mao were the ideas of New Democracy, mass line and people's war. The People's Republic of China (PRC) was declared in 1949. The new socialist state was to be founded on the ideas of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin.[171][172]

From Stalin's death until the late 1960s, there was increased conflict between China and the Soviet Union. De-Stalinisation, which first began under Nikita Khrushchev, and the policy of détente, were seen as revisionist and insufficiently Marxist. This ideological confrontation spilt into a broader global crisis centred around which nation was to lead the international socialist movement.[173]

Following Mao's death and the ascendancy of Deng Xiaoping, Maoism and official Marxism in China were reworked. Commonly referred to as socialism with Chinese characteristics, this new path was initially centred around Deng Xiaoping Theory, which claims to uphold Marxism–Leninism and Maoism, while adapting them to Chinese conditions.[174][175] Deng Xiaoping Theory was based on Four Cardinal Principles, which sought to uphold the central role of the Chinese Communist Party and uphold the principle that China was in the primary stage of socialism and that it was still working to build a communist society based on Marxist principles.[176][177][178]

### Late 20th century

Fidel Castro at the United Nations General Assembly in 1960

In 1959, the Cuban Revolution led to the victory of Fidel Castro and his July 26 Movement. Although the revolution was not explicitly socialist, upon victory, Castro ascended to the position of prime minister and adopted the Leninist model of socialist development, allying with the Soviet Union.[179][180] One of the leaders of the revolution, the Argentine Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara, subsequently went on to aid revolutionary socialist movements in Congo-Kinshasa and Bolivia, eventually being killed by the Bolivian government, possibly on the orders of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), although the CIA agent sent to search for Guevara, Felix Rodriguez, expressed a desire to keep him alive as a possible bargaining tool with the Cuban government. He posthumously went on to become an internationally recognised icon.[181]

In the People's Republic of China, the Maoist government undertook the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976 to purge Chinese society of capitalist elements and achieve socialism. Upon Mao Zedong's death, his rivals seized political power, and under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, many of Mao's Cultural Revolution era policies were revised or abandoned, and a large increase in privatised industry was encouraged.[182][183]

The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the collapse of most of those socialist states that had professed a Marxist–Leninist ideology. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the emergence of the New Right and neoliberal capitalism as the dominant ideological trends in Western politics championed by United States president Ronald Reagan and British prime minister Margaret Thatcher led the West to take a more aggressive stance towards the Soviet Union and its Leninist allies. Meanwhile, the reformist Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in March 1985 and sought to abandon Leninist development models toward social democracy. Ultimately, Gorbachev's reforms, coupled with rising levels of popular ethnic nationalism, led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in late 1991 into a series of constituent nations, all of which abandoned Marxist–Leninist models for socialism, with most converting to capitalist economies.[184][185]

### 21st century

Hugo Chavez casting a vote in 2007

At the turn of the 21st century, China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam remained the only officially Marxist–Leninist states remaining, although a Maoist government led by Prachanda was elected into power in Nepal in 2008 following a long guerrilla struggle.[186][187]

The early 21st century also saw the election of socialist governments in several Latin American nations, in what has come to be known as the "pink tide"; dominated by the Venezuelan government of Hugo Chávez; this trend also saw the election of Evo Morales in Bolivia, Rafael Correa in Ecuador, and Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua. Forging political and economic alliances through international organisations like the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, these socialist governments allied themselves with Marxist–Leninist Cuba. Although none espoused a Stalinist path directly, most admitted to being significantly influenced by Marxist theory. Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez declared himself a Trotskyist during the swearing-in of his cabinet two days before his inauguration on 10 January 2007.[188] Venezuelan Trotskyist organisations do not regard Chávez as a Trotskyist, with some describing him as a bourgeois nationalist,[189] while others consider him an honest revolutionary leader who made significant mistakes due to him lacking a Marxist analysis.[190]

For Italian Marxist Gianni Vattimo and Santiago Zabala in their 2011 book Hermeneutic Communism, "this new weak communism differs substantially from its previous Soviet (and current Chinese) realisation, because the South American countries follow democratic electoral procedures and also manage to decentralise the state bureaucratic system through the Bolivarian missions. In sum, if weakened communism is felt as a spectre in the West, it is not only because of media distortions but also for the alternative it represents through the same democratic procedures that the West constantly professes to cherish but is hesitant to apply."[191]

Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party since 2012

Chinese Communist Party General Secretary Xi Jinping has announced a deepening commitment of the Chinese Communist Party to the ideas of Marx. At an event celebrating the 200th anniversary of Marx's birth, Xi said, "We must win the advantages, win the initiative, and win the future. We must continuously improve the ability to use Marxism to analyse and solve practical problems", adding that Marxism is a "powerful ideological weapon for us to understand the world, grasp the law, seek the truth, and change the world." Xi has further stressed the importance of examining and continuing the tradition of the CPC and embracing its revolutionary past.[192][193][194]

The fidelity of those varied revolutionaries, leaders and parties to the work of Karl Marx is highly contested and has been rejected by many Marxists and other socialists alike.[195][196] Socialists in general and socialist writers, including Dimitri Volkogonov, acknowledge that the actions of authoritarian socialist leaders have damaged "the enormous appeal of socialism generated by the October Revolution."[197]

## Criticism

Criticism of Marxism has come from various political ideologies and academic disciplines.[198][199] This includes general criticism about lack of internal consistency, criticisms related to historical materialism, that it is a type of historical determinism, the necessity of suppression of individual rights, issues with the implementation of communism and economic issues such as the distortion or absence of price signals and reduced incentives. In addition, empirical and epistemological problems are frequently identified.[200][201][202]

Some Marxists have criticised the academic institutionalisation of Marxism for being too shallow and detached from political action.[203] The political theorist Alex Callinicos, who is both a Trotskyist and a professional academic himself, stated: "Its practitioners remind one of Narcissus, who in the Greek legend fell in love with his own reflection. ... Sometimes it is necessary to devote time to clarifying and developing the concepts that we use, but indeed for Western Marxists this has become an end in itself. The result is a body of writings incomprehensible to all but a tiny minority of highly qualified scholars."[204]

Additionally, some intellectual critiques of Marxism contest certain assumptions prevalent in Marx's thought and Marxism after him without rejecting Marxist politics.[205] Other contemporary supporters of Marxism argue that many aspects of Marxist thought are viable but that the corpus is incomplete or outdated regarding certain aspects of economic, political or social theory. They may combine some Marxist concepts with the ideas of other theorists such as Max Weber—the Frankfurt School is one example.[206][207]

### General

Philosopher and historian of ideas Leszek Kołakowski said that "Marx's theory is incomplete or ambiguous in many places, and could be 'applied' in many contradictory ways without manifestly infringing its principles." Specifically, he considers "the laws of dialectics" as fundamentally erroneous, stating that some are "truisms with no specific Marxist content", others "philosophical dogmas that cannot be proved by scientific means", and some just "nonsense"; he believes that some Marxist laws can be interpreted differently, but that these interpretations still in general fall into one of the two categories of error.[208]

Okishio's theorem shows that if capitalists use cost-cutting techniques and real wages do not increase, the rate of profit must rise, which casts doubt on Marx's view that the rate of profit would tend to fall.[209]

The allegations of inconsistency have been a large part of Marxian economics and the debates around it since the 1970s.[210] Andrew Kliman argues that this undermines Marx's critiques and the correction of the alleged inconsistencies because internally inconsistent theories cannot be correct by definition.[211]

### Epistemological and empirical

Critics of Marxism claim that Marx's predictions have failed, with some pointing towards the GDP per capita generally increasing in capitalist economies compared to less market-oriented economics, the capitalist economies not suffering worsening economic crises leading to the overthrow of the capitalist system and communist revolutions not occurring in the most advanced capitalist nations, but instead in undeveloped regions.[212][213] It has also been criticised for allegedly resulting in lower living standards in relation to capitalist countries, a claim that has been disputed.[214]

In his books, The Poverty of Historicism and Conjectures and Refutations, philosopher of science Karl Popper criticised the explanatory power and validity of historical materialism.[215] Popper believed that Marxism had been initially scientific in that Marx had postulated a genuinely predictive theory. When these predictions were not borne out, Popper argues that the theory avoided falsification by adding ad hoc hypotheses that made it compatible with the facts. Because of this, Popper asserted, a theory that was initially genuinely scientific degenerated into pseudoscientific dogma.[216]

### Anarchist

Anarchism has had a strained relationship with Marxism. Anarchists and many non-Marxist libertarian socialists reject the need for a transitory state phase, claiming that socialism can only be established through decentralised, non-coercive organisation.[217] Anarchist Mikhail Bakunin criticised Marx for his authoritarian bent.[218]

### Libertarian and classical liberal

Libertarian and classical liberal economists argue that free markets are a precondition to individual freedom, and that socialism and communism's lack of free markets necessarily leads to authoritarianism.[219][220][221]

### Economic

Other critiques come from an economic standpoint. Vladimir Karpovich Dmitriev writing in 1898,[222] Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz writing in 1906–1907,[223] and subsequent critics have alleged that Marx's value theory and the law of the tendency of the rate of profit to fall are internally inconsistent. In other words, the critics allege that Marx drew conclusions that do not follow his theoretical premises. Once these alleged errors are corrected, his conclusion that aggregate price and profit are determined by and equal to the aggregate value and surplus value no longer holds. This result calls into question his theory that exploiting workers is the sole source of profit.[224]

Marxism and socialism have received considerable critical analysis from multiple generations of Austrian economists regarding scientific methodology, economic theory and political implications.[225][226] During the marginal revolution, a theory of subjective value was developed by Carl Menger,[227] with scholars viewing the development of marginalism more broadly as a response to Marxist economics.[228] Second-generation Austrian economist Eugen Böhm von Bawerk used praxeological and subjectivist methodology to fundamentally attack the law of value. Gottfried Haberler has regarded his criticism as "definitive", arguing that Böhm-Bawerk's critique of Marx's economics was so "thorough and devastating" that he believes that as of the 1960s, no Marxian scholar had conclusively refuted it.[229] Third-generation Austrian Ludwig von Mises rekindled the debate about the economic calculation problem by arguing that without price signals in capital goods, in his opinion, all other aspects of the market economy are irrational. This led him to declare that "rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth."Cite error: Closing `</ref>` missing for `<ref>` tag These charges have been disputed by other influential economists, like John Roemer[230] and Nicholas Vrousalis.[231]

## See also

* Communism
* Democratic socialism
* Influences on Karl Marx
* Marx's theory of human nature
* Marxian class theory
* Marxian economics
* Marxism and religion
* Marxist film theory
* Marxists Internet Archive
* Outline of Marxism
* Post-Marxism
* Social democracy
* Socialism

## References

### Citations

1. ↑ Michael Freeden, Lyman Tower Sargent, Marc Stears, ed (2013). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press. https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34324. Retrieved 8 December 2025.
2. ↑ Krupavičius 2011, pp. 314–315.
3. ↑ Patel, Asmita; Guru, Arpit (2012-06-28). "Marx's Views on Dialectical Materialism and Materialistic Interpretation of History" (in English). Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 3 (2): 165–169. https://rjhssonline.com/AbstractView.aspx?PID=2012-3-2-2.
4. ↑ "Dialectical materialism" (in en). EBSCO Research Starters. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/dialectical-materialism.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Wolff, Richard; Resnick, Stephen (1987). Economics: Marxian versus Neoclassical. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0801834806. https://archive.org/details/economicsmarxian00wolf_0. "The German Marxists extended the theory to groups and issues Marx had barely touched. Marxian analyses of the legal system, of the social role of women, of foreign trade, of international rivalries among capitalist nations, and the role of parliamentary democracy in the transition to socialism drew animated debates ... Marxian theory (singular) gave way to Marxian theories (plural)."
6. ↑ Marx, Karl (1859). "Preface". A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/preface.htm. Retrieved 15 July 2023.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Kuruma, Samezo (1929). "An Introduction to the Theory of Crisis". Journal of the Ohara Institute for Social Research 4 (1). https://www.marxists.org/archive/kuruma/crisis-intro.htm.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Bullock, Alan; Trombley, Stephen, eds (1999). The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought (Third ed.). HarperCollins. p. 506. ISBN 978-0006863830.
9. ↑ March, Luke (2009). "Contemporary Far Left Parties in Europe: From Marxism to the Mainstream?". IPG (Internationale Politik und Gesellschaft) 1: 126–143. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/ipg/ipg-2009-1/10_a_march_us.pdf.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Sperber, Jonathan (16 May 2013). "Is Marx still relevant?" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/may/16/karl-marx-ideas-resonate-today.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Marx, Karl (1859). "Introduction". A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy.
12. ↑ Gregory, Paul R.; Stuart, Robert C. (2003). "Marx's Theory of Change". Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century. South-Western College Publishing. pp. 62. ISBN 0618261818.
13. ↑ Menand, Louis (3 October 2016). "Karl Marx, Yesterday and Today". The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/10/10/karl-marx-yesterday-and-today. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
14. ↑ Andrew, Edward (September 1975). "Marx's Theory of Classes: Science and Ideology". Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue canadienne de science politique (Canadian Political Science Association) 8 (3): 454–466. doi:10.1017/S0008423900046084.
15. ↑ Cohen, G. A.; Veryard, R.; Mellor, D. H.; Last, A. G. M.; Quirk, Randolph; Mason, John (8 September 1986). "Historical Inevitability and Human Agency in Marxism [and Discussion]". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences (Royal Society) 07 (1832): 65–87.
16. ↑ Simirnov, G. (July–December 1985). "Karl Marx on the Individual and the Conditions for His Freedom and Development". The Marxist 3 (3–4). https://www.cpim.org/marxist/198504_marxist_marxism&indv;_simirnov.htm. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
17. ↑ Burkett, Paul (2012). "Marx's Vision of Sustainable Human Development". in Ollman, Bertell; Anderson, Kevin B.. Karl Marx (1st ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 9781315251196.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Engels, Friedrich (Spring 1880). "III [Historical Materialism"]. Socialism: Utopian and Scientific. https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/ch03.htm.
19. ↑ Marx, Karl (1852). The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. "Men make their own history."
20. ↑ Haupt 2010, pp. 18–19; Kołakowski 2005; Lichtheim 2015, pp. 233, 234–235
21. ↑ Haupt 2010, p. 18–19.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Haupt 2010, p. 12.
23. ↑ Lenin 1967, p. 15.
24. ↑ Marx, Karl (1993). Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy. Penguin Classics. p. 265. ISBN 0140445757.
25. ↑ Evans 1975, p. 53.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Johnston 2015, p. 4.
27. ↑ Marx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich (1932). "The German Ideology". Marx/Engels Collected Works. 5. Moscow: Progress Publishers. https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/11/russia.htm. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
28. ↑ Zaleski, Pawel (2008). "Tocqueville on Civilian Society. A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality". Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte (Felix Meiner Verlag GmbH) 50: 260–266.
29. ↑ Chambre, Henri; McLellan, David T., eds (2020). "Historical materialism". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marxism#ref35144. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
30. ↑ Engels, Friedrich (1947). "Introduction". Anti-Dühring: Herr Eugen Dühring's Revolution in Science. Moscow: Progress Publishers. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/introduction.htm. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
31. ↑ Marx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich (1888). "Bourgeoisie and Proletariat". in Engels, Friedrich. The Communist Manifesto. http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/61/pg61-images.html. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
32. ↑ Weber, Cameron (January 2023), Did Karl Marx's "Turn" the Original Social Theory of Class Struggle?, https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/115897/1/MPRA_paper_115897.pdf
33. ↑ Marx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich (1968). "Letter from Marx to Editor of the Otecestvenniye Zapisky". Marx and Engels Correspondence. New York: International Publishers. https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/11/russia.htm. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
34. ↑ Wittfogel, Karl A. (July 1960). "The Marxist View of Russian Society and Revolution". World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) 12 (4): 487–508 [493]. doi:10.2307/2009334.
35. ↑ Marx, Karl (1845). "Theses on Feuerbach". Lawrence and Wishart. https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/theses/index.htm.
36. ↑ Lenin 1967, p. 7.
37. ↑ Marx 1849.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Holmstrom, Nancy (June 1977). "Exploitation". Canadian Journal of Philosophy 7 (2): 353–369. doi:10.1080/00455091.1977.10717024.
39. ↑ Marx, Karl (1976). Capital, Volume I. Penguin. p. 647.
40. ↑ Callinicos 2010, pp. 98–99.
41. ↑ Johnston 2015, p. 5.
42. ↑ Callinicos 2010, pp. 100–103.
43. ↑ Callinicos 2010, pp. 97–100.
44. ↑ Wood, Allen W. (2004). Karl Marx. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415316989.
45. ↑ "Alienation". A Dictionary of Sociology.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 Marx, Karl (1848). "Bourgeois and Proletarians". The Communist Manifesto. London: Marxists Internet Archive. https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm#007. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
47. ↑ Engels, Friedrich (1888). Manifesto of the Communist Party. London: Progress Publishers. p. Footnote. https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm#a1. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
48. ↑ Marx, Karl (1887). "The Buying and Selling of Labour-Power". Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. 1. Moscow: Progress Publishers. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch06.htm. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
49. ↑ Screpanti, Ernesto (2019). "Measures of Exploitation". Labour and Value: Rethinking Marx's Theory of Exploitation. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers. p. 75. doi:10.11647/OBP.0182. ISBN 9781783747825. https://books.google.com/books?id=dDa1DwAAQBAJ. Retrieved 24 July 2023. "Marx's value theory is a complex doctrine in which three different kinds of speculation coalesce: a philosophy aimed at proving that value is created by a labour substance; an explanation of the social relations of production in capitalism; and a method for measuring exploitation."
50. ↑ Holt, Justin P. (2014). "Class". The Social Thought of Karl Marx. SAGE. p. 105. ISBN 9781412997843.
51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Siegrist, Hannes (2001). Wright, James D.. ed. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. 2 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 784–789. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.62013-5. ISBN 9780080430768.
52. ↑ Wolf, Eric R. (1999). "Conclusion". Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 294.
53. ↑ Parenti, Michael (1978). "Class Consciousness and Individualized Consciousness". Power and the Powerless. St. Martin's Press. pp. 94–113. ISBN 0-312-63373-4.
54. ↑ Munro, André. "Class consciousness - Social Stratification, Marxism & Class Conflict". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/class-consciousness.
55. ↑ Edles, Laura Desfor; Appelrouth, Scott (2020). Sociological Theory in the Classical Era. SAGE Publications. p. 48. ISBN 978-1506347820.
56. ↑ McCarney, Joseph (2005). "Ideology and False Consciousness". in Lucas, R.; Blunden, A.. Marx Myths and Legends. http://marxmyths.org/joseph-mccarney/article.htm.
57. ↑ Engels, Friedrich (1968). "Letter to Franz Mehring". Marx and Engels Correspondence. London: International Publishers. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1893/letters/93_07_14.htm.
58. ↑ Marx, Karl (1845). The German Ideology. https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01b.htm. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
59. ↑ "Introduction". Political Economy: A Textbook issued by the Economics Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. Lawrence & Wishart. 1957. https://www.marxists.org/subject/economy/authors/pe/index.htm#INTRODUCTION.
60. ↑ Castro 2009, p. 100.
61. ↑ Goldman, Emma (1932). "1" (in en). There Is No Communism in Russia. https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/emma-goldman-there-is-no-communism-in-russia. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
62. ↑ Lukács, György (1924). "The State as Weapon". Lenin: A Study on the Unity of his Thought. https://www.marxists.org/archive/lukacs/works/1924/lenin/ch05.htm.
63. ↑ Mitchinson, Phil (21 July 2010). "Marxism and the state". Socialist Appeal. https://socialist.net/marxism-and-the-state/.
64. ↑ Mau, Søren (18 July 2023). "Communism is Freedom". https://www.versobooks.com/en-gb/blogs/news/communism-is-freedom.
65. ↑ Foster, John Bellamy; Holleman, Hannah; Clark, Brett (1 July 2020). "Marx and Slavery". Monthly Review. https://monthlyreview.org/2020/07/01/marx-and-slavery/.
66. ↑ Engels, Friedrich. "IX. Barbarism and Civilization". Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/ch09.htm. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
67. ↑ Zhao, Jianmin; Dickson, Bruce J. (2001). Remaking the Chinese State: Strategies, Society, and Security. Taylor & Francis. p. 2. ISBN 978-0415255837. https://books.google.com/books?id=5Mm2BEf4iiwC&pg=PA2. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
68. ↑ Kurian, George Thomas (2011). "Withering Away of the State". The Encyclopedia of Political Science. Washington, DC: CQ Press. p. 1776. doi:10.4135/9781608712434.n1646. ISBN 9781933116440.
69. ↑ Hudis, Peter; Vidal, Matt; Smith, Tony et al., eds (September 2018 – June 2019). "Marx's Concept of Socialism". The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190695545.001.0001. ISBN 978-0190695545. https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190695545.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190695545-e-50. (Also: )
70. ↑ Lenin 1967, pp. 35–36.
71. ↑ Niemi, William L. (2011). "Karl Marx's sociological theory of democracy: Civil society and political rights". The Social Science Journal 48 (1): 39–51. doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2010.07.002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2010.07.002.
72. ↑ Miliband, Ralph (2011). Marxism and politics. Aakar Books.
73. ↑ Springborg, Patricia (1984). "Karl Marx on Democracy, Participation, Voting, and Equality". Political Theory 12 (4): 537–556. doi:10.1177/0090591784012004005. https://www.jstor.org/stable/191498.
74. ↑ Wolff, Richard (2000). "Marxism and democracy". Rethinking Marxism 12 (1): 112–122. doi:10.1080/08935690009358994. https://doi.org/10.1080/08935690009358994.
75. ↑ Hardt, Hanno (2000). "Communication is Freedom: Karl Marx on Press Freedom and Censorship". Javnost - the Public 7 (4): 85–99. doi:10.1080/13183222.2000.11008760. ISSN 1318-3222. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13183222.2000.11008760. Retrieved 6 July 2025.
76. ↑ O'Laughlin, Bridget (October 1975). "Marxist Approaches in Anthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology 4 (1): 341–370. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.002013. ISSN 0084-6570.
77. ↑ Roseberry, William (21 October 1997). "Marx and Anthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1): 25–46. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.25.
78. ↑ Trigger, Bruce G. (2007). A History of Archaeological Thought (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 337. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511813016. ISBN 978-0-521-60049-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=SuoekuMtIIsC.
79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 Marcuse, Herbert (1978). "Preface". The Aesthetic Dimension: Toward a Critique of Marxist Aesthetics. Beacon Press. pp. ix–xiii. ISBN 0-8070-1518-0.
80. ↑ Tibbetts, Stephen G. (6 April 2011). Criminological Theory: The Essentials. SAGE Publications. ISBN 9781412992343. https://books.google.com/books?id=XPA44ThcnJkC.
81. ↑ Dworkin, Dennis (1997). Cultural Marxism in Post-War Britain: History, the New Left, and the Origins of Cultural Studies. Durham: Duke University Press.
82. ↑ Hartley, John (2003). "Culture from Arnold to Schwarzenegger: Imperial Literacy to Pop Culture (destination democracy?)". A Short History of Cultural Studies. London: SAGE Publications. pp. 31–57.
83. ↑ Malott, Curry; Ford, Derek (2015). Marx, capital, and education: towards a critical pedagogy of becoming. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4539-1602-5. OCLC 913956545.
84. ↑ Wayne, Mike, ed (2005). Understanding Film: Marxist Perspectives. Pluto Press. p. 24.
85. ↑ Mitchell, Don (2020). Mean streets: homelessness, public space, and the limits of capital. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-5691-4. OCLC 1151767935.
86. ↑ Becker, Samuel L. (18 May 2009). "Marxist approaches to media studies: The British experience". Critical Studies in Mass Communication 1 (1): 66–80. doi:10.1080/15295038409360014.
87. ↑ Alvarado, Manuel; Gutch, Robin; Wollen, Tana (1987). Learning the Media: Introduction to Media Teaching. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 62, 76.
88. ↑ Pavón-Cuéllar, David (2017). "Marxism, Psychoanalysis, and Critique of Psychology". Marxism and Psychoanalysis: In or Against Psychology?. Concepts for Critical Psychology (1st ed.). New York and London: Routledge. pp. 113–149. ISBN 9781138916586. https://books.google.com/books?id=rCQlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA125.
89. ↑ Sheehan, Helena (July 2007). "Marxism and Science Studies: A Sweep through the Decades". International Studies in the Philosophy of Science 21 (2): 197–210. doi:10.1080/02698590701498126. http://doras.dcu.ie/508/. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 Johnson, Allan G. (2000). The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology: A User's Guide to Sociological Language. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 183–184. ISBN 0-631-21681-2.
91. ↑ Gluckstein, Donny (26 June 2014). "Classical Marxism and the question of reformism". International Socialism (143). http://isj.org.uk/classical-marxism-and-the-question-of-reformism/. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
92. ↑ Mandel, Ernest (1994). Revolutionary Marxism and Social Reality in the 20th Century. Humanities Press International. p. 50. ISBN 0-391-03800-1.
93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 Marx, Karl; Guesde, Jules (1880). The Programme of the Parti Ouvrier. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/05/parti-ouvrier.htm. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
94. ↑ Hall, Stuart; Morely, Dave; Chen, Kuan-Hsing (1996). Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies. London: Routledge. p. 418. ISBN 978-0415088039. https://books.google.com/books?id=EPENAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA418. Retrieved 4 March 2013. "I have no hesitation in saying that this represents a gigantic crudification and simplification of Marx's work—the kind of simplification and reductionism which once led him, in despair, to say "if that is marxism, then I am not a marxist."
95. ↑ Memos, Christos (2012). "Anarchism and Council Communism on the Russian Revolution". Anarchist Studies 20 (2): 22–47 [30]. ISSN 0967-3393.
96. ↑ Gorter, Hermann; Pannekoek, Antonie; Pankhurst, Sylvia; Rühle, Otto (2007). Non-Leninist Marxism: Writings on the Workers Councils. St. Petersburg, Florida: Red and Black Publishers. ISBN 978-0979181368.
97. ↑ "The Retreat of Social Democracy ... Re-imposition of Work in Britain and the 'Social Europe'". Aufheben (8). 1999. http://libcom.org/library/social-democracy-1-aufheben-8. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
98. ↑ Screpanti, Ernesto (2007). Libertarian communism: Marx Engels and the Political Economy of Freedom. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230018969.
99. ↑ Draper, Hal (1971). "The Principle of Self-Emancipation in Marx and Engels". The Socialist Register 8 (8): 81–104. http://socialistregister.com/index.php/srv/article/view/5333. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
100. ↑ Chomsky, Noam, Government In The Future, Poetry Center of the New York YM-YWHA, http://www.chomsky.info/audionvideo/19700216.mp3
101. ↑ Martin, Jim. Orgone Addicts: Wilhelm Reich Versus The Situationists.. http://www.lust-for-life.org/Lust-For-Life/ReichVersusTheSituationists/ReichVersusTheSituationists.htm. Retrieved 24 April 2022. "I will also discuss other left-libertarians who wrote about Reich, as they bear on the general discussion of Reich's ideas...In 1944, Paul Goodman, author of Growing Up Absurd, The Empire City, and co-author of Gestalt Therapy, began to discover the work of Wilhelm Reich for his American audience in the tiny libertarian socialist and anarchist milieu."
102. ↑ Howard, Dick (1975). "Introduction to Castoriadis". Telos (23): 118.
103. ↑ "A libertarian Marxist tendency map". Libcom.org. http://libcom.org/library/libertarian-marxist-tendency-map.
104. ↑ Varoufakis, Yanis. "Yanis Varoufakis thinks we need a radically new way of thinking about the economy, finance and capitalism". TED (conference). https://www.ted.com/speakers/yanis_varoufakis. "Yanis Varoufakis describes himself as a "libertarian Marxist"
105. ↑ Lowry, Ben (11 March 2017). "Yanis Varoufakis: We leftists are not necessarily pro public sector – Marx was anti state". The NewsLetter. https://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/yanis-varoufakis-we-leftists-are-not-necessarily-pro-public-sector-marx-was-anti-state-1-7861928.
106. ↑ Marcuse 1972, pp. 1–48.
107. ↑ Spencer, Robert (17 February 2017). "Why We Need Marxist-Humanism Now". London: Pluto Press. https://www.plutobooks.com/blog/marxist-humanism-now/.
108. ↑ Edgley 1991, p. 420.
109. ↑ Gross, Neil; Simmons, Solon (2014). "The Social and Political Views of American College and University Professors". in Gross, Neil; Simmons, Solon. Professors and Their Politics. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 19–50. doi:10.1353/book.31449. ISBN 978-1421413358. https://books.google.com/books?id=D1vCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
110. ↑ Trigger 2007, pp. 326–340.
111. ↑ Green 1981, p. 79.
112. ↑ "Marxist Sociology". Encyclopedia of Sociology. Macmillan Reference. 2006. http://www.bookrags.com/research/marxist-sociology-eos-03/. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
113. ↑ "About the Section on Marxist Sociology". http://www2.asanet.org/sectionmarxist/about.html.
114. ↑ Fuchs, Christian (2021). "What is Critical Theory?". Foundations of Critical Theory. Routledge. pp. 17–51. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139196598.007.
115. ↑ Xiaogang, Wu (May–June 2009). "Between Public and Professional: Chinese Sociology and the Construction of a Harmonious Society". ASA Footnotes 37 (5). http://www.asanet.org/footnotes/intl_0509.html.
116. ↑ Loesche, Frank; Torre, Ilaria (2020). "Creative Destruction". Encyclopedia of Creativity (Third ed.). pp. 226–231. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809324-5.23696-1. ISBN 9780128156155.
117. ↑ Marx, Karl (1969). Theories of Surplus-Value: "Volume IV" of Capital. 2. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pp. 495–96. ISBN 9780853151944. https://books.google.com/books?id=sU23AAAAIAAJ. Retrieved 10 November 2010.
118. ↑ Aghion, Philippe; Howitt, Peter (1998). Endogenous growth theory. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262011662. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262528467/endogenous-growth-theory/. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
119. ↑ Malott, Curry (16 July 2021). "Vygotsky's revolutionary educational psychology". https://mronline.org/2021/07/16/vygotskys-revolutionary-educational-psychology/.
120. ↑ McLaren, Peter; Pruyn, Marc; Huerta-Charles, Luis (2016). This fist called my heart. ISBN 978-1-68123-454-0. OCLC 945552771.
121. ↑ Rikowski, Glenn (December 1997). "Scorched Earth: prelude to rebuilding Marxist educational theory". British Journal of Sociology of Education 18 (4): 551–574. doi:10.1080/0142569970180405.
122. ↑ Rasinski, Lotar; Hill, Dave; Skordoulis, Kostas (2019). Marxism and education: international perspectives on theory and action. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-89169-5. OCLC 1129932782.
123. ↑ Lewis, Tyson E. (January 2012). Mapping the Constellat journal=Educational Philosophy and Theory. 44. pp. 98–114. doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.2009.00563.x.
124. ↑ De Lissovoy, Noah (January 2011). "Pedagogy in Common: Democratic education in the global era". Educational Philosophy and Theory 43 (10): 1119–1134. doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.2009.00630.x.
125. ↑ Bourassa, Gregory N. (June 2019). "An Autonomist Biopolitics of Education: Reproduction, Resistance, and the Specter of Constituent Bíos". Educational Theory 69 (3): 305–325. doi:10.1111/edth.12370.
126. ↑ Ford, Derek (2016). Communist study: education for the commons. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1-4985-3245-7. OCLC 957740361. [page needed]
127. ↑ Malott, Curry (2020). History of education for the many: from colonisation and slavery to the decline of U.S. imperialism. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-350-08571-8. OCLC 1100627401. [page needed]
128. ↑ {{cite j =Marvin |author1-link=Marvin Gettleman |title=Explorations in the History of Left Education in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Europe |journal=[[Paeda y 1999 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=11–14 |doi=10.1080/0030923990350101}}
129. ↑ Grande, Sandy (2004). Red pedagogy: Native American social and political thought. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-1828-5. OCLC 54424848. [page needed]
130. ↑ Ford, Derek R.; Lewis, Tyson E. (1 March 2018). "On the Freedom to Be Opaque Monsters". Cultural Politics 14 (1): 95–108. doi:10.1215/17432197-4312940.
131. ↑ Ford, Derek R. (August 2014). "Spatializing Marxist Educational Theory: School, the Built Environment, Fixed Capital and (Relational) Space". Policy Futures in Education 12 (6): 784–793. doi:10.2304/pfie.2014.12.6.784.
132. ↑ Rikowski, Glenn (2020). "The Psychology of Capital". in Pejnović, Vesna Stanković. New Understanding of Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Belgrade: Institute for Political Studies. pp. 9–31. ISBN 978-8674193303.
133. ↑ FitzSimmons, Robert; Suoranta, Juha (2020). "Lenin on Learning and the Development of Revolutionary Consciousness". Journal of Critical Education Policy Studies 18 (1): 34–62. http://www.jceps.com/archives/8208. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
134. ↑ Malott, Curry (2017). "Right-to-Work and Lenin's Communist Pedagogy: An Introduction". Texas Education Review 3 (2). doi:10.15781/T2ZW18X7W.
135. ↑ Boughton, Bob (June 2013). "Popular education and the 'party line'". Globalisation, Societies and Education 11 (2): 239–257. doi:10.1080/14767724.2013.782189.
136. ↑ Ford, Derek R. (16 April 2017). "Studying like a communist: Affect, the Party, and the educational limits to capitalism". Educational Philosophy and Theory 49 (5): 452–461. doi:10.1080/00131857.2016.1237347. https://scholarship.depauw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=educ_facpubs.
137. ↑ Ford, Derek R.; Jandrić, Petar (19 May 2021). "Postdigital Marxism and education". Educational Philosophy and Theory 56 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1080/00131857.2021.1930530.
138. ↑ Carmichael, Patrick (April 2020). "Postdigital Possibilities: Operaismo, Co-research, and Educational Inquiry". Postdigital Science and Education 2 (2): 380–396. doi:10.1007/s42438-019-00089-0.
139. ↑ Ford, Derek R. (October 2021). "Pedagogically Reclaiming Marx's Politics in the Postdigital Age: Social Formations and Althuserrian Pedagogical Gestures". Postdigital Science and Education 3 (3): 851–869. doi:10.1007/s42438-021-00238-4.
140. ↑ Wolf, Eric R. (Spring 1987). "The Peasant War in Germany: Friedrich Engels as Social Historian". Science & Society (Guilford Press) 51 (1): 82–92. doi:10.1177/003682378705100107.
141. ↑ Fine, Ben; Saad-Filho, Alfredo; Boffo, Marco (January 2012). The Elgar Companion to Marxist Economics. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 212. ISBN 9781781001226. https://books.google.com/books?id=xe0VQArHt8sC&q=determinism&pg=PA212.
142. ↑ O'Rourke, J. J. (6 December 2012). The Problem of Freedom in Marxist Thought. Springer Science+Business Media. p. 5. ISBN 9789401021203. https://books.google.com/books?id=A2WSBgAAQBAJ&q=marxist+history+deterministic&pg=PA5.
143. ↑ Stunkel, Kenneth (23 May 2012). Fifty Key Works of History and Historiography. Routledge. p. 247. ISBN 9781136723667. https://books.google.com/books?id=9pem7Ip_WUgC&pg=PA247.
144. ↑ Krieger, Leonard (June 1953). "Marx and Engels as Historians". Journal of the History of Ideas (University of Pennsylvania Press) 14 (3): 381–403. doi:10.2307/2707808.
145. ↑ Hobsbawm, Eric (9 June 2023). "The Historians' Group of the Communist Party". https://www.versobooks.com/en-gb/blogs/news/the-historians-group-of-the-communist-party.
146. ↑ Hamilton, Scott (2012). "Yesterday the struggle: 'Outside the Whale' and the fight for the 1930s". The Crisis of Theory: E. P. Thompson, the New Left and Postwar British Politics. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 52.
147. ↑ Steinberg, Marc W. (April 1991). "The Re-Making of the English Working Class?". Theory and Society 20 (2): 173–197. doi:10.1007/BF00160182.
148. ↑ Howell, David (10 October 2014). "Creativities in Contexts: E. P. Thompson's The Making of the English Working Class". Contemporary British History 28 (4): 517–533. doi:10.1080/13619462.2014.962918.
149. ↑ Bottomore, Thomas, ed (1991). A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 54. ISBN 978-0631180821.
150. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Eagleton 1976`
151. ↑ Hartley, Daniel (18 December 2023). "Marxist Literary Criticism: An Introductory Reading Guide". https://www.historicalmaterialism.org/marxist-literary-criticism-an-introductory-reading-guide/.
152. ↑ Carroll, Noël (2021). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-M073-1. ISBN 978-0-415-25069-6.
153. ↑ Guo 2011, p. 1495.
154. ↑ Krupavičius 2011, p. 314.
155. ↑ Beamish, Rob (18 March 1998). "The Making of the Manifesto". Socialist Register 34: 218–239. https://socialistregister.com/index.php/srv/article/view/5708/2604.
156. ↑ Bosmajian, Haig A.. "A Rhetorical Approach to the Communist Manifesto". https://dalspace.library.dal.ca/bitstream/handle/10222/62745/dalrev_vol43_iss4_pp457_468.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
157. ↑ Carver, Terrell (Winter 1985). "Engels's Feminism". History of Political Thought 6 (3): 479–489.
158. ↑ Sayers, Janet; Evans, Mary; Redclift, Nanneke (1987). "Introduction: Engels, socialism, and feminism". Engels Revisited. Routledge. ISBN 9780203857212.
159. ↑ Wade, Rex A. (2004). ""All Power to The Soviets": The Bolsheviks Take Power". Revolutionary Russia: New Approaches. Routledge. p. 211. ISBN 0-203-33984-3.
160. ↑ Acton, Edward (1997). Acton, Edward; Cherniaev, Vladimir Iu.; Rosenberg, William G.. eds. Critical Companion to the Russian Revolution, 1914-1921. Indiana University Press. p. 8.
161. ↑ Adams, Katherine H.; Keene, Michael L. (10 January 2014). After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists. McFarland. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-7864-5647-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=oyaxYvSG6gAC&dq=lenin+universal+literacy+after+the+vote+was+won&pg=PA109.
162. ↑ Ugri͡umov, Aleksandr Leontʹevich (1976). Lenin's Plan for Building Socialism in the USSR, 1917–1925. Novosti Press Agency Publishing House. p. 48. https://books.google.com/books?id=gXknAQAAMAAJ&q=lenin+universal+literacy.
163. ↑ Head, Michael (12 September 2007). Evgeny Pashukanis: A Critical Reappraisal. Routledge. pp. 71–72. ISBN 978-1-135-30787-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=PYGNAgAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PT83.
164. ↑ Shukman, Harold (5 December 1994). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution. John Wiley & Sons. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-631-19525-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=ScabEAAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PA21.
165. ↑ David-Fox, Michael (1 November 2016). Revolution of the Mind: Higher Learning among the Bolsheviks, 1918–1929. Cornell University Press. doi:10.7591/9781501705397. ISBN 978-1-5017-0539-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/9781501705397.
166. ↑ Barber, John (1981). Soviet Historians in Crisis, 1928-1932. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-349-05239-4.
167. ↑ Hosking, Geoffrey A. (1993). The first socialist society: a history of the Soviet Union from within (2nd enl. ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-30443-7.
168. ↑ McMeekin, Sean (2017). The Russian Revolution: A New History. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0465039906.
169. ↑ Lisichkin, G. (1989). "Mify i real'nost'" (in ru). Novy Mir 3: 59.
170. ↑ Mao, Tse Tung. Quotes from Mao Tse Tung. https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/works/red-book/quotes.htm. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
171. ↑ Franke, Wolfgang (1970). A Century of Chinese Revolution, 1851–1949. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
172. ↑ Ellison, Herbert J., ed (1982). The Sino-Soviet Conflict: A Global Perspective. https://www.questia.com/library/101611113/the-sino-soviet-conflict-a-global-perspective.
173. ↑ Mao, Zedong (July 1964). 1964: On Khrushchov's Phoney Communism and Its Historical Lessons for the World. https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/works/1964/phnycom.htm. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
174. ↑ "The Years of Hardship and Danger". China Daily. 14 September 2010. http://cpcchina.chinadaily.com.cn/people/2010-09/14/content_11301454_6.htm.
175. ↑ Zhang, Wei-Wei (1996). Ideology and economic reform under Deng Xiaoping, 1978–1993. Routledge.
176. ↑ Schram, Stuart (1989). The Thought of Mao Tse-Tung. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521310628.
177. ↑ "Uphold the Four Cardinal Principles". The People's Daily. 30 March 1979. http://en.people.cn/dengxp/vol2/text/b1290.html.
178. ↑ Shambaugh, David (2000). The Modern Chinese State. Cambridge University Press. p. 184. ISBN 9780521776035.
179. ↑ Bourne 1986.
180. ↑ Coltman 2003.
181. ↑ "Cuba pays tribute to Che Guevara" (in en). BBC News. 9 October 2007. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7033880.stm.
182. ↑ "Deng Xiaoping's legacy: The Great Stabiliser". The Economist. 22 October 2011. https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2011/10/22/the-great-stabiliser.
183. ↑

* "Selected Works of Deng Xiaopeng Volume 1 (1938–1965)". http://english.cpc.people.com.cn/mediafile/200607/05/F2006070515295500635.swf.
* "Selected Works of Deng Xiaopeng Volume 2 (1975–1982)". http://english.cpc.people.com.cn/mediafile/200607/05/F2006070515261400629.swf.
* "Selected Works of Deng Xiaopeng Volume 3 (1982–1992)". http://english.cpc.people.com.cn/mediafile/200607/05/F2006070515274900631.swf.

184. ↑ "Collection: Cuban revolution collection". https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/12/resources/5037?stylename=yul.ead2002.xhtml.xsl&pid=mssa:ms.0650&query=&clear-stylesheet-cache=yes&hlon=yes&big=&adv=&filter=&hitPageStart=&sortFields=&view=all.
185. ↑ D'Encausse, Helene Carrere (1993). The End of the Soviet Empire: The Triumph of the Nations. New York: The New Republic. p. 16. ISBN 978-0465098125.
186. ↑ "List Of Communist Countries Today" (in en-US). 30 November 2018. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/list-of-communist-countries-today.html.
187. ↑ "New Maoist-led government installed in Nepal". 2 September 2008. https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2008/09/nepa-s02.html.
188. ↑ Malinarich, Nathalie. "Chavez accelerates on path to socialism". BBC News. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6246219.stm.
189. ↑ "Declaración Polãtica de la JIR, como Fracción Pública del PRS, por una real independencia de clase (Extractos) – Juventud de Izquierda Revolucionaria" (in es). http://www.jir.org.ve/article.php3?id_article=211.
190. ↑ Sanabria, William. "La Enmienda Constitucional, Orlando Chirino y la C-CURA" (in es). http://venezuela.elmilitante.org/content/view/6417/182/.
191. ↑ Vattimo, Gianni; Zabala, Santiago (2011). Hermeneutic Communism: From Heidegger to Marx. Columbia University Press. p. 122. ISBN 9780231528078.
192. ↑ Shepherd, Christian (4 May 2018). "No regrets: Xi says Marxism still 'totally correct' for China". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-germany-marx-china/no-regrets-xi-says-marxism-still-totally-correct-for-china-idUSKBN1I50ET.
193. ↑ Jiang, Steven (18 May 2018). "At the height of his power, China's Xi Jinping moves to embrace Marxism". CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/17/asia/xi-jinping-marxism-china-intl/index.html.
194. ↑ "China's huge celebrations of Karl Marx are not really about Marxism". 4 May 2018. https://qz.com/1270109/chinas-communist-party-and-xi-jinping-are-celebrating-the-200th-birthday-of-karl-marx-with-a-vengeance/.
195. ↑ Phillips, Ben (1981). "USSR: Capitalist or Socialist?". The Call 10 (8). https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-7/cpml-ussr.htm. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
196. ↑ Garner, Dwight (18 August 2009). "Fox Hunter, Party Animal, Leftist Warrior". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/19/books/19garner.html.
197. ↑ Volkogonov, Dimitri (1991). Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 173. ISBN 978-0297810803.
198. ↑ Kirby, Mark (2000). Sociology in Perspective. Heinemann. p. 273. ISBN 978-0435331603.
199. ↑ Ollman, Bertell (1957). Criticisms of Marxism 1880–1930. University of Wisconsin–Madison. pp. 1, 6.
200. ↑ Howard, M. C.; King, J. E. (1992). A History of Marxian Economics. II, 1929–1990. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
201. ↑ Popper, Karl (2002). Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. Routledge. p. 49. ISBN 978-0415285940.
202. ↑ Keynes, John Maynard (1991). Essays in Persuasion. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 300. ISBN 978-0393001907.
203. ↑ Horton, John (1977). "A Contribution to the Critique of Academic Marxism: Or How the Intellectuals Liquidate Class Struggle". Synthesis–Fall 1977 (Social Justice/Global Options) 2 (1/2): 78–104.
204. ↑ Callinicos 2010, p. 12.
205. ↑ Baudrillard, Jean (1975). The Mirror of Production. New York: Telos Press. ISBN 978-0914386063.
206. ↑ Held, David (October 1980). Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to Habermas. University of California Press. pp. 16. ISBN 9780520041752.
207. ↑ Jameson, Fredric (2002). "The Theoretical Hesitation: Benjamin's Sociological Predecessor". in Nealon, Jeffrey T.; Irr, Caren. Rethinking the Frankfurt School: Alternative Legacies of Cultural Critique. SUNY Press. pp. 11–30. ISBN 978-0791454923. https://books.google.com/books?id=XSL3gr4m_k8C&pg=PA11. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
208. ↑ Kołakowski 2005, pp. 662, 909.
209. ↑ Howard, M. C.; King, J. E. (1992). "7". A History of Marxian Economics. II, 1929–1990. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. §§II–IV.
210. ↑ Howard, M. C.; King, J. E. (1992). "7". A History of Marxian Economics. 1929–1990. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
211. ↑ Kliman 2007, p. 3: "Marx's value theory would be necessarily wrong if it were internally inconsistent. Internally inconsistent theories may be appealing, intuitively plausible and even obvious, and consistent with all available empirical evidence—but they cannot be right. It is necessary to reject them or correct them. Thus the alleged proofs of inconsistency trump all other considerations, disqualifying Marx's theory at the starting gate. By doing so, they provide the principal justification for the suppression of this theory as well as the suppression of, and the denial of resources needed to carry out, present-day research based upon it. This greatly inhibits its further development. So does the very charge of inconsistency. What person of intellectual integrity would want to join a research program founded on (what he believes to be) a theory that is internally inconsistent and therefore false?", However, in his book, Kliman presents an interpretation where these inconsistencies can be eliminated. The connection between the inconsistency allegations and the lack of study of Marx's theories was argued further by Cassidy, John (20–27 October 1997). "The Return of Karl Marx". The New Yorker: 252. "His mathematical model of the economy, which depended on the idea that labor is the source of all value, was riven with internal inconsistencies and is rarely studied these days.".
212. ↑ Kliman 2007, p. 208.
213. ↑ "GDP per capita growth (annual %)". World Bank. 2016. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.KD.ZG.
214. ↑ Cereseto, S; Waitzkin, H (June 1986). "Economic development, political-economic system, and the physical quality of life.". American Journal of Public Health 76 (6): 661–666. doi:10.2105/ajph.76.6.661. PMID 3706593.
215. ↑ Popper, Karl (1963). "Science as Falsification". http://www.stephenjaygould.org.
216. ↑ Popper, Karl Raimund (2002). Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. Psychology Press. p. 449. ISBN 978-0415285940. https://books.google.com/books?id=IENmxiVBaSoC&pg=PA449. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
217. ↑ Franks, Benjamin (2012). "Between Anarchism and Marxism: the beginnings and ends of the schism…". Journal of Political Ideologies 17 (2): 207–227. doi:10.1080/13569317.2012.676867.
218. ↑ Bakunin, Mikhail (5 October 1872), Letter to La Liberté, quoted in Bakunin on Anarchy, translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971, https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bakunin/works/1872/la-liberte.htm, retrieved 24 April 2022
219. ↑ Hayek, Friedrich A. von (1999). The road to serfdom (50. anniversary ed., [Nachdr.] ed.). Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-32061-8.
220. ↑ Ball, Terence, ed (2010). The Cambridge history of twentieth-century political thought. The Cambridge history of political thought (Nachdr. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56354-3.
221. ↑ Chait, Jonathan; newsletter, who’s been a New York political columnist since 2011 He writes the; c. (2016-03-23). "Reminder: Liberalism Is Working, and Marxism Has Always Failed" (in en). https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2016/03/reminder-liberalism-is-working-marxism-failed.html.
222. ↑ Dmitriev, V. K. (1974). Economic Essays on Value, Competition and Utility. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
223. ↑
224. ↑ Howard, M. C.; King, J. E. (1992). "12". A History of Marxian Economics. II, 1929–1990. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. §III.
225. ↑ "What We Can Know About the World". Ludwig von Mises Institute. 1 December 2009. https://mises.org/library/what-we-can-know-about-world.
226. ↑ von Mises, Ludwig (2008). Omnipotent Government. Read Books. ISBN 978-1443726467. https://mises.org/library/omnipotent-government-rise-total-state-and-total-war. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
227. ↑ Nenovsky, Nikolay; Karpouzanov, Momtchil (2010), Value, Prices and Money. Comparing Marx and Menger, https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/62040/2/MPRA_paper_62040.pdf
228. ↑ Screpanti, Ernesto; Zamagni, Stefano (2005). An Outline of the History of Economic Theory. Oxford University Press. pp. 170–173.
229. ↑ Haberler, Gottfried (1966). Drachkovitch, Milorad M.. ed. Marxist Ideology in the Contemporary World: Its Appeals and Paradoxes. Books for Libraries Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0836981544. https://archive.org/details/marxistideologyi00drac/page/124/mode/1up.
230. ↑ Roemer, John (1982) (in English). A General Theory of Exploitation and Class. Harvard University Press. p. iv. ISBN 978-0674344402.
231. ↑ Vrousalis, Nicholas (27 May 2020). "Review of Ernesto Screpanti's Labour and Value: Rethinking Marx's Theory of Exploitation. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, 2019, 131 pp.". Erasmus Journal for Philosophy and Economics 13 (1). doi:10.23941/ejpe.v13i1.472. https://www.ejpe.org/journal/article/view/472.

### Bibliography

* Alderson, David (2017). For Humanism. United States: Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0745336145.
* Bourne, Peter (1986). Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company.
* Callinicos, Alex (2010). The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx. London: Bookmarks. ISBN 978-1905192687.
* Castro, Fidel (2009). My Life: A Spoken Autobiography. New York: Scribner. Ignacio Ramonet (interviewer). ISBN 978-1416562337.
* Coltman, Leycester (2003). The Real Fidel Castro. New Haven, CT / London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300107609. https://archive.org/details/realfidelcastro00colt_0.
* D'Amato, Paul (2006). The Meaning of Marxism. Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1931859295.
* Edgley, Roy (1991). "Philosophy". in Bottomore, Tom; Harris, Laurence; Kiernan, V. G. et al.. The Dictionary of Marxist Thought (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishers. pp. 419–423. ISBN 978-0631164814.
* Evans, Michael (1975). Karl Marx. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd. ISBN 978-0415436779.
* Fromm, Erich (1966). Marx's Concept of Man. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co.. ISBN 978-0804461610. https://archive.org/details/marxsconceptofma00from. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
* Green, Sally (1981). Prehistorian: A Biography of V. Gordon Childe. Bradford-on-Avon, UK: Moonraker Press. ISBN 978-0239002068.
* Guo, Dingping (2011). "Marxism". in Badie, Bertrand; Berg-Schlosser, Dirk; Morlino, Leonardo. International Encyclopedia of Political Science. 5. SAGE Publications. pp. 1495–1501. doi:10.4135/9781412994163. ISBN 9781412959636.
* Haupt, Georges (2010). Fawcett, Peter; Hobsbawm, Eric. eds. Aspects of International Socialism, 1871–1914: Essays by Georges Haupt (paperback ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Johnston, Les (2015). Marxism, Class Analysis And Socialist Pluralism: A Theoretical and Political Critique of Marxist Conceptions of Politics. Routledge Library Editions: Marxism. 15. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-71497-4.
* Kliman, Andrew (2007). Reclaiming Marx's "Capital": A Refutation of the Myth of Inconsistency. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
* Kołakowski, Leszek (2005). Main Currents of Marxism: The Founders, the Golden age, the Breakdown. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. ISBN 978-0393329438. OCLC 213085194.
* Krupavičius, Algis (2011). "Communist Parties". in Badie, Bertrand; Berg-Schlosser, Dirk; Morlino, Leonardo. International Encyclopedia of Political Science. 2. SAGE Publications. pp. 314–320. doi:10.4135/9781412994163. ISBN 9781412959636.
* Lenin, Vladimir (1967). Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism. Peking: Foreign Languages Press. http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
* Lichtheim, George (2015). Marxism: An Historical and Critical Study. Routledge Library Editions: Marxism. 13. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-71310-6.
* Marcuse, Herbert (1972). "The Foundation of Historical Materialism". Studies in Critical Philosophy. Beacon Press Boston. pp. 1–48. ISBN 0807015288. https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/marcuse/works/historical-materialism/index.htm. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
* Marx, Karl (1849). Wage Labour and Capital. Germany: Neue Rheinische Zeitung. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/wage-labour/index.htm. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
* Petrović, Gajo (1967). Marx in the Mid-twentieth Century: A Yugoslav Philosopher Considers Karl Marx's Writings. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books. OCLC 1036708143. https://archive.org/details/marxinmidtwentie00petr. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
* Smith, Cyril (1998). "The Standpoint of Socialised Humanity". Marx at the Millennium. https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/smith-cyril/works/millenni/smith3.htm. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
* Trigger, Bruce G. (2007). A History of Archaeological Thought (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521600491. https://archive.org/details/historyofarchaeo0000trig.

## Further reading

* Agar, Jolyon (2006). Rethinking Marxism: From Kant and Hegel to Marx and Engels. London / New York: Routledge. ISBN 041541119X.
* Avineri, Shlomo (1968). The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521096195.
* Dahrendorf, Ralf (1959). Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804705608. https://archive.org/details/classclassconfli0000dahr.
* Elster, Jon (1986). An Introduction to Karl Marx. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521329221.
* Kuznicki, Jason T. (2008). Hamowy, Ronald. ed. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 318–320. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n193. ISBN 978-1412965804. OCLC 750831024. https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n193.xml.
* McLellan, David (2007). Marxism After Marx. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1403997289.
* Parkes, Henry Bamford (1964). Marxism: An Autopsy. Phoenix Books (1st Phoenix ed.). University of Chicago Press. OCLC 265852. https://www.worldcat.org/title/265852.
* Prychitko, David (2008). David R. Henderson. ed. Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Liberty. pp. 337–340. ISBN 978-0865976658. OCLC 237794267. https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Marxism.html.
* Robinson, Cedric J. (2000). Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0241514177.
* Rummel, R.J. (1977). "Marxism, Class Conflict, and the Conflict Helix". Conflict In Perspective. http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/CIP.CHAP5.HTM.
* Screpanti, Ernesto; Zamagni, Stefano (1993). An Outline of the History of Economic Thought. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199279142.
* Sheehan, Helena (2017). Marxism and the Philosophy of Science: A Critical History. London: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1786634269.

## External links

Library resources about
Marxism

* * *

* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* Marxism at the Encyclopædia Britannica

Links to related articles

* v
* t
* e

Communism

Concepts|

* Anti-capitalism
* Class conflict
* Class consciousness
* Classless society
* Collective leadership
* Collectivism
* Common ownership
* Commune
* Commune (model of government)
* Communist society
* Free association
* From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs
* Gift economy
* Market abolitionism
* Planned economy
* Proletarian internationalism
* Labour movement
* Social revolution
* Stateless society
* Wage slavery
* Workers' self-management
* World communism
* World revolution

Aspects|

* Communist party
* List of anti-capitalist and communist parties with national parliamentary representation
* List of communist parties
* Communist revolution
* Communist state
* Communist symbolism
* History of communism

Variants|

* Anarchist
* Marxism
* Leninist
* Libertarian
* Pre-Marxist
* Utopian
* Primitive
* Religious
* Christian

Internationals|

* Communist League
* First International
* Second International
* Third International
* Fourth International

People|

* More
* Campanella
* Babeuf
* Owen
* Weitling
* Marx
* Engels
* Reclus
* Kropotkin
* Malatesta
* Luxemburg
* Zetkin
* Liebknecht
* Lenin
* Berkman
* Goldman
* Sacco and Vanzetti
* Trotsky
* Makhno
* Kollontai
* Gramsci
* Stalin
* Durruti
* Pannekoek
* Pankhurst
* Reich
* Togliatti
* Ho
* Mao
* Tito
* Camus
* Marcuse
* Sartre
* Hoxha
* Beauvoir
* Guevara
* Pasolini
* Kim
* Berlinguer
* Castoriadis
* Debord
* Bookchin
* Castro
* Marcos

By region|

* Colombia
* France
* India
* Kerala
* Korea
* Nepal
* Peru
* Philippines
* Poland
* Russia
* Sumatra
* Vietnam

Anthem|

* "The Internationale"

Related topics|

* Anarchism
* Social
* Anti-communism
* Anti anti-communism
* Anti-communist mass killings
* Anti-fascism
* Anti-globalization movement
* Capitalism
* Communitarianism
* Crimes against humanity under communist regimes (Mass killings)
* Critical theory
* Internationalism
* Intentional community
* Left-wing politics
* Old Left
* New Left
* Marx's theory of alienation
* National communism
* Romania
* Red Scare
* Revolution
* Social democracy
* Socialism
* Democratic
* Libertarian
* Revolutionary
* Socialist economics
* Socialist mode of production
* Syndicalism
* Trade union
* War communism
* Worker cooperative

Portal

* v
* t
* e

Socialism

Schools of thought|

* 21st century
* Agrarian
* Communist
* Democratic
* Ethical
* Feminist
* Green
* Guild
* Labourism
* Syndicalism
* Liberal
* Market
* Marxian
* Nationalist
* Reformist
* Revolutionary
* Scientific
* Social democracy
* Utopian
* Fourierism
* Icarianism
* Owenism
* Saint-Simonianism
* Technocracy

| Libertarian
(From below)|

* Anarchism
* Collectivist
* Communist
* Free-market
* Left-wing laissez-faire
* Left-wing market
* Green
* Individualist
* Insurrectionary
* Magonism
* Mutualism
* Neozapatismo
* Participism
* Platformism
* Social
* Syndicalist
* Left-libertarianism
* Libertarian Marxism
* Left communism
* Council communism
* Luxemburgism
* Mao-Spontex
* Third camp

|

Authoritarian
(From above)|

* Barracks
* Nechayevism
* Blanquism
* Bolshevism
* Leninism
* Marxism–Leninism
* Brezhnevism
* Castroism
* Ceaușism
* Guevarism
* Ho Chi Minh Thought
* Hoxhaism
* Husakism
* Juche
* Kadarism
* Khrushchevism
* Maoism
* Dengism
* Maoism–Third Worldism
* Marxism–Leninism–Maoism
* Marxism–Leninism–Maoism–Gonzalo Thought
* Marxism–Leninism–Maoism–Prachanda Path
* Xi Jinping Thought
* Stalinism
* Neo-Stalinism
* Tkachevism
* Trotskyism
* Neo-Trotskyism
* Pabloism
* Posadism
* Orthodox Trotskyism
* State
* Lassallism

Religious|

* Buddhist
* Christian
* Islamic
* Jewish

Regional variants|

* African
* African-Caribbean
* Arab
* Bolivarian
* Chinese
* Communist
* Nationalist
* European
* Eurocommunism
* Israeli
* Indonesian
* Melanesian
* Mexican
* Soviet
* In one country
* Real
* Sri Lankan
* Third World
* Yugoslav

Key topics and issues|

* Anarchist economics
* Anti-revisionism
* Criticism of capitalism
* Criticism of socialism
* Class struggle
* Democracy
* Dictatorship of the proletariat
* Egalitarianism
* Equality of outcome
* History of anarchism
* History of communism
* History of socialism
* Impossibilism
* "The Internationale"
* Internationalism
* State-owned enterprise
* Land reform
* Left-wing politics
* Mixed economy
* Mode of production
* Nanosocialism
* Nationalization
* Planned economy
* Post-capitalism
* Proletarian revolution
* Reformism
* Revisionism
* Socialisation of production
* Socialist economics
* Socialist market economy
* Socialist state
* State capitalism
* Trade union
* Welfare state

Concepts|

* Adhocracy
* Anarchist economics
* Basic income
* Calculation in kind
* Commune
* Common ownership
* Cooperative ownership
* Decentralized planning
* Direct democracy
* Economic democracy
* Economic planning
* Equal opportunity
* Free association
* Industrial democracy
* Labor-time calculation
* Labour voucher
* Organizational self-management
* Production for use
* Public ownership
* Social dividend
* Socialist mode of production
* Technocracy
* Workplace democracy

People|

| 16th c.|

* Tommaso Campanella
* Thomas More

|

18th c.|

* Gracchus Babeuf
* Victor d'Hupay
* Gabriel Bonnot de Mably
* Sylvain Maréchal
* Étienne-Gabriel Morelly

19th c.|

* Stephen Pearl Andrews
* Mikhail Bakunin
* John Goodwyn Barmby
* Enrico Barone
* August Bebel
* Edward Bellamy
* Eduard Bernstein
* Louis Blanc
* Louis Auguste Blanqui
* Philippe Buchez
* Georg Büchner
* Philippe Buonarroti
* Étienne Cabet
* Edward Carpenter
* Nikolay Chernyshevsky
* James Connolly
* Victor Prosper Considerant
* Claire Démar
* Théodore Dézamy
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Prosper Enfantin
* Friedrich Engels
* Charles Fourier
* Emma Goldman
* William Batchelder Greene
* Charles Hall
* Alexander Herzen
* Thomas Hodgskin
* Jean Jaurès
* Mother Jones
* Karl Kautsky
* Peter Kropotkin
* Paul Lafargue
* Albert Laponneraye
* Ferdinand Lassalle
* Pyotr Lavrov
* Alexandre Ledru-Rollin
* Pierre Leroux
* Helen Macfarlane
* Errico Malatesta
* Karl Marx
* Louise Michel
* Nikolay Mikhaylovsky
* William Morris
* Robert Owen
* Antonie Pannekoek
* Giovanni Pascoli
* Constantin Pecqueur
* Georgi Plekhanov
* Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
* Luis Emilio Recabarren
* Henri de Saint-Simon
* Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin
* George Sand
* Friedrich Wilhelm Schulz
* Eugène Sue
* Lysander Spooner
* Fred M. Taylor
* William Thompson
* Pyotr Tkachev
* Benjamin Tucker
* Suzanne Voilquin
* Alfred Russel Wallace
* Josiah Warren
* Wilhelm Weitling
* Oscar Wilde

20th c.|

* Tariq Ali
* Salvador Allende
* Louis Aragon
* Clement Attlee
* Henri Barbusse
* Zygmunt Bauman
* Simone de Beauvoir
* Walter Benjamin
* Tony Benn
* Léon Blum
* Grace Lee Boggs
* Murray Bookchin
* Bertolt Brecht
* Aristide Briand
* Nikolai Bukharin
* Cornelius Castoriadis
* Hugo Chávez
* Noam Chomsky
* G. D. H. Cole
* Jeremy Corbyn
* Bob Crow
* Guy Debord
* Eugene V. Debs
* John Dewey
* Alexander Dubček
* Albert Einstein
* Einar Gerhardsen
* Mikhail Gorbachev
* Maxim Gorky
* Antonio Gramsci
* Chris Hedges
* Eric Hobsbawm
* Dolores Ibárruri
* Pablo Iglesias Posse
* Elfriede Jelinek
* Martin Luther King Jr.
* Alexandra Kollontai
* Jack Layton
* Henri Lefebvre
* Claude Lefort
* Vladimir Lenin
* Ken Livingstone
* György Lukács
* Rosa Luxemburg
* Nestor Makhno
* Nelson Mandela
* Mao Dun
* Vladimir Mayakovsky
* Maurice Merleau-Ponty
* China Miéville
* François Mitterrand
* Evo Morales
* Imre Nagy
* Gamal Abdel Nasser
* Otto Neurath
* Paul Nizan
* Abdullah Öcalan
* Seán O'Casey
* George Orwell
* Sylvia Pankhurst
* Fred Paterson
* Pier Paolo Pasolini
* Karl Polanyi
* Bertrand Russell
* Gaetano Salvemini
* Bernie Sanders
* Jean-Paul Sartre
* Arthur Scargill
* Léopold Sédar Senghor
* George Bernard Shaw
* R. H. Tawney
* E. P. Thompson
* Ernst Toller
* Leon Trotsky
* Yanis Varoufakis
* H. G. Wells
* Cornel West
* Richard D. Wolff
* Clara Zetkin
* Howard Zinn
* Slavoj Žižek

Organizations|

* Communist International
* Fifth International
* Foro de São Paulo
* Fourth International
* International League of Peoples' Struggle
* International League of Religious Socialists
* International Marxist Tendency
* International Union of Socialist Youth
* International Workingmen's Association
* Second International
* Socialist International
* World Federation of Democratic Youth
* World Socialist Movement

See also|

* Anarchism
* Criticism of socialism
* Communism
* Economic calculation problem
* Marxist philosophy
* New Left
* Old Left
* Socialist calculation debate

* Politics portal
* Socialism portal

* v
* t
* e

Social democracy

History|

* Age of Enlightenment
* Frankfurt Declaration
* French Revolution
* Godesberg Program
* Humanism
* Internationalist–defencist schism
* Keynesianism
* Labor movement
* Marxism
* Orthodox
* Revisionist
* Nordic model
* Reformist–revolutionary dispute
* Socialism
* Revolutions of 1848
* Utopian socialism
* Welfare capitalism

Concepts|

* Civil liberties
* Democracy
* Economic
* Industrial
* Representative
* Dirigisme
* Environmentalism
* Environmental protection
* Fair trade
* Gradualism
* Internationalism
* Land reform
* Labor rights
* Left-wing nationalism
* Mixed economy
* {{{sp}}}|uk|s|z}}ation
* Negative and positive rights
* Progressivism
* Reformism
* Left
* Socialism
* Revolutionary socialism
* Secularism
* Social corporatism
* Social justice
* Social market economy
* Socialist state
* Capitalism
* Socialism
* Trade union
* Tripartisme
* Welfare
* Welfare state

Variants|

* Democratic socialism
* Ethical socialism
* Evolutionary socialism
* Liberal socialism
* Socialism of the 21st century
* Third Way

People|

* Ambedkar
* Allende
* Ardern
* Attlee
* Awolowo
* Batlle y Ordóñez
* Bebel
* Ben-Gurion
* Bernstein
* Betancourt
* Bhutto
* Blair
* Blanc
* Brandt
* Branting
* Brown
* Callaghan
* Lázaro Cárdenas
* Chávez
* Clark
* Craxi
* Crosland
* Corbyn
* Curtin
* Daszyński
* Debs
* Douglas
* Drees
* Ebert
* Ecevit
* Engels
* Fraser
* Gaitskell
* Gandhi
* González
* Goulart
* Hardie
* Hilferding
* Jaurès
* Jenkins
* Junmai
* Katayama
* Kautsky
* Kerensky
* Kéthly
* Kirk
* Lagos
* Lassalle
* Layton
* Lenin
* Lévesque
* Liebknecht (father)
* Liebknecht (son)
* Rosa Luxemburg
* MacDonald
* Mandela
* Marx
* Morales
* Myrdal
* Nehru
* Batlle y Ordóñez
* Palme
* Plekhanov
* Prodi
* Russell
* Sanders
* Savage
* Stauning
* Thomas
* Den Uyl
* Webb
* Wilson
* Zhordania

{{{sp}}}|uk|s|z}}ations|

* International Trade Union Confederation
* International Union of Socialist Youth
* Party of European Socialists
* Progressive Alliance
* Socialist International
* Young European Socialists

By region|

* Austria
* Germany
* United States

Related|

* Communism
* "The Internationale"
* Socialism
* Types of socialism

* Economics portal
* Politics portal
* Socialism portal

* v
* t
* e

Works by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

Marx|

| Das Kapital|

* Das Kapital, Volume I (1867)
* Das Kapital, Volume II (1885, posthumous)
* Das Kapital, Volume III (1894, posthumous)

|

Other works|

* Scorpion and Felix (1837)
* Oulanem (1839)
* The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature (1841)
* "The Philosophical Manifesto of the Historical School of Law" (1842)
* Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right (1843, published 1927)
* "On the Jewish Question" (1843)
* "Notes on James Mill" (1844)
* Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 (1844, published 1932)
* "Theses on Feuerbach" (1845, published 1888)
* The Poverty of Philosophy (1847)
* "Wage Labour and Capital" (1847)
* The Class Struggles in France, 1848–1850 (1850)
* The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon (1852)
* Grundrisse (1857, published 1939)
* A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859)
* Theories of Surplus Value (three volumes, 1862)
* "Value, Price and Profit" (1865)
* "The Belgian Massacres" (1869)
* "The Civil War in France" (1871)
* Critique of the Gotha Program (1875)
* Mathematical manuscripts of Karl Marx (1968)
* Marx's notebooks on the history of technology

Marx and
Engels|

* The Holy Family (1844)
* The German Ideology (1845, published 1932)
* The Communist Manifesto (1848)
* The Civil War in the United States (1861)

Engels|

* The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845)
* Principles of Communism (1847)
* The Peasant War in Germany (1850)
* "The Part Played by Labour in the Transition from Ape to Man" (1876)
* Anti-Dühring (1878)
* Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (1880)
* Dialectics of Nature (1883)
* The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884)
* Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy (1886)
* A Contribution to the History of Primitive Christianity (1894)
* Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Germany (1896, posthumous)

Collections|

* Marx/Engels Collected Works (1975 - 2004)
* Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe (1975 - today)
* Karl Marx Library (1971 - 1977)

* v
* t
* e

Marxist phraseology and terminology

Philosophy and politics
(Marxist)|

* Barracks communism
* Base and superstructure
* Bourgeoisie
* Bourgeois democracy
* Bourgeois nationalism
* Bourgeois socialism
* Capitalist mode of production
* Class struggle
* Commodification
* Dialectics
* Dictatorship of the proletariat
* Historical materialism
* Imperialism
* Liquidationism
* Lumpenproletariat
* Means of labor
* Metabolic rift
* Petite bourgeoisie
* Primitive accumulation of capital
* Proletarian internationalism
* Proletarian revolution
* Pure communism
* Revolutionary spontaneity
* Revolutionary wave
* Scientific socialism
* Socialist mode of production
* Super-imperialism
* Theoretician
* Two stage theory
* Wage slavery
* Workers' council
* Workers' control
* World revolution

Economics and sociology
(Marxian)|

* Accumulation of capital
* Capital
* Capitalist mode of production
* Crisis of capitalism
* Commanding heights of the economy
* Commodity
* Commodity production
* Dominant ideology
* Exchange value
* Free association
* Law of value
* Materialism
* Means of production
* Mode of production
* Productive forces
* Production for use
* Relations of production
* Ruling class
* Simple commodity production
* Socialist mode of production
* Socially necessary labour time
* Socialization
* Social murder
* Subject of labor
* Surplus value
* Use value
* Value
* Worker cooperative

Marxist–Leninist|

* Cadre
* Central Committee
* Democratic centralism
* Dual power
* Enemy of the people
* Foco
* General line of the party
* National liberation
* New class
* People's democracy
* Politburo
* Political rehabilitation
* Popular front
* Real socialism
* Revisionism
* Revolutionary terror
* Self-criticism
* Socialist accumulation
* Socialism in one country
* Social fascism
* Social imperialism
* Soviet democracy
* United front
* Vanguardism

Trotskyist|

* Deformed workers' state
* Degenerated workers' state
* French Turn
* Permanent revolution
* Social revolution
* Transitional demand
* Uneven and combined development
* United front
* World revolution

Maoist|

* Antagonistic contradiction
* Capitalist roader
* Four Olds
* Marxism–Leninism–Maoism
* Mass line
* New Democracy
* One Divides Into Two
* People's war
* Revolutionary base area
* Struggle session

* v
* t
* e

Political philosophy

Terms|

* Authority
* Citizenship‎
* Duty
* Elite
* Emancipation
* Freedom
* Government
* Hegemony
* Hierarchy
* Justice
* Law
* Legitimacy
* Liberty
* Monopoly
* Nation
* Obedience
* Peace
* People
* Pluralism
* Power
* Progress
* Propaganda
* Property
* Regime
* Revolution
* Rights
* Ruling class
* Society
* Sovereignty‎
* State
* Utopia
* War

Government|

* Aristocracy
* Oligarchy
* Autocracy
* Bureaucracy
* Dictatorship
* Democracy
* Ochlocracy
* Gerontocracy
* Meritocracy
* Monarchy
* Tyranny
* Plutocracy
* Republic
* Technocracy
* Theocracy

Ideologies|

* Agrarianism
* Anarchism
* Capitalism
* Christian democracy
* Colonialism
* Communism
* Communitarianism
* Confucianism
* Conservatism
* Corporatism
* Distributism
* Environmentalism
* Fascism
* Feminism
* Feudalism
* Hindutva
* Imperialism
* Islamism
* Liberalism
* Libertarianism
* Localism
* Marxism
* Monarchism
* Multiculturalism
* Nationalism
* Nazism
* Populism
* Republicanism
* Social Darwinism
* Social democracy
* Socialism
* Third Way

Concepts|

* Balance of power
* Bellum omnium contra omnes
* Body politic
* Clash of civilizations
* Common good
* Consent of the governed
* Divine right of kings
* Family as a model for the state
* Monopoly on violence
* Natural law
* Negative and positive rights
* Night-watchman state
* Noble lie
* Noblesse oblige
* Open society
* Ordered liberty
* Original position
* Overton window
* Separation of powers
* Social contract
* State of nature
* Statolatry
* Supermajority
* Tyranny of the majority

Philosophers|

| Antiquity|

* Aristotle
* Chanakya
* Cicero
* Confucius
* Han Fei
* Lactantius
* Mencius
* Mozi
* Plato
* political philosophy
* Polybius
* Shang
* Sun Tzu
* Thucydides
* Xenophon

|

Middle Ages|

* Al-Farabi
* Aquinas
* Averroes
* Bruni
* Dante
* Gelasius
* al-Ghazali
* Ibn Khaldun
* Marsilius
* Muhammad
* Nizam al-Mulk
* Ockham
* Plethon
* Wang

Early modern
period|

* Boétie
* Bodin
* Bossuet
* Calvin
* Campanella
* Filmer
* Grotius
* Guicciardini
* Hobbes
* political philosophy
* James
* Leibniz
* Locke
* Luther
* Machiavelli
* Milton
* More
* Müntzer
* Pufendorf
* Spinoza
* Suárez

18th and 19th
centuries|

* Al-Afghani
* Bakunin
* Bastiat
* Beccaria
* Bentham
* Bolingbroke
* Bonald
* Burke
* Carlyle
* Comte
* Condorcet
* Constant
* Cortés
* Engels
* Fichte
* Fourier
* Franklin
* Godwin
* Haller
* Hegel
* Herder
* Hume
* Iqbal
* Jefferson
* Kant
* political philosophy
* Le Bon
* Le Play
* Madison
* Maistre
* Marx
* Mazzini
* Mill
* Montesquieu
* Nietzsche
* Owen
* Paine
* Renan
* Rousseau
* Sade
* Saint-Simon
* Smith
* Spencer
* de Staël
* Stirner
* Taine
* Thoreau
* Tocqueville
* Tucker
* Voltaire

20th and 21st
centuries|

* Agamben
* Ambedkar
* Apo
* Arendt
* Aron
* Badiou
* Bauman
* Benoist
* Berlin
* Bernstein
* Burnham
* Chomsky
* Dmowski
* Du Bois
* Dugin
* Dworkin
* Evola
* Fanon
* Fisher
* Foucault
* Fromm
* Fukuyama
* Gandhi
* Gentile
* Gramsci
* Guénon
* Habermas
* Hayek
* Hoppe
* Huntington
* Kautsky
* Khomeini
* Kirk
* Kropotkin
* Laclau
* Lenin
* Luxemburg
* Mansfield
* Mao
* Marcuse
* Maurras
* Michels
* Mises
* Mosca
* Mouffe
* Negri
* Nozick
* Nursi
* Nussbaum
* Oakeshott
* Ortega
* Pareto
* Popper
* Qutb
* Rand
* Rawls
* Röpke
* Rothbard
* Russell
* Sartre
* Savarkar
* Schmitt
* Scruton
* Shariati
* Sorel
* Spann
* Spengler
* Strauss
* Sun
* Taylor
* Voegelin
* Walzer
* Weber

Works|

* Republic (c.375 BCE)
* Politics (c.350 BCE)
* Analects of Confucius (c.475 BCE-1279 CE)
* On the Republic (51 BCE)
* Siyasatnama (11th century)
* Treatise on Law (c. 1274)
* Monarchy (1313)
* Muqaddimah (1337)
* The Prince (1532)
* Leviathan (1651)
* Two Treatises of Government (1689)
* The Spirit of Law (1748)
* The Social Contract (1762)
* Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
* Rights of Man (1791)
* Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820)
* Democracy in America (1835–1840)
* The Communist Manifesto (1848)
* On Liberty (1859)
* The Revolt of the Masses (1929)
* The Road to Serfdom (1944)
* The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945)
* The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
* The Wretched of the Earth (1961)
* A Theory of Justice (1971)
* The End of History and the Last Man (1992)

Related|

* Authoritarianism
* Collectivism and individualism
* Conflict theories
* Contractualism
* Critique of political economy
* Egalitarianism
* Elite theory
* Elitism
* History of political thought
* Institutional discrimination
* Jurisprudence
* Justification for the state
* Political ethics
* Political spectrum
* Left-wing politics
* Centrism
* Right-wing politics
* Religion in politics
* Christianity
* Islam
* Judaism
* Secular state
* Separation of church and state
* State atheism
* Political violence
* Separatism
* Social justice
* Statism
* Totalitarianism

* Category:Political philosophy

0.00

(0 votes)

Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism. Read more

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Philosophy:Marxism&oldid=4377292"
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[c.]: century