Climate change mitigation

Short description: Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change

Various aspects of climate change mitigation: Renewable energy (solar and wind power) in England, electrified public transport in France, a reforestation project in Haiti to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and an example of a plant-based meal

Climate change mitigation, also called climate change decarbonisation, is an action to limit the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause climate change. Climate change mitigation actions include conserving energy and replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources. Secondary mitigation strategies include changes to land use and removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.[1][2] 2022 assessments emphasize that global greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 and decline by about 43% by 2030 to limit warming to 1.5 °C, requiring rapid transitions in energy, transport, and land-use systems.[3]

The adopted climate change mitigation policies are insufficient, as they contribute to some changes but fail to accelerate transitions at the scale and speed required,[4][5] and would still result in global warming of about 2.7 °C by 2100,[6] significantly above the 2015 Paris Agreement's[7] goal of limiting global warming to below 2 °C.[8][9]Recent research shows that demand-side climate solutions—such as shifts in transportation behavior, dietary change, improved building energy efficiency, and reduced material consumption—could reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by 40% to 70% by 2050 while improving human well-being.[10]

Solar energy and wind power can replace fossil fuels at the lowest cost compared to other renewable energy options.[11] The availability of sunshine and wind is variable and can require electrical grid upgrades, such as using long-distance electricity transmission to group a range of power sources.[12] Energy storage can also be used to even out power output, and demand management can limit power use when power generation is low. Cleanly generated electricity can usually replace fossil fuels for powering transportation, heating buildings, and running industrial processes.[13] Certain processes are more difficult to decarbonise, such as air travel and cement production. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) can be an option to reduce net emissions in these circumstances, although fossil fuel power plants with CCS technology is currently a high-cost climate change mitigation strategy.[14][15][16]

Human land use changes such as agriculture and deforestation cause about 1/4th of climate change. These changes impact how much CO
2 is absorbed by plant matter and how much organic matter decays or burns to release CO
2. These changes are part of the fast carbon cycle, whereas fossil fuels release CO
2 that was buried underground as part of the slow carbon cycle. Methane is a short-lived greenhouse gas that is produced by decaying organic matter and livestock, as well as fossil fuel extraction. Land use changes can also impact precipitation patterns and the reflectivity of the surface of the Earth. It is possible to cut emissions from agriculture by reducing food waste, switching to a more plant-based diet (also referred to as low-carbon diet), and by improving farming processes.[17]

Various policies can encourage climate change mitigation. Carbon pricing systems have been set up that either tax CO
2 emissions or cap total emissions and trade emission credits. Fossil fuel subsidies can be eliminated in favour of clean energy subsidies, and incentives offered for installing energy efficiency measures or switching to electric power sources.[18] Another issue is overcoming environmental objections when constructing new clean energy sources and making grid modifications. Limiting climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions or removing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere could be supplemented by climate technologies such as solar radiation management (or solar geoengineering). Complementary climate change actions, including climate activism, have a focus on political and cultural aspects. While climate mitigation is often cast as a burden to be distributed in some or other way, it can also be seen as an opportunity for industrial development, exports, and status seeking for countries.[19] The examples and precedents that countries set may influence other countries to follow suit.[19]

## Contents

* 1 Definitions and scope
* 2 Emission trends and pledges
* 2.1 Needed emissions cuts
* 2.2 Pledges
* 3 Low-carbon energy
* 3.1 Solar and wind energy
* 3.2 Other renewables
* 3.3 Integrating variable renewable energy
* 3.4 Nuclear power
* 3.5 Replacing coal with natural gas
* 4 Demand reduction
* 4.1 Energy conservation and efficiency
* 4.2 Lifestyle changes
* 4.3 Dietary change
* 4.4 Family size
* 5 Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks
* 5.1 Forests
* 5.1.1 Conservation
* 5.1.2 Afforestation, reforestation and preventing desertification
* 5.2 Soils
* 5.3 Wetlands
* 5.4 Deep ocean
* 5.5 Enhanced weathering
* 6 Other methods to capture and store CO2
* 7 Mitigation by sector
* 7.1 Buildings
* 7.2 Urban planning
* 7.3 Transport
* 7.3.1 Shipping
* 7.3.2 Air transport
* 7.4 Agriculture, forestry and land use
* 7.5 Industry
* 8 Co-benefits
* 8.1 Employment and economic development
* 8.2 Energy security
* 8.3 Health and well-being
* 8.4 Climate change adaptation
* 9 Negative side effects
* 10 Costs and funding
* 10.1 Avoided costs of climate change effects
* 10.2 Distributing emissions abatement costs
* 10.3 Funding
* 11 Policies
* 11.1 National policies
* 11.1.1 Carbon pricing
* 11.2 International agreements
* 11.2.1 Paris Agreement
* 11.2.2 Supply-side vs. demand-side policies
* 12 History
* 13 Barriers
* 14 Society and culture
* 14.1 Commitments to divest
* 14.2 Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic
* 15 Examples by country
* 15.1 United States
* 15.2 China
* 15.3 European Union
* 16 Related approaches
* 16.1 Relationship with solar radiation modification (SRM)
* 17 See also
* 18 References
* 19 Further reading

## Definitions and scope

Template:Climate change mitigation Climate change mitigation aims to sustain ecosystems to maintain human civilisation. This requires drastic cuts in greenhouse gas emissions.[20]: 1–64 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines mitigation (of climate change) as "a human intervention to reduce emissions or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases".[21]: 2239 It is possible to approach various mitigation measures in parallel. This is because there is no single pathway to limit global warming to 1.5 or 2 °C.[22]: 109 There are four types of measures:

1. Sustainable energy and sustainable transport
2. Energy conservation, including efficient energy use
3. Sustainable agriculture and green industrial policy
4. Enhancing carbon sinks and carbon dioxide removal (CDR), including carbon sequestration

The IPCC defined carbon dioxide removal as "Anthropogenic activities removing carbon dioxide (CO
2) from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical CO
2 sinks and direct air carbon dioxide capture and storage (DACCS) but excludes natural CO
2 uptake not directly caused by human activities."[21]

## Emission trends and pledges

Main article: Earth:Greenhouse gas emissions

GHG emissions 2020 by gas type
without land-use change
using 100 year GWP
Total: 49.8 GtCO
2e[23]: 5

2 mostly by fossil fuel (72%)

CH4 methane (19%)

N2O nitrous oxide (6%)

Fluorinated gases (3%)

2 emissions by fuel type[24]

coal (39%)

oil (34%)

gas (21%)

cement (4%)

others (1.5%)

Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities strengthen the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Most is carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas. Human-caused emissions have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. Emissions in the 2010s averaged a record 56 billion tons (Gt) a year.[25] In 2016, energy for electricity, heat and transport was responsible for 73.2% of GHG emissions. Direct industrial processes accounted for 5.2%, waste for 3.2% and agriculture, forestry and land use for 18.4%.[26]

Electricity generation and transport are major emitters. The largest single source is coal-fired power stations with 20% of greenhouse gas emissions.[27] Deforestation and other changes in land use also emit carbon dioxide and methane. The largest sources of anthropogenic methane emissions are agriculture, and gas venting and fugitive emissions from the fossil-fuel industry. The largest agricultural methane source is livestock. Agricultural soils emit nitrous oxide, partly due to fertilizers.[28] There is now a political solution to the problem of fluorinated gases from refrigerants. This is because many countries have ratified the Kigali Amendment.[29]

Carbon dioxide (CO
2) is the dominant emitted greenhouse gas. Methane (CH
4) emissions almost have the same short-term impact.[30] Nitrous oxide (N2O) and fluorinated gases (F-Gases) play a minor role. Livestock and manure produce 5.8% of all greenhouse gas emissions.[26] But this depends on the time frame used to calculate the global warming potential of the respective gas.[31][32]

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are measured in CO
2 equivalents. Scientists determine their CO
2 equivalents from their global warming potential (GWP). This depends on their lifetime in the atmosphere. There are widely used greenhouse gas accounting methods that convert volumes of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases to carbon dioxide equivalents. Estimates largely depend on the ability of oceans and land sinks to absorb these gases. Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) persist in the atmosphere for a period ranging from days to 15 years. Carbon dioxide can remain in the atmosphere for millennia.[33] Short-lived climate pollutants include methane, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), tropospheric ozone and black carbon.

Scientists have increased the use satellites to locate and measure greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation. Earlier, scientists largely relied on or calculated estimates of greenhouse gas emissions and governments' self-reported data.[34][35]

### Needed emissions cuts

This section may incorporate text from a large language model. It may include hallucinated information, copyright violations, claims not verified in cited sources, original research, or fictitious references. Any such material should be removed, and content with an unencyclopedic tone should be rewritten. (October 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

|

Global greenhouse gas emission scenarios, based on policies and pledges as of 11/21

The annual "Emissions Gap Report" by UNEP stated in 2022 that it was necessary to almost halve emissions. "To get on track for limiting global warming to 1.5°C, global annual GHG emissions must be reduced by 45 per cent compared with emissions projections under policies currently in place in just eight years, and they must continue to decline rapidly after 2030, to avoid exhausting the limited remaining atmospheric carbon budget."[17]: xvi The report commented that the world should focus on broad-based economy-wide transformations and not incremental change.[17]: xvi

In 2022, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its Sixth Assessment Report on climate change. It warned that greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and decline 43% by 2030 to have a good chance of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F).[36][37] Or in the words of Secretary-General of the United Nations António Guterres: "Main emitters must drastically cut emissions starting this year".[38]

A 2023 synthesis by leading climate scientists highlighted ten critical areas in climate science with significant policy implications. These include the near inevitability of temporarily exceeding the 1.5 °C warming limit, the urgent need for a rapid and managed fossil fuel phase-out, challenges in scaling carbon dioxide removal technologies, uncertainties regarding the future contribution of natural carbon sinks, and the interconnected crises of biodiversity loss and climate change. These insights underscore the necessity for immediate and comprehensive mitigation strategies to address the multifaceted challenges of climate change.[39]

### Pledges

Climate Action Tracker described the situation on 9 November 2021 as follows. The global temperature will rise by 2.7 °C by the end of the century with current policies and by 2.9 °C with nationally adopted policies. The temperature will rise by 2.4 °C if countries only implement the pledges for 2030. The rise would be 2.1 °C with the achievement of the long-term targets too. Full achievement of all announced targets would mean the rise in global temperature will peak at 1.9 °C and go down to 1.8 °C by the year 2100.[40] Experts gather information about climate pledges in the Global Climate Action Portal - Nazca. The scientific community is checking their fulfilment.[41]

There has not been a definitive or detailed evaluation of most goals set for 2020. But it appears the world failed to meet most or all international goals set for that year.[42][43]

One update came during the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Glasgow. The group of researchers running the Climate Action Tracker looked at countries responsible for 85% of greenhouse gas emissions. It found that only four countries or political entities—the EU, UK, Chile and Costa Rica—have published a detailed official policy‑plan that describes the steps to realise 2030 mitigation targets. These four polities are responsible for 6% of global greenhouse gas emissions.[44]

In 2021 the US and EU launched the Global Methane Pledge to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030. The UK, Argentina, Indonesia, Italy and Mexico joined the initiative. Ghana and Iraq signalled interest in joining. A White House summary of the meeting noted those countries represent six of the top 15 methane emitters globally.[45] Israel also joined the initiative.[46]

## Low-carbon energy

Main articles: Earth:Sustainable energy and Energy transition

Coal, oil, and natural gas remain the primary global energy sources even as renewables have begun rapidly increasing.[47][48]

The energy system includes the delivery and use of energy. It is the main emitter of carbon dioxide (CO
2).[49]: 6–6 Rapid and deep reductions in the carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector are necessary to limit global warming to well below 2 °C.[49]: 6–3 IPCC recommendations include reducing fossil fuel consumption, increasing production from low- and zero carbon energy sources, and increasing use of electricity and alternative energy carriers.[49]: 6–3

Nearly all scenarios and strategies involve a major increase in the use of renewable energy in combination with increased energy efficiency measures.[50]: xxiii It will be necessary to accelerate the deployment of renewable energy six-fold from 0.25% annual growth in 2015 to 1.5% to keep global warming under 2 °C.[51]

Renewable energy sources, especially solar photovoltaic and wind power, are providing an increasing share of power capacity.[52]

The competitiveness of renewable energy is a key to a rapid deployment. In 2020, onshore wind and solar photovoltaics were the cheapest source for new bulk electricity generation in many regions.[53] Renewables may have higher storage costs but non-renewables may have higher clean-up costs.[54] A carbon price can increase the competitiveness of renewable energy.[55]

### Solar and wind energy

Main articles: Physics:Solar energy and Wind power

The 150 MW Andasol solar power station is a commercial parabolic trough solar thermal power plant, located in Spain. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity for 7.5 hours after the sun has stopped shining.[56]

Wind and sun can provide large amounts of low-carbon energy at competitive production costs.[57] The IPCC estimates that these two mitigation options have the largest potential to reduce emissions before 2030 at low cost.[11]: 43

Solar photovoltaics (PV) has become the cheapest way to generate electricity in many regions of the world.[58]

A 2024 review found that the global levelized cost of electricity for solar PV had fallen to between US$0.039 and 0.041 per kWh.[59] The growth of photovoltaics has been close to exponential. It has about doubled every three years since the 1990s.[60][61] A different technology is concentrated solar power (CSP). This uses mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight on to a receiver. With CSP, the energy can be stored for a few hours. This provides supply in the evening. Solar water heating doubled between 2010 and 2019.[62]

The Shepherds Flat Wind Farm is an 845 megawatt (MW) nameplate capacity, wind farm in the US state of Oregon. Each turbine is a nameplate 2 or 2.5 MW electricity generator.

Regions in the higher northern and southern latitudes have the greatest potential for wind power.[63] Offshore wind farms are more expensive. But offshore units deliver more energy per installed capacity with less fluctuations.[64] In most regions, wind power generation is higher in the winter when PV output is low. For this reason, combinations of wind and solar power lead to better-balanced systems.[65]

### Other renewables

The 22,500 MW nameplate capacity Three Gorges Dam in the People's Republic of China, the largest hydroelectric power station in the world

Other well-established renewable energy forms include hydropower, bioenergy and geothermal energy.

* Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydropower and plays a leading role in countries like Brazil, Norway and China.[66] but there are geographical limits and environmental issues.[67] Tidal power can be used in coastal regions.
* Bioenergy can provide energy for electricity, heat and transport. Bioenergy, in particular biogas, can provide dispatchable electricity generation.[68] While burning plant-derived biomass releases CO
2, the plants withdraw CO
2 from the atmosphere while they grow. The technologies for producing, transporting and processing a fuel have a significant impact on the lifecycle emissions of the fuel.[69] For example, aviation is starting to use renewable biofuels.[70]
* Geothermal power is electrical power generated from geothermal energy. Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 26 countries.[71][72] Geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries.[73]

### Integrating variable renewable energy

Wind and solar power production does not consistently match demand.[74][75] To deliver reliable electricity from variable renewable energy sources such as wind and solar, electrical power systems must be flexible.[76] Most electrical grids were constructed for non-intermittent energy sources such as coal-fired power plants.[77] The integration of larger amounts of solar and wind energy into the grid requires a change of the energy system; this is necessary to ensure that the supply of electricity matches demand.[78]

There are various ways to make the electricity system more flexible. In many places, wind and solar generation are complementary on a daily and a seasonal scale. There is more wind during the night and in winter when solar energy production is low.[78] Linking different geographical regions through long-distance transmission lines also makes it possible to reduce variability.[79] It is possible to shift energy demand in time. Energy demand management and the use of smart grids make it possible to match the times when variable energy production is highest.[78] Sector coupling can provide further flexibility. This involves coupling the electricity sector to the heat and mobility sector via power-to-heat-systems and electric vehicles.[80]

Battery storage facility

Energy storage helps overcome barriers to intermittent renewable energy.[81] The most commonly used and available storage method is pumped-storage hydroelectricity. This requires locations with large differences in height and access to water.[81] Batteries are also in wide use.[82] They typically store electricity for short periods.[83] Batteries have low energy density. This and their cost makes them impractical for the large energy storage necessary to balance inter-seasonal variations in energy production.[84] Some locations have implemented pumped hydro storage with capacity for multi-month usage.[85]

### Nuclear power

Nuclear power could complement renewables for electricity.[86] On the other hand, environmental and security risks could outweigh the benefits.[87][88][89] Examples of these environmental risks being the discharge of radioactive water to nearby ecosystems, and the routine release of radioactive gases as well.[90]

The construction of new nuclear reactors currently takes about 10 years. This is much longer than scaling up the deployment of wind and solar.[91]: 335 And this timing gives rise to credit risks.[92] However nuclear may be much cheaper in China. China is building a significant number of new power plants.[92] As of 2019[update] the cost of extending nuclear power plant lifetimes is competitive with other electricity generation technologies[93] if long term costs for nuclear waste disposal are excluded from the calculation. There is also no sufficient financial insurance for nuclear accidents.[94]

### Replacing coal with natural gas

This section is an excerpt from sustainable energy#Fossil fuel switching and mitigation[ edit ]

## Demand reduction

Reducing demand for products and services that cause greenhouse gas emissions can help in mitigating climate change. One is to reduce demand by behavioural and cultural changes, for example by making changes in diet, especially the decision to reduce meat consumption,[95] an effective action individuals take to fight climate change. Another is by reducing the demand by improving infrastructure, by building a good public transport network, for example. Lastly, changes in end-use technology can reduce energy demand. For instance a well-insulated house emits less than a poorly-insulated house.[96]: 119

Mitigation options that reduce demand for products or services help people make personal choices to reduce their carbon footprint. This could be in their choice of transport or food.[97]: 5–3 So these mitigation options have many social aspects that focus on demand reduction; they are therefore demand-side mitigation actions. For example, people with high socio-economic status often cause more greenhouse gas emissions than those from a lower status. If they reduce their emissions and promote green policies, these people could become low-carbon lifestyle role models.[97]: 5–4 However, there are many psychological variables that influence consumers. These include awareness and perceived risk.[98]

Government policies can support or hinder demand-side mitigation options. For example, public policy can promote circular economy concepts which would support climate change mitigation.[97]: 5–6 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is linked to the sharing economy.

There is a debate regarding the correlation of economic growth and emissions. It seems economic growth no longer necessarily means higher emissions.[99][100]

A 2024 article in Nature Climate Change emphasised the importance of integrating behavioural science into climate change mitigation strategies. Six key recommendations aimed at improving individual and collective actions toward reducing greenhouse gas emissions include overcoming barriers to research, fostering cross-disciplinary collaborations, and promoting practical behaviour-oriented solutions. These insights suggest that behavioural science plays a crucial role alongside technological and policy measures in addressing climate change.[101]

A paper published in Environmental Research Letters in 2024 described the growing role of demand-side strategies in achieving climate change mitigation. It described how behavioral, social, and infrastructural interventions, such as shifting consumption patterns, improving urban design, and promoting shared mobility could collectively reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by up to 40–70% by mid-century—describing how changes in lifestyles and demand systems are essential complements to technological and policy solutions.[102]

### Energy conservation and efficiency

Global primary energy demand exceeded 161,000 terawatt hours (TWh) in 2018.[103] This refers to electricity, transport and heating including all losses. In transport and electricity production, fossil fuel usage has a low efficiency of less than 50%. Large amounts of heat in power plants and in motors of vehicles go to waste. The actual amount of energy consumed is significantly lower at 116,000 TWh.[104]

Energy conservation is the effort made to reduce the consumption of energy by using less of an energy service. One way is to use energy more efficiently. This means using less energy than before to produce the same service. Another way is to reduce the amount of service used. An example of this would be to drive less. Energy conservation is at the top of the sustainable energy hierarchy.[105] When consumers reduce wastage and losses they can conserve energy. The upgrading of technology as well as the improvements to operations and maintenance can result in overall efficiency improvements.

Efficient energy use (or energy efficiency) is the process of reducing the amount of energy required to provide products and services. Improved energy efficiency in buildings ("green buildings"), industrial processes and transportation could reduce the world's energy needs in 2050 by one third. This would help reduce global emissions of greenhouse gases.[106] For example, insulating a building allows it to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain thermal comfort. Improvements in energy efficiency are generally achieved by adopting a more efficient technology or production process.[107] Another way is to use commonly accepted methods to reduce energy losses.

### Lifestyle changes

This pie chart illustrates both total emissions for each income group, and emissions per person within each income group. For example, the 10% with the highest incomes are responsible for half of carbon emissions, and its members emit an average of more than five times as much per person as members of the lowest half of the income scale.[108]

Individual action on climate change can include personal choices in many areas. These include diet, travel, household energy use, consumption of goods and services, and family size. People who wish to reduce their carbon footprint can take high-impact actions such as avoiding frequent flying and petrol-fuelled cars, eating mainly a plant-based diet, having fewer children,[109][110] using clothes and electrical products for longer,[111] and electrifying homes.[112][113] These approaches are more practical for people in high-income countries with high-consumption lifestyles. Naturally, it is more difficult for those with lower income statuses to make these changes. This is because choices like electric-powered cars may not be available. Excessive consumption is more to blame for climate change than population increase.[114] High-consumption lifestyles have a greater environmental impact, with the richest 10% of people emitting about half the total lifestyle emissions.[115][116]

### Dietary change

Some scientists say that avoiding meat and dairy foods is the single biggest way an individual can reduce their environmental impact.[117] The widespread adoption of a vegetarian diet could cut food-related greenhouse gas emissions by 63% by 2050.[118] China introduced new dietary guidelines in 2016 which aim to cut meat consumption by 50% and thereby reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 1 Gt per year by 2030.[119] Overall, food accounts for the largest share of consumption-based greenhouse gas emissions. It is responsible for nearly 20% of the global carbon footprint. Almost 15% of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have been attributed to the livestock sector.[113]

A shift towards plant-based diets would help to mitigate climate change.[120] In particular, reducing meat consumption would help to reduce methane emissions.[121] The Global Methane Pledge is an initiative launched by the United States and European Union to reduce global methane emissions by 30% by 2030 to keep the 1.5°C global warming limit in reach.[122] If high-income nations switched to a plant-based diet, vast amounts of land used for animal agriculture could be allowed to return to their natural state. This in turn has the potential to sequester 100 billion tonnes of CO
2 by the end of the century.[123][124] A comprehensive analysis found that plant based diets reduce emissions, water pollution and land use significantly (by 75%), while reducing the destruction of wildlife and usage of water.[125]

Environmental footprint of 55,504 UK citizens by diet group (Nat Food 4, 565–574, 2023).

### Family size

Since 1950, world population has tripled.[126]

Population growth has resulted in higher greenhouse gas emissions in most regions, particularly Africa.[49]: 6–11 However, economic growth has a bigger effect than population growth.[97]: 6–622 Rising incomes, changes in consumption and dietary patterns, as well as population growth, cause pressure on land and other natural resources. This leads to more greenhouse gas emissions and fewer carbon sinks.[127]: 117 Some scholars have argued that humane policies to slow population growth should be part of a broad climate response together with policies that end fossil fuel use and encourage sustainable consumption.[128] Advances in female education and reproductive health, especially voluntary family planning, can contribute to reducing population growth.[97]: 5–35

## Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks

About 58% of CO
2 emissions have been absorbed by carbon sinks, including plant growth, soil uptake, and ocean uptake (2020 Global Carbon Budget).

Main articles: Earth:Carbon dioxide removal, Carbon sequestration, and Carbon sink

An important mitigation measure is "preserving and enhancing carbon sinks".[11] This refers to the management of Earth's natural carbon sinks in a way that preserves or increases their capability to remove CO2 from the atmosphere and to store it durably. Scientists call this process also carbon sequestration. In the context of climate change mitigation, the IPCC defines a sink as "Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere".[21]: 2249 Globally, the two most important carbon sinks are vegetation and the ocean.[129]

To enhance the ability of ecosystems to sequester carbon, changes are necessary in agriculture and forestry.[130] Examples are preventing deforestation and restoring natural ecosystems by reforestation.[131]: 266 Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project the large-scale use of carbon dioxide removal methods over the 21st century.[132]: 1068 [133]: 17 There are concerns about over-reliance on these technologies, and their environmental impacts.[133]: 17 [134]: 34 But ecosystem restoration and reduced conversion are among the mitigation tools that can yield the most emissions reductions before 2030.[11]: 43

Land-based mitigation options are referred to as "AFOLU mitigation options" in the 2022 IPCC report on mitigation. The abbreviation stands for "agriculture, forestry and other land use"[11]: 37 The report described the economic mitigation potential from relevant activities around forests and ecosystems as follows: "the conservation, improved management, and restoration of forests and other ecosystems (coastal wetlands, peatlands, savannas and grasslands)". A high mitigation potential is found for reducing deforestation in tropical regions. The economic potential of these activities has been estimated to be 4.2 to 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO2 -eq) per year.[11]: 37

### Forests

#### Conservation

Transferring land rights to indigenous inhabitants is argued to efficiently conserve forests.

The Stern Review on the economics of climate change stated in 2007 that curbing deforestation was a highly cost-effective way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions.[135] About 95% of deforestation occurs in the tropics, where clearing of land for agriculture is one of the main causes.[136] One forest conservation strategy is to transfer rights over land from public ownership to its indigenous inhabitants.[137] Land concessions often go to powerful extractive companies.[137] Conservation strategies that exclude and even evict humans, called fortress conservation, often lead to more exploitation of the land. This is because the native inhabitants turn to work for extractive companies to survive.[138]

Proforestation is promoting forests to capture their full ecological potential.[139] This is a mitigation strategy as secondary forests that have regrown in abandoned farmland are found to have less biodiversity than the original old-growth forests. Original forests store 60% more carbon than these new forests.[140] Strategies include rewilding and establishing wildlife corridors.[141][142]

#### Afforestation, reforestation and preventing desertification

See also: Desertification § Countermeasures

Afforestation is the establishment of trees where there was previously no tree cover. Scenarios for new plantations covering up to 4000 million hectares (Mha) (6300 x 6300 km) suggest cumulative carbon storage of more than 900 GtC (2300 GtCO
2) until 2100.[143] But they are not a viable alternative to aggressive emissions reduction.[144] This is because the plantations would need to be so large they would eliminate most natural ecosystems or reduce food production.[145] One example is the Trillion Tree Campaign.[146][147] However, preserving biodiversity is also important and for example not all grasslands are suitable for conversion into forests.[148] Grasslands can even turn from carbon sinks to carbon sources.

Helping existing roots and tree stumps regrow even in long deforested areas is argued to be more efficient than planting trees. Lack of legal ownership to trees by locals is the biggest obstacle preventing regrowth.[149][150]

Reforestation is the restocking of existing depleted forests or in places where there were recently forests. Reforestation could save at least 1 GtCO2 per year, at an estimated cost of $5–15 per tonne of carbon dioxide (tCO2).[151] Restoring all degraded forests all over the world could capture about 205 GtC (750 GtCO
2).[152] With increased intensive agriculture and urbanisation, there is an increase in the amount of abandoned farmland. By some estimates, for every acre of original old-growth forest cut down, more than 50 acres of new secondary forests are growing.[140][153] In some countries, promoting regrowth on abandoned farmland could offset years of emissions.[154]

Planting new trees can be expensive and a risky investment. For example, about 80 per cent of planted trees in the Sahel die within two years.[149] Reforestation has higher carbon storage potential than afforestation. Even long-deforested areas still contain an "underground forest" of living roots and tree stumps. Helping native species sprout naturally is cheaper than planting new trees and they are more likely to survive. This could include pruning and coppicing to accelerate growth. This also provides woodfuel, which is otherwise a major source of deforestation. Such practices, called farmer-managed natural regeneration, are centuries old but the biggest obstacle towards implementation is ownership of the trees by the state. The state often sells timber rights to businesses which leads to locals uprooting seedlings because they see them as a liability. Legal aid for locals[155][156] and changes to property law such as in Mali and Niger have led to significant changes. Scientists describe them as the largest positive environmental transformation in Africa. It is possible to discern from space the border between Niger and the more barren land in Nigeria, where the law has not changed.[149][150]

Rangelands account for more half the world's land and could sequester 35% of terrestrial carbon.[157] Pastoralists are those who move with their herds that feed and migrate over often unenclosed grazelands. Such land is usually unable to grow any other kind of food. Rangelands coevolved with large wild herds, many of which have decreased or gone extinct, and pastoralists' herds replace such wild herds and thus help maintain the ecosystem.[158] However, the movement of herds grazing on large areas over vast distances is increasingly restricted by governments, who often grant exclusive title to lands for more profitable uses which restricts pastoralists to more enclose spaces.[159] This has led to the overgrazing of the land and desertification, as well as conflict.[157]

### Soils

There are many measures to increase soil carbon.[160] This makes it complex[161] and hard to measure and account for.[162] One advantage is that there are fewer trade-offs for these measures than for BECCS or afforestation, for example.[163]

Globally, protecting healthy soils and restoring the soil carbon sponge could remove 7.6 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere annually. This is more than the annual emissions of the US.[164][165] Trees capture CO
2 while growing above ground and exuding larger amounts of carbon below ground. Trees contribute to the building of a soil carbon sponge. Carbon formed above ground is released as CO
2 immediately when wood is burned. If dead wood remains untouched, only some of the carbon returns to the atmosphere as decomposition proceeds.[164]

Farming can deplete soil carbon and render soil incapable of supporting life. However, conservation farming can protect carbon in soils, and repair damage over time.[166] The farming practice of cover crops is a form of carbon farming.[167] Methods that enhance carbon sequestration in soil include no-till farming, residue mulching and crop rotation. Scientists have described the best management practices for European soils to increase soil organic carbon. These are conversion of arable land to grassland, straw incorporation, reduced tillage, straw incorporation combined with reduced tillage, ley cropping system and cover crops.[168]

Another mitigation option is the production of biochar and its storage in soils This is the solid material that remains after the pyrolysis of biomass. Biochar production releases half of the carbon from the biomass—either released into the atmosphere or captured with CCS—and retains the other half in the stable biochar.[169] It can endure in soil for thousands of years.[170] Biochar may increase the soil fertility of acidic soils and increase agricultural productivity. During production of biochar, heat is released which may be used as bioenergy.[169]

### Wetlands

Wetland restoration is an important mitigation measure. It has moderate to great mitigation potential on a limited land area with low trade-offs and costs.[171] Wetlands perform two important functions in relation to climate change. They can sequester carbon, converting carbon dioxide to solid plant material through photosynthesis. They also store and regulate water.[172][173] Wetlands store about 45 million tonnes of carbon per year globally.[174]

Some wetlands are a significant source of methane emissions.[175] Some also emit nitrous oxide.[176][177] Peatland globally covers just 3% of the land's surface.[178] But it stores up to 550 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon. This represents 42% of all soil carbon and exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world's forests.[179] The threat to peatlands includes draining the areas for agriculture. Another threat is cutting down trees for lumber, as the trees help hold and fix the peatland.[180][181] Additionally, peat is often sold for compost.[182] It is possible to restore degraded peatlands by blocking drainage channels in the peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover.[141][183]

Mangroves, salt marshes and seagrasses make up the majority of the ocean's vegetated habitats. They only equal 0.05% of the plant biomass on land. But they store carbon 40 times faster than tropical forests.[141] Bottom trawling, dredging for coastal development and fertiliser runoff have damaged coastal habitats. Notably, 85% of oyster reefs globally have been removed in the last two centuries. Oyster reefs clean the water and help other species thrive. This increases biomass in that area. In addition, oyster reefs mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing the force of waves from hurricanes. They also reduce the erosion from rising sea levels.[184] Restoration of coastal wetlands is thought to be more cost-effective than restoration of inland wetlands.[185]

### Deep ocean

These options focus on the carbon which ocean reservoirs can store. They include ocean fertilization, ocean alkalinity enhancement or enhanced weathering.[186]: 12–36 The IPCC found in 2022 ocean-based mitigation options currently have only limited deployment potential. But it assessed that their future mitigation potential is large.[186]: 12–4 It found that in total, ocean-based methods could remove 1–100 Gt of CO
2 per year.[96]: TS-94 Their costs are in the order of US$40–500 per tonne of CO
2. Most of these options could also help to reduce ocean acidification. This is the drop in pH value caused by increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations.[187]

The recovery of whale populations can play a role in mitigation as whales play a significant part in nutrient recycling in the ocean. This occurs through what is referred to as the whale pump, where whales' liquid feces stay at the surface of the ocean. Phytoplankton live near the surface of the ocean in order use sunlight to photosynthesize and rely on much of the carbon, nitrogen and iron of the feces. As the phytoplankton form the base of the marine food chain this increases ocean biomass and thus the amount of carbon sequestrated in it.[188]

Blue carbon management is another type of ocean-based biological carbon dioxide removal (CDR). It can involve land-based as well as ocean-based measures.[186]: 12–51 [189]: 764 The term usually refers to the role that tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses can play in carbon sequestration.[21]: 2220 Some of these efforts can also take place in deep ocean waters. This is where the vast majority of ocean carbon is held. These ecosystems can contribute to climate change mitigation and also to ecosystem-based adaptation. Conversely, when blue carbon ecosystems are degraded or lost they release carbon back to the atmosphere.[21]: 2220 There is increasing interest in developing blue carbon potential.[190] Scientists have found that in some cases these types of ecosystems remove far more carbon per area than terrestrial forests. However, the long-term effectiveness of blue carbon as a carbon dioxide removal solution remains under discussion.[191][190][192]

### Enhanced weathering

Main article: Earth:Enhanced weathering

Enhanced weathering could remove 2–4 Gt of CO
2 per year. This process aims to accelerate natural weathering by spreading finely ground silicate rock, such as basalt, onto surfaces. This speeds up chemical reactions between rocks, water, and air. It removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, permanently storing it in solid carbonate minerals or ocean alkalinity.[193] Cost estimates are in the US$50–200 per tonne range of CO
2.[96]: TS-94

## Other methods to capture and store CO2

Main articles: Earth:Direct air capture, Carbon capture and storage, and Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage

Schematic showing both terrestrial and geological sequestration of carbon dioxide emissions from a large point source, for example burning natural gas

In addition to traditional land-based methods to remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air, other technologies are under development. These could reduce CO2 emissions and lower existing atmospheric CO2 levels. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a method to mitigate climate change by capturing CO2 from large point sources, such as cement factories or biomass power plants. It then stores it away safely instead of releasing it into the atmosphere. The IPCC estimates that the costs of halting global warming would double without CCS.[194]

Among the most viable carbon dioxide removal methods considered alongside solar radiation modification, biochar soil amendment is already being deployed commercially. Studies indicate that the carbon it contains remains stable in soils for centuries, giving it a durable potential of removing gigatonnes of CO2 per year.[195] Expert assessments place the net cost of removing CO2 with biochar between US$30 and $120 per tonne. Market data show that biochar supplied 94% of all durable CDR credits delivered in 2023, demonstrating current scalability.[196][197] Stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI), by comparison, could reduce global temperature quickly by dispersing sulfate aerosols in the stratosphere; however, deployment at climatically relevant scale would require the design and certification of a new fleet of high‑altitude aircraft, a process estimated to take a decade or more, and ongoing operating costs of about US$18 billion for each degree Celsius of cooling.[198] While models confirm that SAI would lower global mean temperature, there are potential side effect including ozone depletion, altered regional precipitation patterns, and the risk of a sudden "termination shock" warming if the programme were interrupted. These systemic risks are absent from biochar deployment.[199]

Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) expands on the potential of CCS and aims to lower atmospheric CO2 levels. This process uses biomass grown for bioenergy. The biomass yields energy in useful forms such as electricity, heat, biofuels, etc. through consumption of the biomass via combustion, fermentation, or pyrolysis. The process captures the CO2 that was extracted from the atmosphere when it grew. It then stores it underground or via land application as biochar. This effectively removes it from the atmosphere.[200] This makes BECCS a negative emissions technology (NET).[201]

Scientists estimated the potential range of negative emissions from BECCS in 2018 as 0–22 Gt per year.[202] As of 2022[update], BECCS was capturing approximately 2 million tonnes per year of CO2 annually.[203] The cost and availability of biomass limits wide deployment of BECCS.[204][205]: 10 BECCS currently forms a big part of achieving climate targets beyond 2050 in modelling, such as by the Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs) associated with the IPCC process. But many scientists are sceptical due to the risk of loss of biodiversity.[206]

Direct air capture is a process of capturing CO
2 directly from the ambient air. This is in contrast to CCS which captures carbon from point sources. It generates a concentrated stream of CO
2 for sequestration, utilisation or production of carbon-neutral fuel and windgas.[207] Artificial processes vary, and there are concerns about the long-term effects of some of these processes.[208][obsolete source]

## Mitigation by sector

Taking into account direct and indirect emissions, industry is the sector with the highest share of global emissions.

2016 global greenhouse gas emissions by sector.[209] Percentages are calculated from estimated global emissions of all Kyoto Greenhouse Gases, converted to CO
2 equivalent quantities (GtCO
2e).

### Buildings

The building sector accounts for 23% of global energy-related CO
2 emissions.[22]: 141 About half of the energy is used for space and water heating.[210] Building insulation can reduce the primary energy demand significantly. Heat pump loads may also provide a flexible resource that can participate in demand response to integrate variable renewable resources into the grid.[211] Solar water heating uses thermal energy directly. Sufficiency measures include moving to smaller houses when the needs of households change, mixed use of spaces and the collective use of devices.[96]: 71 Planners and civil engineers can construct new buildings using passive solar building design, low-energy building, or zero-energy building techniques. In addition, it is possible to design buildings that are more energy-efficient to cool by using lighter-coloured, more reflective materials in the development of urban areas.

Heat pumps efficiently heat buildings, and cool them by air conditioning. A modern heat pump typically transports around three to five times more thermal energy than electrical energy consumed. The amount depends on the coefficient of performance and the outside temperature.[212]

Refrigeration and air conditioning account for about 10% of global CO
2 emissions caused by fossil fuel-based energy production and the use of fluorinated gases. Alternative cooling systems, such as passive cooling building design and passive daytime radiative cooling surfaces, can reduce air conditioning use. Suburbs and cities in hot and arid climates can significantly reduce energy consumption from cooling with daytime radiative cooling.[213]

Energy consumption for cooling is likely to rise significantly due to increasing heat and availability of devices in poorer countries. Of the 2.8 billion people living in the hottest parts of the world, only 8% currently have air conditioners, compared with 90% of people in the US and Japan.[214] Adoption of air conditioners typically increases in warmer areas at above $10,000 annual household income.[215] By combining energy efficiency improvements and decarbonising electricity for air conditioning with the transition away from super-polluting refrigerants, the world could avoid cumulative greenhouse gas emissions of up to 210–460 GtCO
2-eq over the next four decades.[216] A shift to renewable energy in the cooling sector comes with two advantages: Solar energy production with mid-day peaks corresponds with the load required for cooling and additionally, cooling has a large potential for load management in the electric grid.[216]

### Urban planning

Main article: Earth:Climate change and cities

Bicycles have almost no carbon footprint.[217]

Cities emitted 28 GtCO2-eq in 2020 of combined CO2 and CH
4 emissions.[96]: TS-61 This was from producing and consuming goods and services.[96]: TS-61 Climate-smart urban planning aims to reduce sprawl to reduce the distance travelled. This lowers emissions from transportation. Switching from cars by improving walkability and cycling infrastructure is beneficial to a country's economy as a whole.[218]

Urban forestry, lakes and other blue and green infrastructure can reduce emissions directly and indirectly by reducing energy demand for cooling.[96]: TS-66 Methane emissions from municipal solid waste can be reduced by segregation, composting, and recycling.[219]

### Transport

Main articles: Engineering:Sustainable transport and Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles

Sales of electric vehicles (EVs) indicate a trend away from gas-powered vehicles that generate greenhouse gases.[220]

Transportation accounts for 15% of emissions worldwide.[221] Increasing the use of public transport, low-carbon freight transport and cycling are important components of transport decarbonisation.[222][223]

Electric vehicles and environmentally friendly rail help to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels. In most cases, electric trains are more efficient than air transport and truck transport.[224] Other efficiency means include improved public transport, smart mobility, carsharing and electric hybrids. Fossil-fuel for passenger cars can be included in emissions trading.[225] Furthermore, moving away from a car-dominated transport system towards low-carbon advanced public transport system is important.[226]

Heavyweight, large personal vehicles (such as cars) require a lot of energy to move and take up much urban space.[227][228] Several alternatives modes of transport are available to replace these. The European Union has made smart mobility part of its European Green Deal.[229] In smart cities, smart mobility is also important.[230]

Battery electric bus in Montreal

The World Bank is helping lower income countries buy electric buses. Their purchase price is higher than diesel buses. But lower running costs and health improvements due to cleaner air can offset this higher price.[231]

Between one quarter and three quarters of cars on the road by 2050 are forecast to be electric vehicles.[232] Hydrogen may be a solution for long-distance heavy freight trucks, if batteries alone are too heavy.[233]

#### Shipping

In the shipping industry, the use of liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a marine bunker fuel is driven by emissions regulations. Ship operators must switch from heavy fuel oil to more expensive oil-based fuels, implement costly flue gas treatment technologies or switch to LNG engines.[234] Methane slip, when gas leaks unburned through the engine, lowers the advantages of LNG. Maersk, the world's biggest container shipping line and vessel operator, warns of stranded assets when investing in transitional fuels like LNG.[235] The company lists green ammonia as one of the preferred fuel types of the future. It has announced the first carbon-neutral vessel on the water by 2023, running on carbon-neutral methanol.[236] Cruise operators are trialling partially hydrogen-powered ships.[237]

Hybrid and all electric ferries are suitable for short distances. Norway's goal is an all electric fleet by 2025.[238]

#### Air transport

Between 1940 and 2018, aviation CO2 emissions grew from 0.7% to 2.65% of all CO
2 emissions.[239]

Jet airliners contribute to climate change by emitting carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, contrails and particulates. Their radiative forcing is estimated at 1.3–1.4 that of CO
2 alone, excluding induced cirrus cloud. In 2018, global commercial operations generated 2.4% of all CO
2 emissions.[240]

The aviation industry has become more fuel efficient. But overall emissions have risen as the volume of air travel has increased. By 2020, aviation emissions were 70% higher than in 2005 and they could grow by 300% by 2050.[241]

It is possible to reduce aviation's environmental footprint by better fuel economy in aircraft. Optimising flight routes to lower non-CO
2 effects on climate from nitrogen oxides, particulates or contrails can also help. Aviation biofuel, carbon emission trading and carbon offsetting, part of the 191 nation ICAO's Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), can lower CO
2 emissions. Short-haul flight bans, train connections, personal choices and taxation on flights can lead to fewer flights. Hybrid electric aircraft and electric aircraft or hydrogen-powered aircraft may replace fossil fuel-powered aircraft.

Experts expect emissions from aviation to rise in most projections, at least until 2040. They currently amount to 180 Mt of CO
2 or 11% of transport emissions. Aviation biofuel and hydrogen can only cover a small proportion of flights in the coming years. Experts expect hybrid-driven aircraft to start commercial regional scheduled flights after 2030. Battery-powered aircraft are likely to enter the market after 2035.[242] Under CORSIA, flight operators can purchase carbon offsets to cover their emissions above 2019 levels. CORSIA will be compulsory from 2027.

### Agriculture, forestry and land use

Greenhouse gas emissions across the supply chain for different foods, showing which type of food should be encouraged and which discouraged from a mitigation perspective

Almost 20% of greenhouse gas emissions come from the agriculture and forestry sector.[243] To significantly reduce these emissions, annual investments in the agriculture sector need to increase to $260 billion by 2030. The potential benefits from these investments are estimated at $4.3 trillion by 2030, offering a substantial economic return of 16-to-1.[244]: 7–8

Mitigation measures in the food system can be divided into four categories. These are demand-side changes, ecosystem protections, mitigation on farms, and mitigation in supply chains. On the demand side, limiting food waste is an effective way to reduce food emissions. Changes to a diet less reliant on animal products such as plant-based diets are also effective.[17]: XXV

With 21% of global methane emissions, cattle are a major driver of global warming.[245]: 6 When rainforests are cut and the land is converted for grazing, the impact is even higher. In Brazil, producing 1 kg of beef can result in the emission of up to 335 kg CO2-eq.[246] Increasing the milk yield of dairy cows has been shown to reduce emissions.[247] Other livestock, manure management and rice cultivation also emit greenhouse gases, in addition to fossil fuel combustion in agriculture.

Important mitigation options for reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from livestock include genetic selection,[248][249] introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the rumen,[250][251] vaccines, feeds,[252] diet modification and grazing management.[253][254][255] Other options are diet changes towards ruminant-free alternatives, such as milk substitutes and meat analogues. Non-ruminant livestock, such as poultry, emit far fewer GHGs.[256]

It is possible to cut methane emissions in rice cultivation by improved water management, combining dry seeding and one drawdown, or executing a sequence of wetting and drying. This results in emission reductions of up to 90% compared to full flooding and even increased yields.[257]

Reducing the usage of nitrogen fertilizers through nutrient management could avoid nitrous oxide emissions equal to 2.77 - 11.48 gigatons of carbon dioxide from 2020 to 2050.[258]

### Industry

Global carbon dioxide emissions by country in 2023:

China (31.8%)

United States (14.4%)

European Union (4.9%)

India (9.5%)

Russia (5.8%)

Japan (3.5%)

Other (30.1%)

Industry is the largest emitter of greenhouse gases when direct and indirect emissions are included. Electrification can reduce emissions from industry. Green hydrogen can play a major role in energy-intensive industries for which electricity is not an option. Further mitigation options involve the steel and cement industry, which can switch to a less polluting production process. Products can be made with less material to reduce emission-intensity and industrial processes can be made more efficient. Finally, circular economy measures reduce the need for new materials. This also saves on emissions that would have been released from the mining of collecting of those materials.[17]: 43

The decarbonisation of cement production requires new technologies, and therefore investment in innovation.[259] Bioconcrete is one possibility to reduce emissions.[260] But no technology for mitigation is yet mature. So CCS will be necessary at least in the short-term.[261]

Another sector with a significant carbon footprint is the steel sector, which is responsible for about 7% of global emissions.[262] Emissions can be reduced by using electric arc furnaces to melt and recycle scrap steel. To produce virgin steel without emissions, blast furnaces could be replaced by hydrogen direct reduced iron and electric arc furnaces. Alternatively, carbon capture and storage solutions can be used.[262]

Coal, gas and oil production often come with significant methane leakage.[263] In the early 2020s some governments recognised the scale of the problem and introduced regulations.[264] Methane leaks at oil and gas wells and processing plants are cost-effective to fix in countries which can easily trade gas internationally.[263] There are leaks in countries where gas is cheap; such as Iran,[265] Russia,[266] and Turkmenistan.[267] Nearly all this can be stopped by replacing old components and preventing routine flaring.[263] Coalbed methane may continue leaking even after the mine has been closed. But it can be captured by drainage and/or ventilation systems.[268] Fossil fuel firms do not always have financial incentives to tackle methane leakage.[269]

## Co-benefits

Co-benefits of climate change mitigation, also often referred to as ancillary benefits, were firstly dominated in the scientific literature by studies that describe how lower GHG emissions lead to better air quality and consequently impact human health positively.[270][271] The scope of co-benefits research expanded to its economic, social, ecological and political implications.

Positive secondary effects that occur from climate mitigation and adaptation measures have been mentioned in research since the 1990s.[272][273] The IPCC first mentioned the role of co-benefits in 2001, followed by its fourth and fifth assessment cycle stressing improved working environment, reduced waste, health benefits and reduced capital expenditures.[274] In the early 2000s the OECD was further fostering its efforts in promoting ancillary benefits.[275]

The IPCC pointed out in 2007: "Co-benefits of GHG mitigation can be an important decision criteria in analyses carried out by policy-makers, but they are often neglected" and added that the co-benefits are "not quantified, monetised or even identified by businesses and decision-makers".[276] Appropriate consideration of co-benefits can greatly "influence policy decisions concerning the timing and level of mitigation action", and there can be "significant advantages to the national economy and technical innovation".[276]

An analysis of climate action in the UK found that public health benefits are a major component of the total benefits derived from climate action.[277]

### Employment and economic development

Co-benefits can positively impact employment, industrial development, states' energy independence and energy self-consumption. The deployment of renewable energies can foster job opportunities. Depending on the country and deployment scenario, replacing coal power plants with renewable energy can more than double the number of jobs per average MW capacity.[278] Investments in renewable energies, especially in solar- and wind energy, can boost the value of production.[279] Countries which rely on energy imports can enhance their energy independence and ensure supply security by deploying renewables. National energy generation from renewables lowers the demand for fossil fuel imports which scales up annual economic saving.[280]

The European Commission forecasts a shortage of 180,000 skilled workers in hydrogen production and 66,000 in solar photovoltaic power by 2030.[281]

### Energy security

A higher share of renewables can additionally lead to more energy security.[282][283] Socioeconomic co-benefits have been analysed such as energy access in rural areas and improved rural livelihoods.[284][285] Rural areas which are not fully electrified can benefit from the deployment of renewable energies. Solar-powered mini-grids can remain economically viable, cost-competitive and reduce the number of power cuts. Energy reliability has additional social implications: stable electricity improves the quality of education.[286]

The International Energy Agency (IEA) spelled out the "multiple benefits approach" of energy efficiency while the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) operationalised the list of co-benefits of the renewable energy sector.[287][288]

### Health and well-being

The health benefits from climate change mitigation are significant. Potential measures can not only mitigate future health impacts from climate change but also improve health directly.[289][290] Climate change mitigation is interconnected with various health co-benefits, such as those from reduced air pollution.[290] Air pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion is both a major driver of global warming and the cause of a large number of annual deaths. Some estimates are as high as 8.7 million excess deaths during 2018.[291][292] A 2023 study estimated that fossil fuels kill over 5 million people each year, as of 2019,[293] by causing diseases such as heart attack, stroke and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.[294] Particulate air pollution kills by far the most, followed by ground-level ozone.[295]

Mitigation policies can also promote healthier diets such as less red meat, more active lifestyles, and increased exposure to green urban spaces.[296][297] Access to urban green spaces provides benefits to mental health as well.[296]: 18 The increased use of green and blue infrastructure can reduce the urban heat island effect. This reduces heat stress on people.[96]: TS-66

### Climate change adaptation

Some mitigation measures have co-benefits in the area of climate change adaptation.[298]: 8–63 This is for example the case for many nature-based solutions.[299]: 4–94 [300]: 6 Examples in the urban context include urban green and blue infrastructure which provide mitigation as well as adaptation benefits. This can be in the form of urban forests and street trees, green roofs and walls, urban agriculture and so forth. The mitigation is achieved through the conservation and expansion of carbon sinks and reduced energy use of buildings. Adaptation benefits come for example through reduced heat stress and flooding risk.[298]: 8–64

Emission trading and carbon taxes around the world (2019)[301]

Carbon emission trading implemented or scheduled

Carbon tax implemented or scheduled

Carbon emission trading or carbon tax under consideration

## Negative side effects

Mitigation measures can also have negative side effects and risks.[96]: TS-133 In agriculture and forestry, mitigation measures can affect biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.[96]: TS-87 In renewable energy, mining for metals and minerals can increase threats to conservation areas.[302] There is some research into ways to recycle solar panels and electronic waste. This would create a source for materials so there is no need to mine them.[303][304]

Scholars have found that discussions about risks and negative side effects of mitigation measures can lead to deadlock or the feeling that there are insuperable barriers to taking action.[304]

## Costs and funding

Several factors affect mitigation cost estimates. One is the baseline. This is a reference scenario that the alternative mitigation scenario is compared with. Others are the way costs are modelled, and assumptions about future government policy.[305]: 622 Cost estimates for mitigation for specific regions depend on the quantity of emissions allowed for that region in future, as well as the timing of interventions.[306]: 90

Mitigation costs will vary according to how and when emissions are cut. Early, well-planned action will minimise the costs.[151] Globally, the benefits of keeping warming under 2 °C exceed the costs,[307] which according to The Economist are affordable.[308]

Economists estimate the cost of climate change mitigation at between 1% and 2% of GDP.[309][310] While this is a large sum, it is still far less than the subsidies governments provide to the fossil fuel industry. The International Monetary Fund estimated this at more than $5 trillion per year.[311][50]

Another estimate says that financial flows for climate mitigation and adaptation are going to be over $800 billion per year. These financial requirements are predicted to exceed $4 trillion per year by 2030.[312][313]

Globally, limiting warming to 2 °C may result in higher economic benefits than economic costs.[314]: 300 The economic repercussions of mitigation vary widely across regions and households, depending on policy design and level of international cooperation. Delayed global cooperation increases policy costs across regions, especially in those that are relatively carbon intensive at present. Pathways with uniform carbon values show higher mitigation costs in more carbon-intensive regions, in fossil-fuels exporting regions and in poorer regions. Aggregate quantifications expressed in GDP or monetary terms undervalue the economic effects on households in poorer countries. The actual effects on welfare and well-being are comparatively larger.[315]

Cost–benefit analysis may be unsuitable for analysing climate change mitigation as a whole. But it is still useful for analysing the difference between a 1.5 °C target and 2 °C.[309] One way of estimating the cost of reducing emissions is by considering the likely costs of potential technological and output changes. Policymakers can compare the marginal abatement costs of different methods to assess the cost and amount of possible abatement over time. The marginal abatement costs of the various measures will differ by country, by sector, and over time.[151]

Eco-tariffs on only imports contribute to reduced global export competitiveness and to deindustrialisation.[316]

### Avoided costs of climate change effects

It is possible to avoid some of the costs of the effects of climate change by limiting climate change. According to the Stern Review, inaction can be as high as the equivalent of losing at least 5% of global gross domestic product (GDP) each year, now and forever. This can be up to 20% of GDP or more when including a wider range of risks and impacts. But mitigating climate change will only cost about 2% of GDP. Also it may not be a good idea from a financial perspective to delay significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.[317][318]

Mitigation solutions are often evaluated in terms of costs and greenhouse gas reduction potentials. This fails to take into account the direct effects on human well-being.[319] Many of the optimal ways to reduce carbon emissions can also save money (e.g., solar photovoltaics are the lowest cost way to produce electricity in history [320] and they can be used with heat pumps to decarbonize heating even at the small residential level).[321]

### Distributing emissions abatement costs

Mitigation at the speed and scale required to limit warming to 2 °C or below implies deep economic and structural changes. These raise multiple types of distributional concerns across regions, income classes and sectors.[315]

There have been different proposals on how to allocate responsibility for cutting emissions.[322]: 103 These include egalitarianism, basic needs according to a minimum level of consumption, proportionality and the polluter-pays principle. A specific proposal is "equal per capita entitlements".[322]: 106 This approach has two categories. In the first category, emissions are allocated according to national population. In the second category, emissions are allocated in a way that attempts to account for historical or cumulative emissions.

### Funding

In order to reconcile economic development with mitigating carbon emissions, developing countries need particular support. This would be both financial and technical. The IPCC found that accelerated support would also tackle inequities in financial and economic vulnerability to climate change.[323] One way to achieve this is the Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

## Policies

### National policies

Although China is the leading producer of CO
2 emissions in the world with the U.S. second, per capita the U.S. leads China by a fair margin (data from 2017).

Climate change mitigation policies can have a large and complex impact on the socio-economic status of individuals and countries. This can be both positive and negative.[324] It is important to design policies well and make them inclusive. Otherwise climate change mitigation measures can impose higher financial costs on poor households.[325] Current climate policies contribute to some changes but remain far from accelerating low-carbon transitions beyond historical trends and to levels consistent with Paris climate targets,[5] and would still result in global warming of about 2.7 °C by 2100.[6]

In order to identify relatively more effective policies, an evaluation was conducted on 1,500 climate policy interventions made between 1998 and 2022.[4] The interventions took place in 41 countries and across 6 continents, which together contributed 81% of the world's total emissions as of 2019. The evaluation found 63 successful interventions that resulted in significant emission reductions; the total CO
2 release averted by these interventions was between 0.6 and 1.8 billion metric tonnes. The study focused on interventions with at least 4.5% emission reductions, but the researchers noted that meeting the reductions required by the Paris Agreement would require 23 billion metric tonnes per year. Generally, carbon pricing was found to be most effective in developed countries, while regulation was most effective in the developing countries. Complementary policy mixes benefited from synergies, and were mostly found to be more effective interventions than the implementation of isolated policies.[326][327][328]

The OECD recognise 48 distinct climate mitigation policies suitable for implementation at national level. Broadly, these can be categorised into three types: market based instruments, non market based instruments and other policies.[329][4]

* Other policies include the Establishing an Independent climate advisory body.[329]
* Non market based policies include the Implementing or tighening of Regulatory standards. These set technology or performance standards. They can be effective in addressing the market failure of informational barriers.[330]: 412
* Among market based policies, the carbon price has been found to be the most effective (at least for developed economies),[4] and has its own section below. Additional market based policy instruments for climate change mitigation include:

Emissions taxes These often require domestic emitters to pay a fixed fee or tax for every tonne of CO2 emissions they release into the atmosphere.[330]: 4123 Methane emissions from fossil fuel extraction are also occasionally taxed.[331] But methane and nitrous oxide from agriculture are typically not subject to tax.[332]
Removing unhelpful subsidies: Many countries provide subsidies for activities that affect emissions. For example, significant fossil fuel subsidies are present in many countries.[333] Phasing-out fossil fuel subsidies is crucial to address the climate crisis.[334] It must however be done carefully to avoid protests[335] and making poor people poorer.[336]
Creating helpful subsidies: Creating subsidies and financial incentives.[337] One example is energy subsidies to support clean generation which is not yet commercially viable such as tidal power.[338]
Tradable permits: A permit system can limit emissions.[330]: 415

#### Carbon pricing

Main article: Finance:Carbon price

Carbon emission trade – allowance prices from 2008

Imposing additional costs on greenhouse gas emissions can make fossil fuels less competitive and accelerate investments into low-carbon sources of energy. A growing number of countries raise a fixed carbon tax or participate in dynamic carbon emission trading (ETS) systems. In 2021, more than 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions were covered by a carbon price. This was a big increase from earlier due to the introduction of the Chinese national carbon trading scheme.[339]: 23

Trading schemes offer the possibility to limit emission allowances to certain reduction targets. However, an oversupply of allowances keeps most ETS at low price levels around $10 with a low impact. This includes the Chinese ETS which started with $7/tCO
2 in 2021.[340] One exception is the European Union Emission Trading Scheme where prices began to rise in 2018. They reached about €80/tCO
2 in 2022.[341] This results in additional costs of about €0.04/KWh for coal and €0.02/KWh for gas combustion for electricity, depending on the emission intensity.[342] Industries which have high energy requirements and high emissions often pay only very low energy taxes, or even none at all.[343]: 11–80

While this is often part of national schemes, carbon offsets and credits can be part of a voluntary market as well such as on the international market. Notably, the company Blue Carbon of the UAE has bought ownership over an area equivalent to the United Kingdom to be preserved in return for carbon credits.[344]

### International agreements

Main article: Earth:Politics of climate change

International cooperation is considered a critical enabler for climate action[11]: 52 while conflicts generally hamper it.[345] Almost all countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).[346][347] The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilise atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system.[348]

Although not designed for this purpose, the Montreal Protocol has benefited climate change mitigation efforts.[349] The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty that has successfully reduced emissions of ozone-depleting substances such as CFCs. These are also greenhouse gases.

#### Paris Agreement

Signatories (yellow) and parties (blue) to the Paris Agreement

This section is an excerpt from Paris Agreement[ edit ]

#### Supply-side vs. demand-side policies

While international climate efforts have traditionally focused on demand-side policies like carbon taxes and emissions trading, a growing body of research explores supply-side treaties aimed at reducing the global output of fossil fuels. Proponents argue these treaties may be more cost-efficient and easier to monitor than demand-side agreements, potentially addressing issues like 'carbon leakage' and the 'green paradox'.[350] However, scholars note that because most major emitters are also major producers, supply-side treaties face similar challenges in participation and distributive conflict.[350]

## History

See also: Earth:Climate change mitigation framework, History of climate change policy and politics, Kyoto Protocol § Chronology, and Paris Agreement § Development

Historically efforts to deal with climate change have taken place at a multinational level. They involve attempts to reach a consensus decision at the United Nations, under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).[351] This is the dominant approach historically of engaging as many international governments as possible in taking action on a worldwide public issue. The Montreal Protocol in 1987 is a precedent that this approach can work. But some critics say the top-down framework of only utilising the UNFCCC consensus approach is ineffective. They put forward counter-proposals of bottom-up governance. At this same time this would lessen the emphasis on the UNFCCC.[352][353][354]

The Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC adopted in 1997 set out legally binding emission reduction commitments for the "Annex 1" countries.[355]: 817 The Protocol defined three international policy instruments ("Flexibility Mechanisms") which could be used by the Annex 1 countries to meet their emission reduction commitments. According to Bashmakov, use of these instruments could significantly reduce the costs for Annex 1 countries in meeting their emission reduction commitments.[356]: 402 [needs update]

The Paris Agreement reached in 2015 succeeded the Kyoto Protocol which expired in 2020. Countries that ratified the Kyoto protocol committed to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in carbon emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.

In 2015, the UNFCCC's "structured expert dialogue" came to the conclusion that, "in some regions and vulnerable ecosystems, high risks are projected even for warming above 1.5 °C".[357] Together with the strong diplomatic voice of the poorest countries and the island nations in the Pacific, this expert finding was the driving force leading to the decision of the 2015 Paris Climate Conference to lay down this 1.5 °C long-term target on top of the existing 2 °C goal.[358]

## Barriers

A typology of discourses aimed at delaying climate change mitigation[304] Distribution of committed CO
2 emissions from developed fossil fuel reserves

There are individual, institutional and market barriers to achieving climate change mitigation.[97]: 5–71 They differ for all the different mitigation options, regions and societies.

Difficulties with accounting for carbon dioxide removal can act as economic barriers. This would apply to BECCS (bioenergy with carbon capture and storage).[49]: 6–42 The strategies that companies follow can act as a barrier. But they can also accelerate decarbonisation.[97]: 5–84

In order to decarbonise societies the state needs to play a predominant role. This is because it requires a massive coordination effort.[359]: 213 This strong government role can only work well if there is social cohesion, political stability and trust.[359]: 213

For land-based mitigation options, finance is a major barrier. Other barriers are cultural values, governance, accountability and institutional capacity.[127]: 7–5

Developing countries face further barriers to mitigation.[360]

* The cost of capital increased in the early 2020s.[361] A lack of available capital and finance is common in developing countries.[362] Together with the absence of regulatory standards, this barrier supports the proliferation of inefficient equipment.
* There are also financial and capacity barrier in many of these countries.[97]: 97

One study estimates that only 0.12% of all funding for climate-related research goes on the social science of climate change mitigation.[363] Vastly more funding goes on natural science studies of climate change. Considerable sums also go on studies of the impact of climate change and adaptation to it.[363]

## Society and culture

### Commitments to divest

More firms plan to invest in climate change mitigation, specifically focusing on low-carbon sectors.[364]

More than 1000 organisations with investments worth US$8 trillion have made commitments to fossil fuel divestment.[365] Socially responsible investing funds allow investors to invest in funds that meet high environmental, social and corporate governance (ESG) standards.[366]

### Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic led some governments to shift their focus away from climate action, at least temporarily.[367] This obstacle to environmental policy efforts may have contributed to slowed investment in green energy technologies. The economic slowdown resulting from COVID-19 added to this effect.[368][369]

In 2020, carbon dioxide emissions fell by 6.4% or 2.3 billion tonnes globally.[370] Greenhouse gas emissions rebounded later in the pandemic as many countries began lifting restrictions. The direct impact of pandemic policies had a negligible long-term impact on climate change.[370][371]

## Examples by country

Greenhouse gas emissions per person in the highest-emitting countries.[372] Though China has the greatest total annual carbon dioxide emissions, the U.S. and a few other high-emitting countries exceed China in per capita emissions.

Richer (developed) countries emit more CO
2 per person than poorer (developing) countries.[373] Emissions are roughly proportional to GDP per person, though the rate of increase diminishes with average GDP/pp of about $10,000.

While climate mitigation is often cast as a burden to be distributed in some or other way, it can also be seen as an opportunity for industrial development, exports, and status seeking for countries.[19] The examples and precedents that countries et may influence other countries to follow suit.[19]

### United States

This section is an excerpt from Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States#Federal Policies[ edit ]

### China

China has committed to peak emissions by 2030 and reach net zero by 2060.[374] Warming cannot be limited to 1.5 °C if any coal plants in China (without carbon capture) operate after 2045.[375] The Chinese national carbon trading scheme started in 2021.

### European Union

The European Commission estimates that an additional €477 million in annual investment is needed for the European Union to meet its Fit-for-55 decarbonisation goals.[281][376]

In the European Union, government-driven policies and the European Green Deal have helped position greentech (as an example) as a vital area for venture capital investment. By 2023, venture capital in the EU's greentech sector equalled that of the United States, reflecting a concerted effort to drive innovation and mitigate climate change through targeted financial support.[281][377] The European Green Deal has fostered policies that contributed to a 30% rise in venture capital for greentech companies in the EU from 2021 to 2023, despite a downturn in other sectors during the same period.[378]

While overall venture capital investment in the EU remains about six times lower than in the United States, the greentech sector has closed this gap significantly, attracting substantial funding. Key areas benefitting from increased investments are energy storage, circular economy initiatives, and agricultural technology. This is supported by the EU's ambitious goal to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030.[378]

## Related approaches

### Relationship with solar radiation modification (SRM)

While solar radiation modification (SRM) could reduce surface temperatures, it temporarily masks climate change rather than addressing the root cause, which is greenhouse gases.[379]: 14–56 SRM would work by altering how much solar radiation the Earth absorbs.[379]: 14–56 Examples include reducing the amount of sunlight reaching the surface, reducing the optical thickness and lifetime of clouds, and changing the ability of the surface to reflect radiation.[380] The IPCC describes SRM as a climate risk reduction strategy or supplementary option rather than a climate mitigation option.[379]

The terminology in this area is still evolving. Experts sometimes use the term geoengineering or climate engineering in the scientific literature for both CDR or SRM, if the techniques are used at a global scale.[20]: 6–11 IPCC reports no longer use the terms geoengineering or climate engineering.[21]

## See also

* Carbon budget
* Carbon offsets and credits
* Carbon price
* Climate movement
* Climate change denial
* Tipping points in the climate system

Find out more on Wikipedia's
Sister projects|

* Data
from Wikidata

|

## References

1. ↑ Fawzy, Samer; Osman, Ahmed I.; Doran, John; Rooney, David W. (2020). "Strategies for mitigation of climate change: a review". Environmental Chemistry Letters 18 (6): 2069–2094. doi:10.1007/s10311-020-01059-w. Bibcode: 2020EnvCL..18.2069F.
2. ↑ Abbass, Kashif; Qasim, Muhammad Zeeshan; Song, Huaming; Murshed, Muntasir; Mahmood, Haider; Younis, Ijaz (2022). "A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures". Environmental Science and Pollution Research 29 (28): 42539–42559. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-19718-6. PMID 35378646. Bibcode: 2022ESPR...2942539A.
3. ↑ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2022). ﻿Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change﻿ (Report). IPCC. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/. Retrieved 30 October 2025.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Stechemesser, Annika; Koch, Nicolas; Mark, Ebba; Dilger, Elina; Klösel, Patrick; Menicacci, Laura; Nachtigall, Daniel; Pretis, Felix et al. (2024). "Climate policies that achieved major emission reductions: Global evidence from two decades". Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science) 385 (6711): 884–892. doi:10.1126/science.adl6547. PMID 39172830. Bibcode: 2024Sci...385..884S.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Suzuki, Masahiro; Jewell, Jessica; Cherp, Aleh (2023-11-09). "Have climate policies accelerated energy transitions? Historical evolution of electricity mix in the G7 and the EU compared to net-zero targets". Energy Research & Social Science 106. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2023.103281. Bibcode: 2023ERSS..10603281S. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629623003419.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max; Rosado, Pablo (11 May 2020). "CO2 and Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions#future-emissions. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
7. ↑ Rogelj, J.; Shindell, D.; Jiang, K.; Fifta, S. et al. (2018). "Chapter 2: Mitigation Pathways Compatible with 1.5 °C in the Context of Sustainable Development". Global Warming of 1.5 °C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter2_High_Res.pdf.
8. ↑ Harvey, Fiona (26 November 2019). "UN calls for push to cut greenhouse gas levels to avoid climate chaos". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/nov/26/united-nations-global-effort-cut-emissions-stop-climate-chaos-2030.
9. ↑ "Cut Global Emissions by 7.6 Percent Every Year for Next Decade to Meet 1.5°C Paris Target – UN Report". United Nations. https://unfccc.int/news/cut-global-emissions-by-76-percent-every-year-for-next-decade-to-meet-15degc-paris-target-un-report.
10. ↑ Creutzig, Felix; et al. (2022). "Demand-side solutions to climate change mitigation." Nature Climate Change. 12: 36–46. doi:10.1038/s41558-021-01219-y.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 IPCC (2022) Summary for policy makers in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States
12. ↑ Ram M., Bogdanov D., Aghahosseini A., Gulagi A., Oyewo A.S., Child M., Caldera U., Sadovskaia K., Farfan J., Barbosa LSNS., Fasihi M., Khalili S., Dalheimer B., Gruber G., Traber T., De Caluwe F., Fell H.-J., Breyer C. Global Energy System based on 100% Renewable Energy – Power, Heat, Transport and Desalination Sectors . Study by Lappeenranta University of Technology and Energy Watch Group, Lappeenranta, Berlin, March 2019.
13. ↑ van Heerden, Rik; Edelenbosch, Oreane Y.; Daioglou, Vassilis; Le Gallic, Thomas; Baptista, Luiz Bernardo; Di Bella, Alice; Colelli, Francesco Pietro; Emmerling, Johannes et al. (2025). "Demand-side strategies enable rapid and deep cuts in buildings and transport emissions to 2050" (in en). Nature Energy 10 (3): 380–394. doi:10.1038/s41560-025-01703-1. ISSN 2058-7546. Bibcode: 2025NatEn..10..380V.
14. ↑ "Cement – Analysis" (in en-GB). https://www.iea.org/reports/cement.
15. ↑ ﻿Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change﻿ (Report). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2022. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter04.pdf. Retrieved 3 May 2025. "Transformative changes for the near term include rapid decarbonisation of the electricity sector and low‑carbon electrification of buildings, industry and transport."
16. ↑ Nadel, Steven (2019). "Electrification in the Transportation, Buildings, and Industrial Sectors: A Review of Opportunities, Barriers, and Policies". Current Sustainable/Renewable Energy Reports 6 (4): 158–168. doi:10.1007/s40518-019-00138-z. Bibcode: 2019CSRER...6..158N.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 United Nations Environment Programme (2022). Emissions Gap Report 2022: The Closing Window — Climate crisis calls for rapid transformation of societies. Nairobi.
18. ↑ "Climate Change Performance Index". November 2022. http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/CCPI 2023.pdf.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Overland, Indra; Seah, Sharon (2024). "Can Asia's climate leader please step forward?" (in en). Asian Politics & Policy 16 (3): 429–449. doi:10.1111/aspp.12754. ISSN 1943-0787. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/aspp.12754.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 IPCC (2022) Chapter 1: Introduction and Framing in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Rogelj, J., D. Shindell, K. Jiang, S. Fifita, P. Forster, V. Ginzburg, C. Handa, H. Kheshgi, S. Kobayashi, E. Kriegler, L. Mundaca, R. Séférian, and M.V.Vilariño, 2018: Chapter 2: Mitigation Pathways Compatible with 1.5°C in the Context of Sustainable Development. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US, pp. 93-174. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.004.
23. ↑ Olivier J.G.J. (2022), Trends in global CO2 and total greenhouse gas emissions: 2021 summary report . PBL Netherlands, Environmental Assessment Agency, The Hague.
24. ↑ Friedlingstein, Pierre; O'Sullivan, Michael; Jones, Matthew W.; Andrew, Robbie M.; Hauck, Judith; Olsen, Are; Peters, Glen P.; Peters, Wouter et al. (2020). "Global Carbon Budget 2020" (in en). Earth System Science Data 12 (4): 3269–3340. doi:10.5194/essd-12-3269-2020. ISSN 1866-3516. Bibcode: 2020ESSD...12.3269F. https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/12/3269/2020/.
25. ↑ "Chapter 2: Emissions trends and drivers". Ipcc_Ar6_Wgiii. 2022. https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg3/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_FinalDraft_Chapter02.pdf. Retrieved 2022-11-21.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Ritchie, Hannah (18 September 2020). "Sector by sector: where do global greenhouse gas emissions come from?". https://ourworldindata.org/ghg-emissions-by-sector.
27. ↑ "It's critical to tackle coal emissions" (in en). 8 October 2021. https://blogs.worldbank.org/voices/its-critical-tackle-coal-emissions. "Coal power plants produce a fifth of global greenhouse gas emissions – more than any other single source."
28. ↑ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max; Rosado, Pablo (11 May 2020). "CO2 and Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/greenhouse-gas-emissions.
29. ↑ "Biden signs international climate deal on refrigerants" (in en). 27 October 2022. https://apnews.com/article/biden-business-china-rwanda-canada-922cd2519e517e1454e020a06d3cf881.
30. ↑ "Methane vs. Carbon Dioxide: A Greenhouse Gas Showdown". 30 September 2014. http://www.onegreenplanet.org/animalsandnature/methane-vs-carbon-dioxide-a-greenhouse-gas-showdown/.
31. ↑ Pérez-Domínguez, Ignacio; del Prado, Agustin; Mittenzwei, Klaus; Hristov, Jordan; Frank, Stefan; Tabeau, Andrzej; Witzke, Peter; Havlik, Petr et al. (December 2021). "Short- and long-term warming effects of methane may affect the cost-effectiveness of mitigation policies and benefits of low-meat diets" (in en). Nature Food 2 (12): 970–980. doi:10.1038/s43016-021-00385-8. ISSN 2662-1355. PMID 35146439.
32. ↑ Franziska Funke; Linus Mattauch; Inge van den Bijgaart; H. Charles J. Godfray; Cameron Hepburn; David Klenert; Marco Springmann; Nicolas Treich (19 July 2022). "Toward Optimal Meat Pricing: Is It Time to Tax Meat Consumption?" (in en). Review of Environmental Economics and Policy 16 (2): 000. doi:10.1086/721078. Bibcode: 2022RvEEP..16..219F. "animal-based agriculture and feed crop production account for approximately 83 percent of agricultural land globally and are responsible for approximately 67 percent of deforestation (Poore and Nemecek 2018). This makes livestock farming the single largest driver of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, nutrient pollution, and ecosystem loss in the agricultural sector. A failure to mitigate GHG emissions from the food system, especially animal-based agriculture, could prevent the world from meeting the climate objective of limiting global warming to 1.5°C, as set forth in the Paris Climate Agreement, and complicate the path to limiting climate change to well below 2°C of warming (Clark et al. 2020).".
33. ↑ IGSD (2013). "Short-Lived Climate Pollutants (SLCPs)". https://www.igsd.org/short-lived-climate-pollutants-slcps/.
34. ↑ "How satellites could help hold countries to emissions promises made at COP26 summit". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2021/11/09/cop26-satellites-emissions/.
35. ↑ "Satellites offer new ways to study ecosystems—and maybe even save them" (in en). https://www.science.org/content/article/satellites-offer-new-ways-study-ecosystems-maybe-even-save-them.
36. ↑ "It's over for fossil fuels: IPCC spells out what's needed to avert climate disaster". 4 April 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/apr/04/its-over-for-fossil-fuels-ipcc-spells-out-whats-needed-to-avert-climate-disaster.
37. ↑ "The evidence is clear: the time for action is now. We can halve emissions by 2030.". 4 April 2022. https://www.ipcc.ch/2022/04/04/ipcc-ar6-wgiii-pressrelease/.
38. ↑ "Ambitious Action Key to Resolving Triple Planetary Crisis of Climate Disruption, Nature Loss, Pollution, Secretary-General Says in Message for International Mother Earth Day". https://www.un.org/press/en/2022/sgsm21243.doc.htm.
39. ↑ Bustamante, Mercedes et al. (2023). "Ten new insights in climate science 2023". Global Sustainability 7. doi:10.1017/sus.2023.25. Bibcode: 2023GlSus...7E..19B. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/global-sustainability/article/ten-new-insights-in-climate-science-2023/F7F1C10C07FD241BFE30ACC4BA555A56. Retrieved 6 May 2025.
40. ↑ "Glasgow's 2030 credibility gap: net zero's lip service to climate action" (in en). https://climateactiontracker.org/publications/glasgows-2030-credibility-gap-net-zeros-lip-service-to-climate-action/.
41. ↑ "Global Data Community Commits to Track Climate Action". https://unfccc.int/news/global-data-community-commits-to-track-climate-action.
42. ↑ Nations, United. "Sustainable Development Goals Report 2020" (in en). United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/desa/sustainable-development-goals-report-2020.
43. ↑ "World fails to meet a single target to stop destruction of nature – UN report" (in en). The Guardian. 15 September 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/15/every-global-target-to-stem-destruction-of-nature-by-2020-missed-un-report-aoe.
44. ↑ "Glasgow's 2030 credibility gap: net zero's lip service to climate action" (in en). https://climateactiontracker.org/publications/glasgows-2030-credibility-gap-net-zeros-lip-service-to-climate-action/.
45. ↑ Mason, Jeff; Alper, Alexandra (18 September 2021). "Biden asks world leaders to cut methane in climate fight". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/biden-convenes-world-leaders-discuss-climate-change-ahead-glasgow-summit-2021-09-17/.
46. ↑ Bassist, Rina (6 October 2021). "At OECD, Israel joins global battle against climate change". Al – Monitor. https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2021/10/oecd-israel-joins-global-battle-against-climate-change.
47. ↑ Friedlingstein, Pierre; Jones, Matthew W.; O'Sullivan, Michael; Andrew, Robbie M.; Hauck, Judith; Peters, Glen P.; Peters, Wouter; Pongratz, Julia et al. (2019). "Global Carbon Budget 2019". Earth System Science Data 11 (4): 1783–1838. doi:10.5194/essd-11-1783-2019. ISSN 1866-3508. Bibcode: 2019ESSD...11.1783F. https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/11/1783/2019/. Retrieved 15 February 2021.
48. ↑ "GCB 2025". Global Carbon Budget. 2026. https://globalcarbonbudget.org/gcb-2025/. GCB links to downloadable data at "Figures from the Global Carbon Budget 2025 / 34: Global energy use by category". CICERO Center for International Climate Research. 2026. https://robbieandrew.github.io/GCB2025/.
49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 49.3 49.4 IPCC (2022) Chapter 6: Energy systems in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States
50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Teske, Sven, ed (2 August 2019). Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals: Global and Regional 100% Renewable Energy Scenarios with Non-energy GHG Pathways for +1.5°C and +2°C. Springer Science+Business Media. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2. ISBN 978-3-030-05842-5. https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783030058425.
51. ↑ "Global Energy Transformation: A Roadmap to 2050 (2019 edition)". International Renewable Energy Agency. https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2019/Apr/IRENA_Global_Energy_Transformation_2019.pdf.
52. ↑ "Share of cumulative power capacity by technology, 2010-2027". International Energy Agency (IEA). 5 December 2022. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/share-of-cumulative-power-capacity-by-technology-2010-2027. Source states "Fossil fuel capacity from IEA (2022), World Energy Outlook 2022. IEA. Licence: CC BY 4.0."
53. ↑ "Scale-up of Solar and Wind Puts Existing Coal, Gas at Risk". BloombergNEF. 28 April 2020. https://about.bnef.com/blog/scale-up-of-solar-and-wind-puts-existing-coal-gas-at-risk.
54. ↑ Emilio, Maurizio Di Paolo (2022-09-15). "The Cost of Energy, Key to Sustainability" (in en-US). https://www.powerelectronicsnews.com/why-the-cost-of-energy-is-key-to-sustainability/.
55. ↑ Liebensteiner, Mario; Naumann, Fabian (2022-11-01). "Can carbon pricing counteract renewable energies' cannibalization problem?" (in en). Energy Economics 115. doi:10.1016/j.eneco.2022.106345. ISSN 0140-9883. Bibcode: 2022EneEc.11506345L. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140988322004741.
56. ↑ Cartlidge, Edwin (18 November 2011). "Saving for a rainy day". Science 334 (6058): 922–24. doi:10.1126/science.334.6058.922. PMID 22096185. Bibcode: 2011Sci...334..922C.
57. ↑ "Renewable power's growth is being turbocharged as countries seek to strengthen energy security" (in en-GB). 6 December 2022. https://www.iea.org/news/renewable-power-s-growth-is-being-turbocharged-as-countries-seek-to-strengthen-energy-security. "Utility-scale solar PV and onshore wind are the cheapest options for new electricity generation in a significant majority of countries worldwide."
58. ↑ "Solar - Fuels & Technologies" (in en-GB). https://www.iea.org/fuels-and-technologies/solar. "utility-scale solar PV is the least costly option for new electricity generation in a significant majority of countries worldwide"
59. ↑ Whiting, G.T.T.; Mirletz, H.; O'Connor, T.; Barnes, T.; Agarwal, S. (2024-02-01). "The rise of renewables and fall of fossil fuel generation in the power sector of emerging economies". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 191. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2024.114245. ISSN 1364-0321.
60. ↑ Jaeger, Joel (20 September 2021). "Explaining the Exponential Growth of Renewable Energy" (in en). https://www.wri.org/insights/growth-renewable-energy-sector-explained.
61. ↑ Wanner, Brent (6 February 2019). "Is exponential growth of solar PV the obvious conclusion?". IEA. https://www.iea.org/commentaries/is-exponential-growth-of-solar-pv-the-obvious-conclusion.
62. ↑ "Renewables 2021 Global Status Report". REN21. pp. 137–138. https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2021_Full_Report.pdf.
63. ↑ "Global Wind Atlas". DTU Technical University of Denmark. http://science.globalwindatlas.info/datasets.html.
64. ↑ "Onshore vs offshore wind energy: what's the difference? | National Grid Group" (in en). https://www.nationalgrid.com/stories/energy-explained/onshore-vs-offshore-wind-energy.
65. ↑ Nyenah, Emmanuel; Sterl, Sebastian; Thiery, Wim (1 May 2022). "Pieces of a puzzle: solar-wind power synergies on seasonal and diurnal timescales tend to be excellent worldwide". Environmental Research Communications 4 (5): 055011. doi:10.1088/2515-7620/ac71fb. ISSN 2515-7620. Bibcode: 2022ERCom...4e5011N.
66. ↑ "BP Statistical Review 2019". https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2019-full-report.pdf.
67. ↑ "Large hydropower dams not sustainable in the developing world". BBC News. 5 November 2018. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-46098118.
68. ↑ "From baseload to peak". IRENA. https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2015/IRENA_Baseload_to_Peak_2015.pdf.
69. ↑ "Biomass – Carbon sink or carbon sinner". UK environment agency. https://fcrn.org.uk/sites/default/files/Biomass__carbon_sink_or_carbon_sinner_summary_report.pdf.
70. ↑ "Virgin Atlantic purchases 10 million gallons of SAF from Gevo" (in en-US). 7 December 2022. https://biofuels-news.com/news/virgin-atlantic-purchases-10-million-gallons-of-saf-from-gevo/.
71. ↑ Geothermal Energy Association. Geothermal Energy: International Market Update May 2010, p. 4-6.
72. ↑ Bassam, Nasir El; Maegaard, Preben; Schlichting, Marcia (2013) (in en). Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities: Strategies and Technologies Toward Achieving Sustainability in Energy Generation and Supply. Newnes. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-12-397178-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=uP4eGFt4c_AC&q=international+Geothermal+Association+10,715+megawatts&pg=PA187.
73. ↑ Moomaw, W., P. Burgherr, G. Heath, M. Lenzen, J. Nyboer, A. Verbruggen, 2011: Annex II: Methodology. In IPCC: Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (ref. page 10)
74. ↑ Ruggles, Tyler H.; Caldeira, Ken (1 January 2022). "Wind and solar generation may reduce the inter-annual variability of peak residual load in certain electricity systems" (in en). Applied Energy 305. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117773. ISSN 0306-2619. Bibcode: 2022ApEn..30517773R.
75. ↑ "You've heard of water droughts. Could 'energy' droughts be next?" (in en). https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/04/220412161551.htm.
76. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme (2019). Emissions Gap Report 2019. United Nations Environment Programme. p. 47. ISBN 978-92-807-3766-0. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/30797/EGR2019.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
77. ↑ "Introduction to System Integration of Renewables". IEA. 11 March 2020. https://www.iea.org/reports/introduction-to-system-integration-of-renewables.
78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 78.2 Blanco, Herib; Faaij, André (2018). "A review at the role of storage in energy systems with a focus on Power to Gas and long-term storage". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81: 1049–1086. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.062. ISSN 1364-0321. Bibcode: 2018RSERv..81.1049B.
79. ↑ REN21 (2020). Renewables 2020: Global Status Report. REN21 Secretariat. p. 177. ISBN 978-3-948393-00-7. https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2020_full_report_en.pdf.
80. ↑ Bloess, Andreas; Schill, Wolf-Peter; Zerrahn, Alexander (2018). "Power-to-heat for renewable energy integration: A review of technologies, modeling approaches, and flexibility potentials". Applied Energy 212: 1611–1626. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.12.073. Bibcode: 2018ApEn..212.1611B.
81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 Koohi-Fayegh, S.; Rosen, M.A. (2020). "A review of energy storage types, applications and recent developments". Journal of Energy Storage 27. doi:10.1016/j.est.2019.101047. ISSN 2352-152X. Bibcode: 2020JEnSt..2701047K. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352152X19306012. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
82. ↑ Katz, Cheryl (17 December 2020). "The batteries that could make fossil fuels obsolete". BBC. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201217-renewable-power-the-worlds-largest-battery.
83. ↑ Herib, Blanco; André, Faaij (2018). "A review at the role of storage in energy systems with a focus on Power to Gas and long-term storage". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81: 1049–1086. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.062. ISSN 1364-0321. Bibcode: 2018RSERv..81.1049B.
84. ↑ "Climate change and batteries: the search for future power storage solutions". Climate change: science and solutions. The Royal Society. 19 May 2021. https://royalsociety.org/-/media/policy/projects/climate-change-science-solutions/climate-science-solutions-batteries.pdf. Retrieved 15 October 2021.
85. ↑ Hunt, Julian D.; Byers, Edward; Wada, Yoshihide; Parkinson, Simon et al. (2020). "Global resource potential of seasonal pumped hydropower storage for energy and water storage". Nature Communications 11 (1): 947. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-14555-y. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 32075965. Bibcode: 2020NatCo..11..947H.
86. ↑ "Climate Change and Nuclear Power 2022" (in en). 19 August 2020. https://www.iaea.org/topics/nuclear-power-and-climate-change/climate-change-and-nuclear-power-2022.
87. ↑ "World Nuclear Waste Report". https://worldnuclearwastereport.org/.
88. ↑ Smith, Brice. "Insurmountable Risks: The Dangers of Using Nuclear Power to Combat Global Climate Change – Institute for Energy and Environmental Research" (in en). https://ieer.org/resource/books/insurmountable-risks-dangers-nuclear/.
89. ↑ Prăvălie, Remus; Bandoc, Georgeta (2018). "Nuclear energy: Between global electricity demand, worldwide decarbonisation imperativeness, and planetary environmental implications" (in en). Journal of Environmental Management 209: 81–92. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.12.043. PMID 29287177. Bibcode: 2018JEnvM.209...81P. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301479717312227.
90. ↑ Kyne, D.; Bolin, B. (12 July 2016). "Emerging Environmental Justice Issues in Nuclear Power and Radioactive Contamination" (in en). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13 (7): 700. doi:10.3390/ijerph13070700. PMID 27420080. Bibcode: 2016IJERP..13..700K.
91. ↑ Schneider, Mycle; Froggatt, Antony. ﻿World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2021﻿ (Report). https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/IMG/pdf/wnisr2021-lr.pdf. Retrieved 1 January 2023.
92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 "Nuclear Power Is Declining in the West and Growing in Developing Countries" (in en-US). https://www.brinknews.com/nuclear-power-is-declining-in-the-west-and-growing-in-developing-countries/.
93. ↑ "May: Steep decline in nuclear power would threaten energy security and climate goals". https://www.iea.org/newsroom/news/2019/may/steep-decline-in-nuclear-power-would-threaten-energy-security-and-climate-goals.html.
94. ↑ "Factoring the Costs of Severe Nuclear Accidents into Backfit Decisions". Lessons Learned from the Fukushima Nuclear Accident for Improving Safety of U.S. Nuclear Plants (Appendix L - Factoring the Costs of Severe Nuclear Accidents into Backfit Decisions). National Research Council. 2014. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK253929/. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
95. ↑ Carman, Jennifer; Goldberg, Matthew; Marlon, Jennifer; Wang, Xinran; Lacroix, Karine; Neyens, Liz; Leiserowitz, Anthony; Maibach, Edward et al. (Aug 3, 2021). "Americans' Actions to Limit and Prepare For Global Warming". Americans' Actions to Limit and Prepare for Global Warming, March 2021 March 2021.
96. ↑ 96.00 96.01 96.02 96.03 96.04 96.05 96.06 96.07 96.08 96.09 IPCC (2022) Technical Summary. In Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States
97. ↑ 97.0 97.1 97.2 97.3 97.4 97.5 97.6 97.7 Patrick Devine-Wright, Julio Diaz-José, Frank Geels, Arnulf Grubler, Nadia Maïzi, Eric Masanet, Yacob Mulugetta, Chioma Daisy Onyige-Ebeniro, Patricia E. Perkins, Alessandro Sanches Pereira, Elke Ursula Weber (2022) Chapter 5: Demand, services and social aspects of mitigation in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States
98. ↑ Cardenas, IC (2024). "Mitigation of climate change. Risk and uncertainty research gaps in the specification of mitigation actions". Environmental Science & Policy 162 (December 2024). doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2024.103912. Bibcode: 2024ESPol.16203912C.
99. ↑ "Economic growth no longer means higher carbon emissions". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2022/11/08/economic-growth-no-longer-means-higher-carbon-emissions.
100. ↑ "2021-2022 EIB Climate Survey, part 3 of 3: The economic and social impact of the green transition" (in en). https://www.eib.org/en/surveys/climate-survey/4th-climate-survey/green-transition-jobs-lifestyle-adaptation.htm.
101. ↑ Nielsen, K. S.; Cologna, V.; Bauer, J. M.; Berger, S.; Brick, C.; Dietz, T.; Hahnel, U. J. J.; Henn, L. et al. (2024). "Realizing the full potential of behavioural science for climate change mitigation". Nature Climate Change 14 (5): 322–330. doi:10.1038/s41558-024-01951-1. Bibcode: 2024NatCC..14..322N.
102. ↑ Felix Creutzig, Joyashree Roy, and Jan Minx, "Demand-Side Climate Change Mitigation: Where Do We Stand and Where Do We Go?" Environmental Research Letters 19, no. 4 (2024): 040201. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ad33d3
103. ↑ IEA (2019), Global Energy & CO2 Status Report 2019, IEA, Paris, License: CC BY 4.0
104. ↑ ﻿Key World Energy Statistics 2020﻿ (Report). IEA. 2020. https://www.iea.org/reports/key-world-energy-statistics-2020/final-consumption.
105. ↑ "A guide for effective energy saving". 9 April 2015. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/ugc/blogs/2015/04/a-guide-for-effective-energy-saving.html.
106. ↑ "The value of urgent action on energy efficiency – Analysis" (in en-GB). 8 June 2022. https://www.iea.org/reports/the-value-of-urgent-action-on-energy-efficiency.
107. ↑ Diesendorf, Mark (2007). Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy, UNSW Press, p. 86.
108. ↑ Climate Equality: a Climate for the 99%. Oxfam International. November 2023. https://webassets.oxfamamerica.org/media/documents/cr-climate-equality-201123-en.pdf. Fig. ES.2, Fig. ES.3, Box 1.2.
109. ↑ Wolf, C.; Ripple, W.J.; Crist, E. (2021). "Human population, social justice, and climate policy". Sustainability Science 16 (5): 1753–1756. doi:10.1007/s11625-021-00951-w. Bibcode: 2021SuSc...16.1753W.
110. ↑ Crist, Eileen; Ripple, William J.; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Rees, William E.; Wolf, Christopher (2022). "Scientists' warning on population". Science of the Total Environment 845. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157166. PMID 35803428. Bibcode: 2022ScTEn.84557166C. https://scientistswarning.forestry.oregonstate.edu/sites/default/files/Crist2022.pdf. ""Our first action call is a direct, global appeal to all women and men to choose none or at most one child. Individuals, especially if they aspire to large families, may pursue adoption, which is a desirable and compassionate choice for children who are here and need to be cared for."".
111. ↑ "Six key lifestyle changes can help avert the climate crisis, study finds" (in en). 7 March 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/mar/07/six-key-lifestyle-changes-can-help-avert-the-climate-crisis-study-finds.
112. ↑ Adcock, Bronwyn (2022). "Electric Monaros and hotted-up skateboards: the 'genius' who wants to electrify our world" (in en). https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/feb/05/electric-monaros-and-hotted-up-skateboards-the-genius-who-wants-to-electrify-our-world.
113. ↑ 113.0 113.1 Ripple, William J. et al. (2013). "Ruminants, climate change and climate policy". Nature Climate Change 4 (1): 2–5. doi:10.1038/nclimate2081. Bibcode: 2014NatCC...4....2R. https://trophiccascades.forestry.oregonstate.edu/sites/trophic/files/Ripple_2014_NCC.pdf.
114. ↑ "COP26: How can an average family afford an electric car? And more questions" (in en-GB). BBC News. 11 November 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-58925049.
115. ↑ "Emissions inequality—a gulf between global rich and poor – Nicholas Beuret" (in en-GB). 10 April 2019. https://www.socialeurope.eu/emissions-inequality.
116. ↑ Westlake, Steve (11 April 2019). "Climate change: yes, your individual action does make a difference" (in en). http://theconversation.com/climate-change-yes-your-individual-action-does-make-a-difference-115169.
117. ↑ "Avoiding meat and dairy is 'single biggest way' to reduce your impact on Earth" (in en). 31 May 2018. http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/31/avoiding-meat-and-dairy-is-single-biggest-way-to-reduce-your-impact-on-earth.
118. ↑ Harvey, Fiona (21 March 2016). "Eat less meat to avoid dangerous global warming, scientists say". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/mar/21/eat-less-meat-vegetarianism-dangerous-global-warming.
119. ↑ Milman, Oliver (20 June 2016). "China's plan to cut meat consumption by 50% cheered by climate campaigners". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jun/20/chinas-meat-consumption-climate-change.
120. ↑ Schiermeier, Quirin (8 August 2019). "Eat less meat: UN climate-change report calls for change to human diet". Nature 572 (7769): 291–292. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-02409-7. PMID 31409926. Bibcode: 2019Natur.572..291S.
121. ↑ Harvey, Fiona (4 April 2022). "Final warning: what does the IPCC's third report instalment say?". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/apr/04/final-warning-what-does-the-ipcc-third-report-instalment-say.
122. ↑ "Global Methane Pledge" (in en). https://www.globalmethanepledge.org/resources/global-methane-pledge.
123. ↑ "How plant-based diets not only reduce our carbon footprint, but also increase carbon capture" (in en). Leiden University. https://phys.org/news/2022-01-plant-based-diets-carbon-footprint-capture.html.
124. ↑ Sun, Zhongxiao; Scherer, Laura; Tukker, Arnold; Spawn-Lee, Seth A.; Bruckner, Martin; Gibbs, Holly K.; Behrens, Paul (January 2022). "Dietary change in high-income nations alone can lead to substantial double climate dividend" (in en). Nature Food 3 (1): 29–37. doi:10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5. ISSN 2662-1355. PMID 37118487. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357723207.
125. ↑ Carrington, Damian (21 July 2023). "Vegan diet massively cuts environmental damage, study shows". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jul/20/vegan-diet-cuts-environmental-damage-climate-heating-emissions-study.
126. ↑ "World Population Prospects". UN. https://population.un.org/wpp.
127. ↑ 127.0 127.1 IPCC (2022) Chapter 7: Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Uses (AFOLU) in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States
128. ↑ Dodson, Jenna C.; Dérer, Patrícia; Cafaro, Philip; Götmark, Frank (2020). "Population growth and climate change: Addressing the overlooked threat multiplier" (in en). Science of the Total Environment 748. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141346. PMID 33113687. Bibcode: 2020ScTEn.74841346D. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969720348750.
129. ↑ "Carbon Sources and Sinks" (in en). 2020-03-26. http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/carbon-sources-and-sinks/.
130. ↑ Levin, Kelly (8 August 2019). "How Effective Is Land At Removing Carbon Pollution? The IPCC Weighs In" (in en). World Resources Institute. https://www.wri.org/insights/how-effective-land-removing-carbon-pollution-ipcc-weighs.
131. ↑ Hoegh-Guldberg, O., D. Jacob, M. Taylor, M. Bindi, S. Brown, I. Camilloni, A. Diedhiou, R. Djalante, K.L. Ebi, F. Engelbrecht, J.Guiot, Y. Hijioka, S. Mehrotra, A. Payne, S.I. Seneviratne, A. Thomas, R. Warren, and G. Zhou, 2018: Chapter 3: Impacts of 1.5°C Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T.Maycock, M.Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US, pp. 175-312. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.005.
132. ↑ Bui, Mai; Adjiman, Claire S.; Bardow, André; Anthony, Edward J.; Boston, Andy; Brown, Solomon; Fennell, Paul S.; Fuss, Sabine et al. (2018). "Carbon capture and storage (CCS): the way forward" (in en). Energy & Environmental Science 11 (5): 1062–1176. doi:10.1039/C7EE02342A. ISSN 1754-5692. Bibcode: 2018EnEnS..11.1062B.
133. ↑ 133.0 133.1 IPCC, 2018: Summary for Policymakers. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US, pp. 3-24. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.001.
134. ↑ IPCC, 2018: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. In Press.
135. ↑ Stern, Nicholas Herbert (2007). The economics of climate change: the Stern review. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. xxv. ISBN 978-0-521-70080-1. http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/independent_reviews/stern_review_economics_climate_change/stern_review_report.cfm. Retrieved 2009-12-28.
136. ↑ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (9 February 2021). "Forests and Deforestation". Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/drivers-of-deforestation.
137. ↑ 137.0 137.1 "India should follow China to find a way out of the woods on saving forest people". The Guardian. 22 July 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/jul/22/india-follow-china-saving-forest-people-land-rights.
138. ↑ "How Conservation Became Colonialism". Foreign Policy. 16 July 2018. https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/16/how-conservation-became-colonialism-environment-indigenous-people-ecuador-mining/. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
139. ↑ Moomaw, William R.; Masino, Susan A.; Faison, Edward K. (2019). "Intact Forests in the United States: Proforestation Mitigates Climate Change and Serves the Greatest Good". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 2. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2019.00027. Bibcode: 2019FrFGC...2...27M.
140. ↑ 140.0 140.1 "New Jungles Prompt a Debate on Rain Forests". New York Times. 29 January 2009. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/30/science/earth/30forest.html?pagewanted=all.
141. ↑ 141.0 141.1 141.2 "The natural world can help save us from climate catastrophe | George Monbiot". 3 April 2019. http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/apr/03/natural-world-climate-catastrophe-rewilding.
142. ↑ Wilmers, Christopher C.; Schmitz, Oswald J. (19 October 2016). "Effects of gray wolf-induced trophic cascades on ecosystem carbon cycling". Ecosphere 7 (10). doi:10.1002/ecs2.1501. Bibcode: 2016Ecosp...7E1501W.
143. ↑ van Minnen, Jelle G; Strengers, Bart J; Eickhout, Bas; Swart, Rob J; Leemans, Rik (2008). "Quantifying the effectiveness of climate change mitigation through forest plantations and carbon sequestration with an integrated land-use model". Carbon Balance and Management 3 (1): 3. doi:10.1186/1750-0680-3-3. ISSN 1750-0680. PMID 18412946. Bibcode: 2008CarBM...3....3V.
144. ↑ Boysen, Lena R.; Lucht, Wolfgang; Gerten, Dieter; Heck, Vera; Lenton, Timothy M.; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim (17 May 2017). "The limits to global-warming mitigation by terrestrial carbon removal". Earth's Future 5 (5): 463–474. doi:10.1002/2016EF000469. Bibcode: 2017EaFut...5..463B.
145. ↑ Yoder, Kate (12 May 2022). "Does planting trees actually help the climate? Here's what we know.". Grist. https://www.rewildingmag.com/does-planting-trees-help-climate-change/.
146. ↑ "One trillion trees - uniting the world to save forests and climate" (in en). 22 January 2020. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/01/one-trillion-trees-world-economic-forum-launches-plan-to-help-nature-and-the-climate/.
147. ↑ Gabbatiss, Josh (16 February 2019). "Massive restoration of world's forests would cancel out a decade of CO
2 emissions, analysis suggests". Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/forests-climate-change-co2-greenhouse-gases-trillion-trees-global-warming-a8782071.html.CO2+emissions,+analysis+suggests&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Gabbatiss&rft.aufirst=Josh&rft.au=Gabbatiss, Josh&rft.date=16+February+2019&rft.pub=Independent&rft_id=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/forests-climate-change-co2-greenhouse-gases-trillion-trees-global-warming-a8782071.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change_mitigation">
148. ↑ Hasler, Natalia; Williams, Christopher A.; Denney, Vanessa Carrasco; Ellis, Peter W.; Shrestha, Surendra; Terasaki Hart, Drew E.; Wolff, Nicholas H.; Yeo, Samantha et al. (2024-03-26). "Accounting for albedo change to identify climate-positive tree cover restoration" (in en). Nature Communications 15 (1): 2275. doi:10.1038/s41467-024-46577-1. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 38531896. Bibcode: 2024NatCo..15.2275H.
149. ↑ 149.0 149.1 149.2 "The Great Green Wall: African Farmers Beat Back Drought and Climate Change with Trees". Scientific American. 28 January 2011. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/farmers-in-sahel-beat-back-drought-and-climate-change-with-trees/. Retrieved 12 September 2021.
150. ↑ 150.0 150.1 "In semi-arid Africa, farmers are transforming the "underground forest" into life-giving trees". University of Minnesota. 28 January 2011. https://ensia.com/features/in-semi-arid-africa-farmers-are-transforming-the-underground-forest-into-life-giving-trees/.
151. ↑ 151.0 151.1 151.2 Stern, N. (2006). Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change: Part III: The Economics of Stabilisation. HM Treasury, London: http://hm-treasury.gov.uk/sternreview_index.htm
152. ↑ Chazdon, Robin; Brancalion, Pedro (5 July 2019). "Restoring forests as a means to many ends" (in en). Science 365 (6448): 24–25. doi:10.1126/science.aax9539. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31273109. Bibcode: 2019Sci...365...24C.
153. ↑ Young, E. (2008). IPCC Wrong On Logging Threat to Climate. New Scientist, 5 August 2008. Retrieved on 18 August 2008, from https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14466-ipcc-wrong-on-logging-threat-toclimate.html
154. ↑ "In Latin America, Forests May Rise to Challenge of Carbon Dioxide". New York Times. 16 May 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/17/science/forests-carbon-dioxide.html?_r=1.
155. ↑ (in en-US) Securing Rights, Combating Climate Change. World Resources Institute. 23 July 2014. ISBN 978-1-56973-829-0. https://www.wri.org/research/securing-rights-combating-climate-change. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
156. ↑ "Community forestry can work, but plans in the Democratic Republic of Congo show what's missing" (in en-US). 29 June 2020. https://theconversation.com/community-forestry-can-work-but-plans-in-the-democratic-republic-of-congo-show-whats-missing-138625.
157. ↑ 157.0 157.1 "Sustainable pastoralism: a Nature-based Solution proven over millennia". International Union for Conservation of Nature. https://iucn.org/crossroads-blog/202206/sustainable-pastoralism-nature-based-solution-proven-over-millennia.
158. ↑ "Pastoralism under threat". Geographical Magazine (Royal Geographical Society). 3 January 2023. https://geographical.co.uk/wildlife/pastoralism-under-threat. Retrieved 4 July 2025.
159. ↑ "The world is getting smaller for pastoralists facing multiple threats". Climate Home News. 12 December 2024. https://www.climatechangenews.com/2024/12/12/the-world-is-getting-smaller-for-pastoralists-facing-multiple-threats/.
160. ↑ "What to consider when increasing soil carbon stocks" (in en-US). 14 February 2022. https://www.fwi.co.uk/arable/land-preparation/soils/what-to-consider-when-increasing-soil-carbon-stocks. "many factors can affect how easy it is for micro-organisms to access carbon"
161. ↑ Terrer, C.; Phillips, R. P.; Hungate, B. A.; Rosende, J.; Pett-Ridge, J.; Craig, M. E.; van Groenigen, K. J.; Keenan, T. F. et al. (March 2021). "A trade-off between plant and soil carbon storage under elevated CO
2" (in en). Nature 591 (7851): 599–603. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03306-8. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 33762765. Bibcode: 2021Natur.591..599T. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03306-8. "Although plant biomass often increases in elevated CO
2 (eCO
2) experiments SOC has been observed to increase, remain unchanged or even decline. The mechanisms that drive this variation across experiments remain poorly understood, creating uncertainty in climate projections".CO2&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.aulast=Terrer&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Terrer, C.&rft.au=Phillips, R.+P.&rft.au=Hungate, B.+A.&rft.au=Rosende, J.&rft.au=Pett-Ridge, J.&rft.au=Craig, M.+E.&rft.au=van+Groenigen, K.+J.&rft.au=Keenan, T.+F.&rft.au=Sulman, B.+N.&rft.date=March+2021&rft.volume=591&rft.issue=7851&rft.pages=599–603&rft_id=info:doi/10.1038/s41586-021-03306-8&rft_id=info:pmid/33762765&rft_id=info:bibcode/2021Natur.591..599T&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03306-8&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change_mitigation">
162. ↑ "Carbon farming explained: the pros, the cons and the EU's plans" (in en). 17 March 2022. https://www.cleanenergywire.org/factsheets/carbon-farming-explained-pros-cons-and-eus-plans. "But many German researchers and the country's agriculture ministry warn that soil carbon sequestration is easily reversible, hard to measure, and could lead to greenwashing. Existing frameworks for carbon farming certificates deploy a wide variety of approaches to quantifying the amount of carbon removals, the European Commission says."
163. ↑ Zhao, Xin; Mignone, Bryan K.; Wise, Marshall A.; McJeon, Haewon C. (2024). "Trade-offs in land-based carbon removal measures under 1.5 °C and 2 °C futures". Nature Communications 15 (1). doi:10.1038/s41467-024-46575-3. PMID 38485972. Bibcode: 2024NatCo..15.2297Z.
164. ↑ 164.0 164.1 Harris, Nancy; Gibbs, David (21 January 2021). "Forests Absorb Twice As Much Carbon As They Emit Each Year" (in en). https://www.wri.org/insights/forests-absorb-twice-much-carbon-they-emit-each-year.
165. ↑ Rosane, Olivia (18 March 2020). "Protecting and Restoring Soils Could Remove 5.5 Billion Tonnes of CO
2 a Year". Ecowatch. https://www.ecowatch.com/soil-protection-co2-2645518371.html.CO2+a+Year&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Rosane&rft.aufirst=Olivia&rft.au=Rosane, Olivia&rft.date=18+March+2020&rft.series=Ecowatch&rft_id=https://www.ecowatch.com/soil-protection-co2-2645518371.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change_mitigation">
166. ↑ Papanicolaou, A. N. (Thanos); Wacha, Kenneth M.; Abban, Benjamin K.; Wilson, Christopher G.; Hatfield, Jerry L.; Stanier, Charles O.; Filley, Timothy R. (2015). "Conservation Farming Shown to Protect Carbon in Soil". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences 120 (11): 2375–2401. doi:10.1002/2015JG003078. Bibcode: 2015JGRG..120.2375P. https://eos.org/research-spotlights/conservation-farming-shown-to-protect-carbon-in-soil.
167. ↑ "Cover Crops, a Farming Revolution With Deep Roots in the Past". The New York Times. 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/07/business/cover-crops-a-farming-revolution-with-deep-roots-in-the-past.html?_r=0.
168. ↑ Lugato, Emanuele; Bampa, Francesca; Panagos, Panos; Montanarella, Luca; Jones, Arwyn (1 November 2014). "Potential carbon sequestration of European arable soils estimated by modelling a comprehensive set of management practices". Global Change Biology 20 (11): 3557–3567. doi:10.1111/gcb.12551. ISSN 1365-2486. PMID 24789378. Bibcode: 2014GCBio..20.3557L.
169. ↑ 169.0 169.1 Lehmann, Johannes; Cowie, Annette; Masiello, Caroline A.; Kammann, Claudia; Woolf, Dominic; Amonette, James E.; Cayuela, Maria L.; Camps-Arbestain, Marta et al. (2021). "Biochar in climate change mitigation" (in en). Nature Geoscience 14 (12): 883–892. doi:10.1038/s41561-021-00852-8. ISSN 1752-0908. Bibcode: 2021NatGe..14..883L. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-021-00852-8.
170. ↑ Dominic Woolf; James E. Amonette; F. Alayne Street-Perrott; Johannes Lehmann; Stephen Joseph (August 2010). "Sustainable biochar to mitigate global climate change". Nature Communications 1 (5): 56. doi:10.1038/ncomms1053. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 20975722. Bibcode: 2010NatCo...1...56W.
171. ↑ Zhang, X.; Wang, Y.; Li, Z.; Chen, H. (2024). "Carbon sequestration potential of wetlands and regulating strategies: A review". Environmental Research 238. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2024.117345.
172. ↑ Synthesis of Adaptation Options for Coastal Areas. Climate Ready Estuaries Program, EPA 430-F-08-024. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency. 2009.
173. ↑ "Coastal Wetland Protection" (in en). 6 February 2020. https://drawdown.org/solutions/coastal-wetland-protection.
174. ↑ Chmura, G. L. (2003). "Global carbon sequestration in tidal, saline wetland soils". Global Biogeochemical Cycles 17 (4): Abstract. doi:10.1029/2002GB001917. Bibcode: 2003GBioC..17.1111C.
175. ↑ Tiwari, Shashank; Singh, Chhatarpal; Singh, Jay Shankar (2020). "Wetlands: A Major Natural Source Responsible for Methane Emission". in Upadhyay, Atul Kumar; Singh, Ranjan; Singh, D. P. (in en). Restoration of Wetland Ecosystem: A Trajectory Towards a Sustainable Environment. Singapore: Springer. pp. 59–74. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-7665-8_5. ISBN 978-981-13-7665-8.
176. ↑ Bange, Hermann W. (2006). "Nitrous oxide and methane in European coastal waters" (in en). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 70 (3): 361–374. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2006.05.042. Bibcode: 2006ECSS...70..361B. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0272771406002496.
177. ↑ Thompson, A. J.; Giannopoulos, G.; Pretty, J.; Baggs, E. M.; Richardson, D. J. (2012). "Biological sources and sinks of nitrous oxide and strategies to mitigate emissions". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 367 (1593): 1157–1168. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0415. PMID 22451101.
178. ↑ "Climate change and deforestation threaten world's largest tropical peatland". 25 January 2018. https://www.carbonbrief.org/climate-change-and-deforestation-threaten-worlds-largest-tropical-peatland.
179. ↑ "Peatlands and climate change". 6 November 2017. https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/peatlands-and-climate-change.
180. ↑ Maclean, Ruth (22 February 2022). "What Do the Protectors of Congo's Peatlands Get in Return?" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/02/21/headway/peatlands-congo-climate-change.html.
181. ↑ "Peatlands and climate change" (in en). 6 November 2017. https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/peatlands-and-climate-change.
182. ↑ "Climate change: National Trust joins international call for peat product ban". BBC News. 7 November 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-59195535.
183. ↑ Harenda K.M., Lamentowicz M., Samson M., Chojnicki B.H. (2018) The Role of Peatlands and Their Carbon Storage Function in the Context of Climate Change. In: Zielinski T., Sagan I., Surosz W. (eds) Interdisciplinary Approaches for Sustainable Development Goals. GeoPlanet: Earth and Planetary Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71788-3_12
184. ↑ "How oysters can stop a flood". Vox. 31 August 2021. https://www.vox.com/videos/22650761/oyster-reef-restoration-flooding-climate-change.
185. ↑ Taillardat, Pierre; Thompson, Benjamin S.; Garneau, Michelle; Trottier, Karelle; Friess, Daniel A. (6 October 2020). "Climate change mitigation potential of wetlands and the cost-effectiveness of their restoration". Interface Focus 10 (5). doi:10.1098/rsfs.2019.0129. PMID 32832065. "Analysis of wetland restoration costs relative to the amount of carbon they can sequester revealed that restoration is more cost-effective in coastal wetlands such as mangroves (US$1800 ton C−1) compared with inland wetlands (US$4200–49 200 ton C−1). We advise that for inland wetlands, priority should be given to conservation rather than restoration; while for coastal wetlands, both conservation and restoration may be effective techniques for climate change mitigation.".
186. ↑ 186.0 186.1 186.2 IPCC (2022) Chapter 12: Cross sectoral perspectives in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States
187. ↑ Doney, Scott C.; Busch, D. Shallin; Cooley, Sarah R.; Kroeker, Kristy J. (2020). "The Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Ecosystems and Reliant Human Communities" (in en). Annual Review of Environment and Resources 45 (1): 83–112. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-083019. ISSN 1543-5938.
188. ↑ Roman, J.; McCarthy, J.J. (2010). "The Whale Pump: Marine Mammals Enhance Primary Productivity in a Coastal Basin". PLOS ONE 5 (10). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013255. e13255. PMID 20949007. Bibcode: 2010PLoSO...513255R.
189. ↑ Canadell, J.G., P.M.S. Monteiro, M.H. Costa, L. Cotrim da Cunha, P.M. Cox, A.V. Eliseev, S. Henson, M. Ishii, S. Jaccard, C. Koven, A. Lohila, P.K. Patra, S. Piao, J. Rogelj, S. Syampungani, S. Zaehle, and K. Zickfeld, 2021: Chapter 5: Global Carbon and other Biogeochemical Cycles and Feedbacks. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 673–816, doi: 10.1017/9781009157896.007.
190. ↑ 190.0 190.1 Ricart, Aurora M.; Krause-Jensen, Dorte; Hancke, Kasper; Price, Nichole N.; Masqué, Pere; Duarte, Carlos M. (2022). "Sinking seaweed in the deep ocean for carbon neutrality is ahead of science and beyond the ethics". Environmental Research Letters 17 (8): 081003. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac82ff. Bibcode: 2022ERL....17h1003R.
191. ↑ Hurd, Catriona L.; Law, Cliff S.; Bach, Lennart T.; Britton, Damon; Hovenden, Mark; Paine, Ellie R.; Raven, John A.; Tamsitt, Veronica et al. (2022). "Forensic carbon accounting: Assessing the role of seaweeds for carbon sequestration". Journal of Phycology 58 (3): 347–363. doi:10.1111/jpy.13249. PMID 35286717. Bibcode: 2022JPcgy..58..347H.
192. ↑ Boyd, Philip W.; Bach, Lennart T.; Hurd, Catriona L.; Paine, Ellie; Raven, John A.; Tamsitt, Veronica (2022). "Potential negative effects of ocean afforestation on offshore ecosystems". Nature Ecology & Evolution 6 (6): 675–683. doi:10.1038/s41559-022-01722-1. PMID 35449458. Bibcode: 2022NatEE...6..675B.
193. ↑ "Guest post: How 'enhanced weathering' could slow climate change and boost crop yields" (in en). 19 February 2018. https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-how-enhanced-weathering-could-slow-climate-change-and-boost-crop-yields.
194. ↑ "CO
2 turned into stone in Iceland in climate change breakthrough". The Guardian. 9 June 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jun/09/co2-turned-into-stone-in-iceland-in-climate-change-breakthrough.CO2+turned+into+stone+in+Iceland+in+climate+change+breakthrough&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.date=9+June+2016&rft_id=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jun/09/co2-turned-into-stone-in-iceland-in-climate-change-breakthrough&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change_mitigation">
195. ↑ Weng, Zhe Han; Cowie, Annette L. (2025). "Estimates vary but credible evidence points to gigaton‑scale climate change mitigation potential of biochar". Communications Earth and Environment 6 (1): 259. doi:10.1038/s43247-025-02228-x. Bibcode: 2025ComEE...6..259W.
196. ↑ ﻿Soil Carbon & Biochar – Carbon Removal Fact Sheet﻿ (Report). Institute for Carbon Removal Law and Policy, American University. 2018. https://www.american.edu/sis/centers/carbon-removal/upload/icrlp_fact_sheet_soil_carbon_biochar_181006.pdf.
197. ↑ "Trending on Track? CDR.fyi 2023 Year in Review". 2024-02-07. https://www.cdr.fyi/blog/2023-year-in-review.
198. ↑ Cho, Renée (2024-04-24). "Solar Geoengineering to Cool the Planet: Is It Worth the Risks?". State of the Planet (Columbia Climate School). https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2024/04/24/solar-geoengineering-to-cool-the-planet-is-it-worth-the-risks/.
199. ↑ Tang, Aaron; Kemp, Luke (2021). "A Fate Worse Than Warming? Stratospheric Aerosol Injection and Global Catastrophic Risk". Frontiers in Climate 3. doi:10.3389/fclim.2021.720312. Bibcode: 2021FrCli...3.0312T.
200. ↑ Obersteiner, M. (2001). "Managing Climate Risk". Science 294 (5543): 786–7. doi:10.1126/science.294.5543.786b. PMID 11681318.
201. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering (24 October 2018) (in en). Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda. doi:10.17226/25259. ISBN 978-0-309-48452-7. Bibcode: 2018nap..book25259N. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25259/negative-emissions-technologies-and-reliable-sequestration-a-research-agenda. Retrieved 22 February 2020.
202. ↑ Smith, Pete; Porter, John R. (July 2018). "Bioenergy in the IPCC Assessments". GCB Bioenergy 10 (7): 428–431. doi:10.1111/gcbb.12514. Bibcode: 2018GCBBi..10..428S.
203. ↑ "Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage – Analysis" (in en-GB). https://www.iea.org/reports/bioenergy-with-carbon-capture-and-storage.
204. ↑ Rhodes, James S.; Keith, David W. (2008). "Biomass with capture: Negative emissions within social and environmental constraints: An editorial comment". Climatic Change 87 (3–4): 321–8. doi:10.1007/s10584-007-9387-4. Bibcode: 2008ClCh...87..321R.
205. ↑ Fajardy, M., Köberle, A., Mac Dowell, N., Fantuzzi, A. (2019) BECCS deployment: a reality check. Imperial College London.
206. ↑ "Rishi Sunak lambasted by scientists for UK's 'disturbing' energy source" (in en). https://news.sky.com/story/rishi-sunak-lambasted-by-scientists-for-uks-disturbing-energy-source-12760175.
207. ↑ "Direct Air Capture – Analysis" (in en-GB). https://www.iea.org/reports/direct-air-capture.
208. ↑ The Royal Society, (2009) "Geoengineering the climate: science, governance and uncertainty". Retrieved 12 September 2009.
209. ↑ "Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector". 6 March 2020. http://earthcharts.org/emissions-sources/.
210. ↑ International Energy Agency (2017). Energy technology perspectives 2017: catalysing energy technology transformations. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. ISBN 978-92-64-27597-3. OCLC 1144453104.
211. ↑ Thomas, Nathalie (2022-11-30). "Now is the time for all consumers to come to the aid of their grid". Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/83ef3de0-c7eb-463a-beea-750c0dfbc687.
212. ↑ "Heat Pumps – Analysis" (in en-GB). 2022. https://www.iea.org/reports/heat-pumps.
213. ↑ Zhou, Kai; Miljkovic, Nenad; Cai, Lili (March 2021). "Performance analysis on system-level integration and operation of daytime radiative cooling technology for air-conditioning in buildings". Energy and Buildings 235. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.110749. Bibcode: 2021EneBu.23510749Z. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778821000335.
214. ↑ Radhika, Lalik (2019). "How India is solving its cooling challenge". World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/05/india-heat-cooling-challenge-temperature-air-conditioning/.
215. ↑ Davis, L., Gertler, P., Jarvis, S., & Wolfram, C. (2021). Air conditioning and global inequality. Global Environmental Change, 69, 102299.
216. ↑ 216.0 216.1 "Cooling Emissions and Policy Synthesis Report". IEA/UNEP. 2020. https://www.iea.org/reports/cooling-emissions-and-policy-synthesis-report.
217. ↑ "The Future of the Canals". London Canal Museum. http://www.canalmuseum.org.uk/education/teacher/lessonplan-future.pdf.
218. ↑ UKCCC (2020). "The Sixth Carbon Budget Surface Transport". https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Sector-summary-Surface-transport.pdf. "there is zero net cost to the economy of switching from cars to walking and cycling"
219. ↑ "This is how cities can reduce emissions with waste-reduction solutions" (in en). 7 November 2022. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/11/waste-emissions-methane-cities/.
220. ↑ Data from McKerracher, Colin (12 January 2023). "Electric Vehicles Look Poised for Slower Sales Growth This Year". BloombergNEF. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-12/electric-vehicles-look-poised-for-slower-sales-growth-this-year.
221. ↑ Ge, Mengpin; Friedrich, Johannes; Vigna, Leandro (6 February 2020) (in en). 4 Charts Explain Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Countries and Sectors. https://www.wri.org/blog/2020/02/greenhouse-gas-emissions-by-country-sector. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
222. ↑ Jochem, Patrick; Rothengatter, Werner; Schade, Wolfgang (2016). "Climate change and transport" (in en). https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/91601/.
223. ↑ Kwan, Soo Chen; Hashim, Jamal Hisham (1 April 2016). "A review on co-benefits of mass public transportation in climate change mitigation" (in en). Sustainable Cities and Society 22: 11–18. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2016.01.004. ISSN 2210-6707. Bibcode: 2016SusCS..22...11K.
224. ↑ Lowe, Marcia D. (April 1994). "Back on Track: The Global Rail Revival". http://www.worldwatch.org/node/872.
225. ↑ Keating, Dave (21 December 2022). "EU's end-of-year energy breakthroughs will have big climate implications" (in en-US). https://www.energymonitor.ai/finance/regulation-policy/eus-end-of-year-energy-breakthroughs-will-have-big-climate-implications/.
226. ↑ Mattioli, Giulio; Roberts, Cameron; Steinberger, Julia K.; Brown, Andrew (1 August 2020). "The political economy of car dependence: A systems of provision approach" (in en). Energy Research & Social Science 66. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101486. ISSN 2214-6296. Bibcode: 2020ERSS...6601486M.
227. ↑ "Our cities need fewer cars, not cleaner cars". 16 October 2017. http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/16/our-cities-need-fewer-cars-not-cleaner-cars-electric-green-transport.
228. ↑ Casson, Richard (25 January 2018). "We don't just need electric cars, we need fewer cars". Greenpeace. https://www.greenpeace.org/international/story/13968/we-dont-just-need-electric-cars-we-need-fewer-cars/.
229. ↑ "The essentials of the "Green Deal" of the European Commission". 7 January 2020. https://www.greenfacts.org/en/europe-green-deal-2019/l-2/index.htm#0.
230. ↑ "Smart Mobility in Smart Cities". https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314246043.
231. ↑ "How electric vehicles can help the developing world" (in en). 5 December 2022. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/12/electric-vehicles-developing-world-cities/.
232. ↑ Clarke, Seán (25 December 2017). "How green are electric cars?". http://www.theguardian.com/football/ng-interactive/2017/dec/25/how-green-are-electric-cars.
233. ↑ Collins, Leigh (13 May 2022). "Hydrogen v battery trucks | UK launches $240m competition to find out which is best for zero-emissions haulage | Recharge" (in en). https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/hydrogen-v-battery-trucks-uk-launches-240m-competition-to-find-out-which-is-best-for-zero-emissions-haulage/2-1-1219034.
234. ↑ "LNG projected to gain significant market share in transport fuels by 2035". Gas Processing News/Bloomberg. 28 September 2014. http://gasprocessingnews.com/news/lng-projected-to-gain-significant-market-share-in-transport-fuels-by-2035.aspx.
235. ↑ Chambers, Sam (26 February 2021). "'Transitional fuels are capturing the regulatory agenda and incentives': Maersk". splash247. https://splash247.com/transitional-fuels-are-capturing-the-regulatory-agenda-and-incentives-maersk/.
236. ↑ "Maersk backs plan to build Europe's largest green ammonia facility" (Press release). Maersk. 23 February 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
237. ↑ Bahtić, Fatima (10 November 2022). "Viking's new cruise ship equipped with hydrogen fuel cells delivered" (in en-US). https://www.offshore-energy.biz/vikings-new-cruise-ship-equipped-with-hydrogen-fuel-cells-delivered/.
238. ↑ Parker, Selwyn (8 September 2020). "Norway moves closer to its ambition of an all-electric ferry fleet". Rivera. https://www.rivieramm.com/news-content-hub/news-content-hub/partnership-creates-next-generation-all-electric-ferry-60619.
239. ↑ D. S. Lee (2021), "The contribution of global aviation to anthropogenic climate forcing for 2000 to 2018", Atmospheric Environment 244, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117834, PMID 32895604, Bibcode: 2021AtmEn.24417834L
240. ↑ Brandon Graver; Kevin Zhang (September 2019). "CO2 emissions from commercial aviation, 2018". International Council on Clean Transportation. https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_CO2-commercl-aviation-2018_20190918.pdf.
241. ↑ "Reducing emissions from aviation". European Commission. 23 November 2016. https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/aviation_en.
242. ↑ "The aviation network – Decarbonisation issues". Eurocontrol. 4 September 2019. https://www.eurocontrol.int/publication/aviation-network-decarbonisation-issues.
243. ↑ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max; Rosado, Pablo (11 May 2020). "CO2 and Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/emissions-by-sector. Retrieved 21 December 2022.
244. ↑ Sutton, William R.; Lotsch, Alexander; Prasann, Ashesh (2024-05-06). "Recipe for a Livable Planet: Achieving Net Zero Emissions in the Agrifood System". World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c68a6f57-d4fb-4176-9a85-e313dd34c4e2/content.
245. ↑ Olivier J.G.J. and Peters J.A.H.W. (2020), Trends in global CO2 and total greenhouse gas emissions: 2020 report. PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, The Hague.
246. ↑ Schmidinger, Kurt; Stehfest, Elke (2012). "Including CO
2 implications of land occupation in LCAs – method and example for livestock products". Int J Life Cycle Assess 17 (8): 967. doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0434-7. Bibcode: 2012IJLCA..17..962S. https://foodethics.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/inst_ethik_wiss_dialog/Schmidinger__K._2012._Including_CO2_implications_of_land_occupation_in_LCAs-method_and_example_for_livestock_products._International_Journal_of_Life_Cycle_Assessment.pdf. Retrieved 2021-06-09.CO2+implications+of+land+occupation+in+LCAs+–+method+and+example+for+livestock+products&rft.jtitle=Int+J+Life+Cycle+Assess&rft.aulast=Schmidinger&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rft.au=Schmidinger, Kurt&rft.au=Stehfest, Elke&rft.date=2012&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=967&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/s11367-012-0434-7&rft_id=info:bibcode/2012IJLCA..17..962S&rft_id=https://foodethics.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/inst_ethik_wiss_dialog/Schmidinger__K._2012._Including_CO2_implications_of_land_occupation_in_LCAs-method_and_example_for_livestock_products._International_Journal_of_Life_Cycle_Assessment.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change_mitigation">
247. ↑ Eldoret; Merced (12 Dec 2024). "What has four stomachs and could change the world?". The Economist. https://www.economist.com/international/2024/12/12/what-has-four-stomachs-and-could-change-the-world.
248. ↑ "Bovine Genomics | Genome Canada". https://www.genomecanada.ca/en/programs/large-scale-science/past-competitions/strategic-initiatives/bovine-genomics.
249. ↑ Airhart, Ellen. "Canada Is Using Genetics to Make Cows Less Gassy". Wired. https://www.wired.com/story/canada-is-using-genetics-to-make-cows-less-gassy/.
250. ↑ "The use of direct-fed microbials for mitigation of ruminant methane emissions: a review". https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01137190/document.
251. ↑ Parmar, N.R.; Nirmal Kumar, J.I.; Joshi, C.G. (2015). "Exploring diet-dependent shifts in methanogen and methanotroph diversity in the rumen of Mehsani buffalo by a metagenomics approach". Frontiers in Life Science 8 (4): 371–378. doi:10.1080/21553769.2015.1063550.
252. ↑ "Kowbucha, seaweed, vaccines: the race to reduce cows' methane emissions" (in en). The Guardian. 30 September 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/30/cow-methane-emissions-reduce-seaweed-kowbucha.
253. ↑ Boadi, D (2004). "Mitigation strategies to reduce enteric methane emissions from dairy cows: Update review". Can. J. Anim. Sci. 84 (3): 319–335. doi:10.4141/a03-109.
254. ↑ Martin, C. et al. 2010. Methane mitigation in ruminants: from microbe to the farm scale. Animal 4 : pp 351-365.
255. ↑ Eckard, R. J. (2010). "Options for the abatement of methane and nitrous oxide from ruminant production: A review". Livestock Science 130 (1–3): 47–56. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2010.02.010.
256. ↑ Ritchie, Hannah (10 March 2020). "The carbon footprint of foods: are differences explained by the impacts of methane?". https://ourworldindata.org/carbon-footprint-food-methane.
257. ↑ Searchinger, Tim; Adhya, Tapan K. (2014). "Wetting and Drying: Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Saving Water from Rice Production". WRI. https://www.wri.org/research/wetting-and-drying-reducing-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-saving-water-rice-production.
258. ↑ "Nutrient management". https://drawdown.org/solutions/nutrient-management.
259. ↑ "Cement – Analysis" (in en-GB). https://www.iea.org/reports/cement.
260. ↑ "Adding bacteria can make concrete greener". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2022/11/23/adding-bacteria-can-make-concrete-greener.
261. ↑ "The role of CCUS in decarbonizing the cement industry: A German case study" (in en). https://www.oxfordenergy.org/publications/the-role-of-ccus-in-decarbonizing-the-cement-industry-a-german-case-study/.
262. ↑ 262.0 262.1 Renewable Reads (16 November 2023). "How to decarbonize the steel sector" (in en). https://renewablereads.com/2023/11/16/how-to-decarbonize-the-steel-sector/.
263. ↑ 263.0 263.1 263.2 Krane, Jim (17 November 2022). "Why fixing methane leaks from the oil and gas industry can be a climate game-changer – one that pays for itself" (in en). http://theconversation.com/why-fixing-methane-leaks-from-the-oil-and-gas-industry-can-be-a-climate-game-changer-one-that-pays-for-itself-194346.
264. ↑ Cocks, Tim (29 September 2022). "Explainer: How methane leaks accelerate global warming" (in en). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/how-methane-leaks-accelerate-global-warming-2022-09-27/.
265. ↑ Heyman, Taylor (26 October 2022). "Iran and Turkmenistan among methane 'super emitters' spotted by Nasa from space" (in en). The National. https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/2022/10/26/iran-and-turkmenistan-among-methane-super-emitters-spotted-by-nasa-from-space/.
266. ↑ "CO2 Emissions: Multiple Countries - Fossil fuel operations - 2021 - Climate TRACE" (in en). https://climatetrace.org/inventory.
267. ↑ Combier, Etienne (10 March 2022). "Turkmenistan, the unknown mega-polluter" (in en-GB). https://novastan.org/en/turkmenistan/turkmenistan-the-unknown-mega-polluter/.
268. ↑ US EPA, OAR (8 December 2015). "About Coal Mine Methane" (in en). https://www.epa.gov/cmop/about-coal-mine-methane.
269. ↑ "Driving Down Methane Leaks from the Oil and Gas Industry – Analysis" (in en-GB). 18 January 2021. https://www.iea.org/reports/driving-down-methane-leaks-from-the-oil-and-gas-industry.
270. ↑ Burtraw, Dallas; Krupnick, Alan; Palmer, Karen; Paul, Anthony; Toman, Michael; Bloyd, Cary (May 2003). "Ancillary benefits of reduced air pollution in the US from moderate greenhouse gas mitigation policies in the electricity sector". Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 45 (3): 650–673. doi:10.1016/s0095-0696(02)00022-0. ISSN 0095-0696. Bibcode: 2003JEEM...45..650B.
271. ↑ Thambiran, Tirusha; Diab, Roseanne D. (May 2011). "Air pollution and climate change co-benefit opportunities in the road transportation sector in Durban, South Africa". Atmospheric Environment 45 (16): 2683–2689. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.02.059. ISSN 1352-2310. Bibcode: 2011AtmEn..45.2683T.
272. ↑ Ayres, Robert U.; Walter, Jörg (1991). "The greenhouse effect: Damages, costs and abatement". Environmental & Resource Economics 1 (3): 237–270. doi:10.1007/bf00367920. ISSN 0924-6460. Bibcode: 1991EnREc...1..237A.
273. ↑ Pearce, David William (1992). The secondary benefits of greenhouse gas control. Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment. OCLC 232159680.
274. ↑ Metz, Bert (2001). Climate change 2001: mitigation: contribution of Working Group III to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80769-7. OCLC 46640845.
275. ↑ Ancillary Benefits and Costs of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation. 2000-10-25. doi:10.1787/9789264188129-en. ISBN 978-92-64-18542-5.
276. ↑ 276.0 276.1 IPCC. "Co-benefits of climate change mitigation". IPCC. https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ch4s4-5-3.html.
277. ↑ Sudmant, Andrew; Boyle, Dom; Higgins-Lavery, Ruaidhri; Gouldson, Andy; Boyle, Andy; Fulker, James; Brogan, Jamie (2024-07-05). "Climate policy as social policy? A comprehensive assessment of the economic impact of climate action in the UK" (in en). Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences 15 (3): 476–490. doi:10.1007/s13412-024-00955-9. ISSN 2190-6491.
278. ↑ IASS/Green ID (2019). "Future skills and job creation through renewable energy in Vietnam. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector.". https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/COBENEFITS-Vietnam_Employment_Exec-Report.pdf.
279. ↑ IASS/IPC (2019). "Industrial development, trade opportunities and innovation with renewable energy in Turkey. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector". https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/COBENEFITS-Turkey_Industrial-Development_ExecReport_200604.pdf.
280. ↑ IASS/IPC (2020). "Securing Turkey's energy supply and balancing the current account deficit through renewable energy. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector.". https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/13_LY_IASS_study_Turkey_201026.pdf.
281. ↑ 281.0 281.1 281.2 "The scale-up gap: Financial market constraints holding back innovative firms in the European Union" (in en). https://www.eib.org/the-scale-up-gap.
282. ↑ Mondal, Md. Alam Hossain; Denich, Manfred; Vlek, Paul L.G. (December 2010). "The future choice of technologies and co-benefits of CO2 emission reduction in Bangladesh power sector". Energy 35 (12): 4902–4909. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.08.037. ISSN 0360-5442. Bibcode: 2010Ene....35.4902M.
283. ↑ Jakob, Michael; Overland, Indra (2025-11-29). "Energy trade, emissions and import dependence in Southeast Asia" (in en). npj Climate Action 4 (1): 107. doi:10.1038/s44168-025-00312-8. ISSN 2731-9814. Bibcode: 2025npjCA...4..107J. https://www.nature.com/articles/s44168-025-00312-8.
284. ↑ IASS/TERI (2019). "Secure and reliable electricity access with renewable energy mini-grids in rural India. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector". https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/IN_EnergyAccess_ExecReport.pdf.
285. ↑ Chhatre, Ashwini; Lakhanpal, Shikha; Larson, Anne M; Nelson, Fred; Ojha, Hemant; Rao, Jagdeesh (December 2012). "Social safeguards and co-benefits in REDD+: a review of the adjacent possible". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 4 (6): 654–660. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2012.08.006. ISSN 1877-3435. Bibcode: 2012COES....4..654C.
286. ↑ IASS/TERI (2019). "Secure and reliable electricity access with renewable energy mini-grids in rural India. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector". https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/IN_EnergyAccess_ExecReport.pdf.
287. ↑ IRENA (2016). "Renewable Energy Benefits: Measuring the Economics". https://www.irena.org/publications/2016/Jan/Renewable-Energy-Benefits-Measuring-the-Economics.
288. ↑ IEA (2015). "Capturing the Multiple Benefits of Energy Efficiency". https://webstore.iea.org/capturing-the-multiple-benefits-of-energy-efficiency.
289. ↑ Workman, Annabelle; Blashki, Grant; Bowen, Kathryn J.; Karoly, David J.; Wiseman, John (April 2018). "The Political Economy of Health Co-Benefits: Embedding Health in the Climate Change Agenda" (in en). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15 (4): 674. doi:10.3390/ijerph15040674. PMID 29617317. Bibcode: 2018IJERP..15..674W.
290. ↑ 290.0 290.1 Molar, Roberto. "Reducing Emissions to Lessen Climate Change Could Yield Dramatic Health Benefits by 2030". https://climate.nasa.gov/news/3134/reducing-emissions-to-lessen-climate-change-could-yield-dramatic-health-benefits-by-2030/.
291. ↑ Green, Matthew (9 February 2021). "Fossil fuel pollution causes one in five premature deaths globally: study". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-pollution-fossil-idUSKBN2A90UB.
292. ↑ Vohra, Karn; Vodonos, Alina; Schwartz, Joel; Marais, Eloise A.; Sulprizio, Melissa P.; Mickley, Loretta J. (April 2021). "Global mortality from outdoor fine particle pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion: Results from GEOS-Chem". Environmental Research 195. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.110754. PMID 33577774. Bibcode: 2021ER....19510754V. https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10119672/.
293. ↑ Gregory, Andrew (2023-11-29). "Air pollution from fossil fuels 'kills 5 million people a year'" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/nov/29/air-pollution-from-fossil-fuels-kills-5-million-people-a-year.
294. ↑ "Phasing out fossil fuels could save millions of lives" (in en). https://www.mpic.de/5466214/ausstieg-aus-fossilen-brennstoffen-koennte-mehr-als-fuenf-millionen-todesfaelle-verhindern.
295. ↑ Roser, Max (2024-03-18). "Data review: how many people die from air pollution?". Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/data-review-air-pollution-deaths.
296. ↑ 296.0 296.1 Romanello, Marina; McGushin, Alice; Di Napoli, Claudia; Drummond, Paul et al. (October 2021). "The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: code red for a healthy future". The Lancet 398 (10311): 1619–1662. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01787-6. PMID 34687662. PMC 7616807. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/102413/1/2021 Report of the Lancet Countdown revised _no refs ES_clean.pdf.
297. ↑ Shrestha, Pallavi; Nukala, Sai Keerthana; Islam, Fariha; Badgery-Parker, Tim; Foo, Fiona (2024). "The co-benefits of climate change mitigation strategies on cardiovascular health: a systematic review". The Lancet Regional Health - Western Pacific 48. doi:10.1016/j.lanwpc.2024.101098. PMID 39380746.
298. ↑ 298.0 298.1 IPCC (2022) Chapter 8: Urban systems and other settlements in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States
299. ↑ IPCC (2022) Chapter 4: Mitigation and development pathways in the near- to mid-term in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States
300. ↑ Ingemarsson, M. L., Weinberg, J., Rudebeck, T., Erlandsson, L. W. (2022) Key messages and executive summary, The essential drop to Net-Zero: Unpacking freshwater's role in climate change mitigation, SIWI, Stockholm, Sweden
301. ↑ (in en) State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2019. World Bank Group. 6 June 2019. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-1435-8. ISBN 978-1-4648-1435-8. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/31755.
302. ↑ Sonter, Laura J.; Dade, Marie C.; Watson, James E. M.; Valenta, Rick K. (1 September 2020). "Renewable energy production will exacerbate mining threats to biodiversity" (in en). Nature Communications 11 (1): 4174. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17928-5. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 32873789. Bibcode: 2020NatCo..11.4174S.
303. ↑ "Solar panels are a pain to recycle. These companies are trying to fix that.". https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/08/19/1032215/solar-panels-recycling/.
304. ↑ 304.0 304.1 304.2 Lamb, William F.; Mattioli, Giulio; Levi, Sebastian; Roberts, J. Timmons; Capstick, Stuart; Creutzig, Felix; Minx, Jan C.; Müller-Hansen, Finn et al. (2020). "Discourses of climate delay" (in en). Global Sustainability 3. doi:10.1017/sus.2020.13. ISSN 2059-4798. Bibcode: 2020GlSus...3E..17L.
305. ↑ Barker, T. (2007). "Mitigation from a cross-sectoral perspective.". in B. Metz. In: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ch11.html. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
306. ↑ IPCC, 2007: Technical Summary \- Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States., XXX pp.
307. ↑ Sampedro, Jon; Smith, Steven J.; Arto, Iñaki; González-Eguino, Mikel; Markandya, Anil; Mulvaney, Kathleen M.; Pizarro-Irizar, Cristina; Van Dingenen, Rita (2020). "Health co-benefits and mitigation costs as per the Paris Agreement under different technological pathways for energy supply" (in en). Environment International 136. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2020.105513. PMID 32006762. Bibcode: 2020EnInt.13605513S.
308. ↑ "The energy transition will be much cheaper than you think". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. https://www.economist.com/interactive/briefing/2024/11/14/the-energy-transition-will-be-much-cheaper-than-you-think.
309. ↑ 309.0 309.1 "Can cost benefit analysis grasp the climate change nettle? And can we..." (in en). https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/blog/can-cost-benefit-analysis-grasp-the-climate-change-nettle-and-can-we-justify-ambitious-targets/.
310. ↑ Kotz, Mazimilian.; Levermann, Anders; Wenz, Leonie (2024-04-17). "The economic commitment of climate change" (in en). Nature 628 (8008): 551–557. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07219-0. PMID 38632481. Bibcode: 2024Natur.628..551K.
311. ↑ "Below 1.5°C: a breakthrough roadmap to solve the climate crisis" (in en). https://www.oneearth.org/below-1-5-c-a-breakthrough-roadmap-to-solve-the-climate-crisis/.
312. ↑ "The crucial intersection between gender and climate" (in en). https://www.eib.org/en/stories/gender-climate.
313. ↑ Nations, United. "Finance & Justice" (in en). https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/raising-ambition/climate-finance.
314. ↑ IPCC (2022). Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 300. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/. : The global benefits of pathways limiting warming to 2°C (>67%) outweigh global mitigation costs over the 21st century, if aggregated economic impacts of climate change are at the moderate to high end of the assessed range, and a weight consistent with economic theory is given to economic impacts over the long term. This holds true even without accounting for benefits in other sustainable development dimensions or nonmarket damages from climate change (medium confidence).
315. ↑ 315.0 315.1 IPCC (2022) Chapter 3: Mitigation pathways compatible with long-term goals in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States
316. ↑ Evans, Stuart; Mehling, Michael A.; Ritz, Robert A.; Sammon, Paul (16 March 2021). "Border carbon adjustments and industrial competitiveness in a European Green Deal". Climate Policy 21 (3): 307–317. doi:10.1080/14693062.2020.1856637. ISSN 1469-3062. Bibcode: 2021CliPo..21..307E. https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/77128/1/Evans_etal_CP_2020_Border_carbon_adjustments_and_industrial_competitiveness.pdf.
317. ↑ Dyke, James (18 July 2017). "Inaction on climate change risks leaving future generations $530 trillion in debt". http://theconversation.com/inaction-on-climate-change-risks-leaving-future-generations-530-trillion-in-debt-81134.
318. ↑ Hansen, James; Sato, Makiko; Kharecha, Pushker; von Schuckmann, Karina; Beerling, David J.; Cao, Junji; Marcott, Shaun; Masson-Delmotte, Valerie et al. (18 July 2017). "Young people's burden: requirement of negative CO
2 emissions". Earth System Dynamics 8 (3): 577–616. doi:10.5194/esd-8-577-2017. Bibcode: 2017ESD.....8..577H. https://esd.copernicus.org/articles/8/577/2017/.CO2+emissions&rft.jtitle=Earth+System+Dynamics&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Hansen, James&rft.au=Sato, Makiko&rft.au=Kharecha, Pushker&rft.au=von+Schuckmann, Karina&rft.au=Beerling, David+J.&rft.au=Cao, Junji&rft.au=Marcott, Shaun&rft.au=Masson-Delmotte, Valerie&rft.au=Prather, Michael+J.&rft.date=18+July+2017&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=577–616&rft_id=info:doi/10.5194/esd-8-577-2017&rft_id=info:bibcode/2017ESD.....8..577H&rft_id=https://esd.copernicus.org/articles/8/577/2017/&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change_mitigation">
319. ↑ Creutzig, Felix; Niamir, Leila; Bai, Xuemei; Callaghan, Max; Cullen, Jonathan; Díaz-José, Julio; Figueroa, Maria; Grubler, Arnulf et al. (25 November 2021). "Demand-side solutions to climate change mitigation consistent with high levels of well-being" (in en). Nature Climate Change 12 (1): 36–46. doi:10.1038/s41558-021-01219-y. ISSN 1758-6798. Bibcode: 2022NatCC..12...36C.
320. ↑ Staff, Carbon Brief (13 October 2020). "Solar is now 'cheapest electricity in history', confirms IEA" (in en). https://www.carbonbrief.org/solar-is-now-cheapest-electricity-in-history-confirms-iea/.
321. ↑ Rana, Shafquat; Pearce, Joshua M. (1 October 2025). "Decarbonization of residential houses in northern Climates: Traditional vs fully electrified approaches in Ontario Canada". Journal of Building Engineering 111. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2025.113518.
322. ↑ 322.0 322.1 Banuri, T. (1996). Equity and Social Considerations. In: Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J. P. Bruce et al. eds.). Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56854-8. https://archive.org/details/climatechange1990000unse_h1m9. PDF version: IPCC website.
323. ↑ "Synthesis Report of The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report". p. 82. https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6syr/pdf/IPCC_AR6_SYR_LongerReport.pdf.
324. ↑ Markkanen, Sanna; Anger-Kraavi, Annela (9 August 2019). "Social impacts of climate change mitigation policies and their implications for inequality". Climate Policy 19 (7): 827–844. doi:10.1080/14693062.2019.1596873. ISSN 1469-3062. Bibcode: 2019CliPo..19..827M.
325. ↑ "Social Dimensions of Climate Change" (in en). https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/social-dimensions-of-climate-change.
326. ↑ "Effectiveness of 1,500 global climate policies ranked for first time". 24 August 2024. https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2024-08-23-effectiveness-1500-global-climate-policies-ranked-first-time.
327. ↑ Niiler, Eric (August 22, 2024). "Most Climate Policies Don't Work. Here's What Science Says Does Reduce Emissions.". The Wall Street Journal (News Corp). https://www.wsj.com/science/environment/climate-change-policies-emissions-ai-research-a02b3f59.
328. ↑ Jacoby, Jeff (September 4, 2024). "Most climate policies have something in common: They don't work". The Boston Globe. https://www.bostonglobe.com/2024/09/04/opinion/climate-change-study-ineffective-policies/.
329. ↑ 329.0 329.1 "Climate actions and policies measurement framework". https://oe.cd/dx/capmf.
330. ↑ 330.0 330.1 330.2 Bashmakov, I. (2001). "Policies, Measures, and Instruments". in B. Metz. Climate Change 2001: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_tar/?src=/climate/ipcc_tar/wg3/357.htm. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
331. ↑ Pham, Alexander (7 June 2022). "Can We Widely Adopt A Methane Tax to Cut the Greenhouse Gas?" (in en). https://earth.org/methane-tax/.
332. ↑ "New Zealand Outlines Plans to Tax Livestock Gas" (in en). 12 October 2022. https://www.voanews.com/a/new-zealand-outlines-plans-to-tax-livestock-gas/6787828.html.
333. ↑ Browning, Noah; Kelly, Stephanie (8 March 2022). "Analysis: Ukraine crisis could boost ballooning fossil fuel subsidies" (in en). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/ukraine-crisis-could-boost-ballooning-fossil-fuel-subsidies-2022-03-08/.
334. ↑ "Breaking up with fossil fuels" (in en). https://feature.undp.org/breaking-up-with-fossil-fuels.
335. ↑ Gencsu, Ipek; Walls, Ginette; Picciariello, Angela; Alasia, Ibifuro Joy (2 November 2022). "Nigeria's energy transition: reforming fossil fuel subsidies and other financing opportunities" (in en-gb). https://odi.org/en/publications/nigerias-energy-transition-reforming-fossil-fuel-subsidies-and-other-financing-opportunities/.
336. ↑ "How Reforming Fossil Fuel Subsidies Can Go Wrong: A lesson from Ecuador" (in en). https://www.iisd.org/blog/lesson-ecuador-fossil-fuel-subsidies.
337. ↑ Hittinger, Eric; Williams, Eric; Miao, Qing; Tibebu, Tiruwork B. (21 November 2022). "How to design clean energy subsidies that work – without wasting money on free riders" (in en). http://theconversation.com/how-to-design-clean-energy-subsidies-that-work-without-wasting-money-on-free-riders-191635.
338. ↑ "How tide has turned on UK tidal stream energy as costs ebb and reliability flows" (in en). 23 November 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/nov/23/tidal-stream-energy-costs-ebb-reliability-flows.
339. ↑ (in en) State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2021. The World Bank. 2021. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-1728-1. ISBN 978-1-4648-1728-1. http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/978-1-4648-1728-1.
340. ↑ Shepherd, Christian (16 July 2021). "China's carbon market scheme too limited, say analysts". Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/3bcc2380-8544-4146-ba71-83944caff48d.
341. ↑ "Carbon Price Viewer". EMBER. https://ember-climate.org/data/carbon-price-viewer.
342. ↑ Economic viability and CO2 emissions of hydrogen production for ammonia synthesis: A comparative analysis across Europe. Alessandro Magnino, March 2025
343. ↑ IPCC (2022) "Chapter 11: Industry" in "Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States.
344. ↑ Patrick Greenfield (30 November 2023). "The new 'scramble for Africa': how a UAE sheikh quietly made carbon deals for forests bigger than UK". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/nov/30/the-new-scramble-for-africa-how-a-uae-sheikh-quietly-made-carbon-deals-for-forests-bigger-than-uk.
345. ↑ Block, Katharina; Li, Mengyu (29 March 2025). "Geopolitical conflict impedes climate change mitigation". Climate Action (Nature) 4 (1): 33. doi:10.1038/s44168-025-00224-7. Bibcode: 2025npjCA...4...33B.
346. ↑ "UN Framework Convention on Climate Change – UNFCCC" (in en). https://enb.iisd.org/negotiations/un-framework-convention-climate-change-unfccc.
347. ↑ "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change | United Nations Secretary-General". https://www.un.org/sg/en/global-leadership/united-nations-framework-convention-on-climate-change/all.
348. ↑ UNFCCC (2002). "Full Text of the Convention, Article 2: Objectives". UNFCCC. http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/background/items/1353.php.
349. ↑ Velders, G.J.M. (20 March 2007). "The importance of the Montreal Protocol in protecting climate". PNAS 104 (12): 4814–19. doi:10.1073/pnas.0610328104. PMID 17360370. Bibcode: 2007PNAS..104.4814V.
350. ↑ 350.0 350.1 Stankovic, Tatjana; Hovi, Jon; Skodvin, Tora; Overland, Indra (2024-08-01). "Regulating production rather than consumption? Comparing the challenges of supply-side and demand-side climate agreements". Energy Research & Social Science 114. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2024.103601. ISSN 2214-6296. Bibcode: 2024ERSS..11403601S. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629624001920.
351. ↑ "History of the Convention | UNFCCC". https://unfccc.int/process/the-convention/history-of-the-convention.
352. ↑ Cole, Daniel H. (28 January 2015). "Advantages of a polycentric approach to climate change policy" (in en). Nature Climate Change 5 (2): 114–118. doi:10.1038/nclimate2490. ISSN 1758-6798. Bibcode: 2015NatCC...5..114C. https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/facpub/1415.
353. ↑ Sabel, Charles F.; Victor, David G. (1 September 2017). "Governing global problems under uncertainty: making bottom-up climate policy work" (in en). Climatic Change 144 (1): 15–27. doi:10.1007/s10584-015-1507-y. ISSN 1573-1480. Bibcode: 2017ClCh..144...15S.
354. ↑ Zefferman, Matthew R. (1 January 2018). "Cultural multilevel selection suggests neither large or small cooperative agreements are likely to solve climate change without changing the game" (in en). Sustainability Science 13 (1): 109–118. doi:10.1007/s11625-017-0488-3. ISSN 1862-4057. Bibcode: 2018SuSc...13..109Z.
355. ↑ "Annex I. Glossary". Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. 2007. pp. 809–822. ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ar4-wg3-annex1-1.pdf. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
356. ↑ "6. Policies, Measures, and Instruments". Climate Change 2001: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2001. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/WGIII_TAR_full_report.pdf. Retrieved 20 January 2020.
357. ↑ "Report on the structured expert dialogue on the 2013–2015 review". UNFCCC, Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice & Subsidiary Body for Implementation. 4 April 2015. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/sb/eng/inf01.pdf.
358. ↑ "1.5°C temperature limit – key facts". Climate Analytics. http://climateanalytics.org/hot-topics/1-5c-key-facts.html.
359. ↑ 359.0 359.1 Berg, Christian (2020). Sustainable action: overcoming the barriers. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-57873-1. OCLC 1124780147.
360. ↑ Sathaye, J. (2001). "Barriers, Opportunities, and Market Potential of Technologies and Practices. In: Climate Change 2001: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz, et al., Eds.)". Cambridge University Press. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports.htm.
361. ↑ Loe, Catherine (1 December 2022). "Energy transition will move slowly over the next decade" (in en-GB). https://services.eiu.com/energy-transition-will-move-slowly-over-the-next-decade/.
362. ↑ "The cost of capital in clean energy transitions – Analysis" (in en-GB). 17 December 2021. https://www.iea.org/articles/the-cost-of-capital-in-clean-energy-transitions.
363. ↑ 363.0 363.1 Overland, Indra; Sovacool, Benjamin K. (1 April 2020). "The misallocation of climate research funding" (in en). Energy Research & Social Science 62. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2019.101349. ISSN 2214-6296. Bibcode: 2020ERSS...6201349O.
364. ↑ European Investment Bank. (2022) (in EN). EIB Investment Report 2021/2022: Recovery as a springboard for change. European Investment Bank. doi:10.2867/82061. ISBN 978-92-861-5155-2. https://www.eib.org/en/publications/investment-report-2021.
365. ↑ "Major milestone: 1000+ divestment commitments". December 13, 2018. https://gofossilfree.org/major-milestone-1000-divestment-commitments/.
366. ↑ "5 Mutual Funds for Socially Responsible Investors". Kiplinger. May 2012. http://www.kiplinger.com/article/investing/T041-C016-S001-5-mutual-funds-for-socially-responsible-investors.html.
367. ↑ Filho, Walter Leal; Hickmann, Thomas; Nagy, Gustavo J.; Pinho, Patricia; Sharifi, Ayyoob; Minhas, Aprajita; Islam, M Rezaul; Djalanti, Riyanti et al. (2022). "The Influence of the Corona Virus Pandemic on Sustainable Development Goal 13 and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Processes". Frontiers in Environmental Science 10. doi:10.3389/fenvs.2022.784466. ISSN 2296-665X. Bibcode: 2022FrEnS..1084466F.
368. ↑ "Cop26 climate talks postponed to 2021 amid coronavirus pandemic" (in en). 1 April 2020. https://www.climatechangenews.com/2020/04/01/cop26-climate-talks-postponed-2021-amid-coronavirus-pandemic/.
369. ↑ "Coronavirus could weaken climate change action and hit clean energy investment, researchers warn". CNBC. 13 March 2020. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/13/coronavirus-could-weaken-climate-change-action-hit-clean-energy.html.
370. ↑ 370.0 370.1 "COVID curbed carbon emissions in 2020 - but not by much". Nature 589 (7842): 343. January 2021. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-00090-3. PMID 33452515. Bibcode: 2021Natur.589..343T.
371. ↑ "Current and future global climate impacts resulting from COVID-19" (in en). Nature Climate Change 10 (10): 913–919. 7 August 2020. doi:10.1038/s41558-020-0883-0. ISSN 1758-6798. Bibcode: 2020NatCC..10..913F.
372. ↑ ● Source for carbon emissions data: "Territorial (MtCO2) / Emissions / Carbon emissions / Chart View". Global Carbon Atlas. 2024. https://globalcarbonatlas.org/emissions/carbon-emissions/.
● Source for country population data: "Population 2022". World Bank. 2024. https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/POP.pdf.
373. ↑ Stevens, Harry (1 March 2023). "The United States has caused the most global warming. When will China pass it?". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/interactive/2023/global-warming-carbon-emissions-china-us/.
374. ↑ Stanway, David (2022-11-21). "China's CO
2 emissions fall but policies still not aligned with long-term goals" (in en). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/chinas-co2-emissions-down-since-2021-still-not-peak-report-2022-11-21/.CO2+emissions+fall+but+policies+still+not+aligned+with+long-term+goals&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.aulast=Stanway&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Stanway, David&rft.date=2022-11-21&rft_id=https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/chinas-co2-emissions-down-since-2021-still-not-peak-report-2022-11-21/&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change_mitigation">
375. ↑ ﻿China's New Growth Pathway: From the 14th Five-Year Plan to Carbon Neutrality﻿ (Report). Energy Foundation China. December 2020. p. 24. https://www.efchina.org/Attachments/Report/report-lceg-20201210/Full-Report_Synthesis-Report-2020-on-Chinas-Carbon-Neutrality_EN.pdf. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
376. ↑ Andersson, Malin; Nerlich, Carolin; Pasqua, Carlo; Rusinova, Desislava (2024-06-18) (in en). Massive investment needs to meet EU green and digital targets. https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/fie/box/html/ecb.fiebox202406_01.en.html.
377. ↑ "Financing and commercialisation of cleantech innovation". https://link.epo.org/web/publications/studies/en-financing-and-commercialisation-of-cleantech-innovation-study.pdf.
378. ↑ 378.0 378.1 "Cleantech Annual Briefing 2023". https://www.cleantechforeurope.com/publications/cleantech-annual-briefing-2023.
379. ↑ 379.0 379.1 379.2 IPCC (2022) Chapter 14: International cooperation in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, United States]
380. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering (25 March 2021) (in en). Reflecting Sunlight: Recommendations for Solar Geoengineering Research and Research Governance. doi:10.17226/25762. ISBN 978-0-309-67605-2. Bibcode: 2021nap..book25762N. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/25762/reflecting-sunlight-recommendations-for-solar-geoengineering-research-and-research-governance.

## Further reading

* Leal Filho, Walter; Kovaleva, Marina; Pimenta Dinis, Maria Alzira et al., eds (2025). Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in Practice. Climate Change Management. Cham: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-85217-6. ISBN 978-3-031-85217-6. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-85217-6.
* Lackner, Maximilian; Sajjadi, Baharak; Chen, Wei-Yin, eds (2022). Handbook of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation (3rd ed.). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-72579-2. ISBN 978-3-030-72579-2. https://link.springer.com/referencework/10.1007/978-3-030-72579-2.
* Climate Mitigation Best Practices. ChaseDay Publishing. 2025. https://www.chaseday.com/best-books-on-climate-mitigation/. Retrieved 2025-07-07. "Case study-based volume; citation details may vary"

* v
* t
* e

Climate change

Overview

* Causes of climate change
* Effects of climate change
* Climate change mitigation
* Climate change adaptation
* By country and region

Causes

| Overview|

* Climate system
* Greenhouse effect (Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Earth)
* Scientific consensus on climate change

|

Sources|

* Deforestation
* Fossil fuel
* Greenhouse gases
* Greenhouse gas emissions
* Carbon accounting
* Carbon footprint
* Carbon leakage
* from agriculture
* from wetlands
* World energy supply and consumption

History

* History of climate change policy and politics
* History of climate change science
* Svante Arrhenius
* James Hansen
* Charles David Keeling
* United Nations Climate Change conferences
* Years in climate change
* 2019
* 2020
* 2021
* 2022
* 2023
* 2024
* 2025
* 2026

Effects and issues

| Physical|

* Abrupt climate change
* Anoxic event
* Arctic methane emissions
* Arctic sea ice decline
* Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
* Drought
* Extreme weather
* Flood
* Coastal flooding
* Heat wave
* Marine
* Urban heat island
* Oceans
* acidification
* deoxygenation
* heat content
* sea surface temperature
* stratification
* temperature
* Ozone depletion
* Permafrost thaw
* Retreat of glaciers since 1850
* Sea level rise
* Season creep
* Climate sensitivity
* Tipping points in the climate system
* Tropical cyclones
* Water cycle
* Wildfires

|

Flora and fauna|

* Biomes
* Mass mortality event
* Birds
* Extinction risk
* Forest dieback
* Invasive species
* Marine life
* Plant biodiversity

Social and economic|

* Agriculture
* Livestock
* Multi-breadbasket failure
* In the United States
* Children
* Cities
* Civilizational collapse
* Crime
* Depopulation of settlements
* Destruction of cultural heritage
* Disability
* Economic impacts
* U.S. insurance industry
* Fisheries
* Gender
* Health
* Infectious diseases
* Mental health
* In the United Kingdom
* In the Philippines
* Human rights
* Indigenous peoples
* Migration
* Poverty
* Psychological impacts
* Security and conflict
* Urban flooding
* Water scarcity
* Water security

By country and region|

* Africa
* Americas
* Antarctica
* Arctic
* Asia
* Australia
* Caribbean
* Europe
* Middle East and North Africa
* Small island countries
* by individual country

Mitigation

| Economics and finance|

* Carbon budget
* Carbon emission trading
* Carbon offsets and credits
* Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
* Carbon price
* Carbon tax
* Climate debt
* Climate finance
* Climate risk insurance
* Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
* Economics of climate change mitigation
* Fossil fuel divestment
* Green Climate Fund
* Low-carbon economy
* Net zero emissions

|

Energy|

* Carbon capture and storage
* Energy transition
* Fossil fuel phase-out
* Nuclear power
* Renewable energy
* Sustainable energy

Preserving and enhancing
carbon sinks|

* Blue carbon
* Carbon dioxide removal
* Carbon sequestration
* Direct air capture
* Carbon farming
* Climate-smart agriculture
* Forest management
* afforestation
* forestry for carbon sequestration
* REDD+
* reforestation
* Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF and AFOLU)
* Nature-based solutions

Other|

* Earth Strike
* Fridays for Future
* Geoengineering
* Individual action on climate change
* Positive tipping points
* Sustainable architecture
* Sustainable transport

Society and adaptation

| Society|

* Business action
* Climate action
* Climate emergency declaration
* Climate movement
* School Strike for Climate
* Denial
* Ecological grief
* Governance
* Justice
* Litigation
* Politics
* Public opinion
* Women

|

Adaptation|

* Adaptation strategies on the German coast
* Adaptive capacity
* Disaster risk reduction
* Ecosystem-based adaptation
* Flood control
* Loss and damage
* Managed retreat
* Nature-based solutions
* Resilience
* Risk
* Vulnerability
* The Adaptation Fund
* National Adaptation Programme of Action

Communication|

* Climate Change Performance Index
* Climate crisis (term)
* Climate spiral
* Education
* Media coverage
* Popular culture depictions
* art
* fiction
* video games
* Warming stripes

International agreements|

* Glasgow Climate Pact
* Integrity Council for the Voluntary Carbon Market
* Taskforce on Scaling Voluntary Carbon Markets
* Kyoto Protocol
* Paris Agreement
* Cooperative mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
* Nationally determined contributions
* Sustainable Development Goal 13
* United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Background and theory

| Measurements|

* Global surface temperature
* Instrumental temperature record
* Proxy
* Satellite temperature measurement

|

Theory|

* Albedo
* Carbon cycle
* atmospheric
* biologic
* oceanic
* permafrost
* Carbon sink
* Climate sensitivity
* Climate variability and change
* Cloud feedback
* Cloud forcing
* Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
* Cryosphere
* Earth's energy budget
* Extreme event attribution
* Feedbacks
* Global warming potential
* Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
* Orbital forcing
* Radiative forcing

Research and modelling|

* Climate change scenario
* Climate model
* Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
* Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
* IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
* Paleoclimatology
* Representative Concentration Pathway
* Shared Socioeconomic Pathways

* '
* Category
* Glossary
* Index

Script error: No such module "World topic".

* v
* t
* e

Sustainability

* Outline
* History
* Index

Principles|

* Anthropocene
* Earth system governance
* Ecological modernization
* Environmental governance
* Environmentalism
* Global catastrophic risk
* Human impact on the environment
* Planetary boundaries
* Social sustainability
* Stewardship
* Sustainable development

Consumption|

* Anthropization
* Anti-consumerism
* Earth Overshoot Day
* Ecological footprint
* Ethical
* Over-consumption
* Simple living
* Sustainability advertising
* Sustainability brand
* Sustainability marketing myopia
* Sustainable
* Systemic change resistance
* Tragedy of the commons

Population|

* Birth control
* Family planning
* Control
* Overpopulation
* Zero growth

Technology|

* Appropriate
* Environmental
* Sustainable

Biodiversity|

* Biosecurity
* Biosphere
* Conservation biology
* Endangered species
* Holocene extinction
* Invasive species

Energy|

* Carbon footprint
* Climate change mitigation
* Conservation
* Descent
* Efficiency
* Emissions trading
* Fossil-fuel phase-out
* Peak oil
* Poverty
* Rebound effect
* Renewable

Food|

* Civic agriculture
* Community-supported agriculture
* Forest gardening
* Local
* Permaculture
* Security
* Sustainable agriculture
* Sustainable fishery
* Urban horticulture
* Vegetable box scheme

Water|

* Conservation
* Crisis
* Efficiency
* Footprint
* Reclaimed

Accountability|

* Sustainability accounting
* Sustainability measurement
* Sustainability metrics and indices
* Sustainability reporting
* Standards and certification
* Sustainable yield

Applications|

* Advertising
* Architecture
* Art
* Business
* City
* College programs
* Community
* Design
* Ecovillage
* Education for Sustainable Development
* Fashion
* Gardening
* Geopark
* Green marketing
* Industries
* Landscape architecture
* Living
* Low-impact development
* Sustainable market
* Organizations
* Packaging
* Practices
* Procurement
* Tourism
* Transport
* Urban drainage systems
* Urban infrastructure
* Urbanism

Management|

* Environmental
* Fisheries
* Forest
* Landscape
* Materials
* Natural resource
* Planetary
* Waste

Agreements and conferences|

* UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)
* Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983)
* Our Common Future (1987)
* Earth Summit (1992)
* Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992)
* Agenda 21 (1992)
* Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)
* ICPD Programme of Action (1994)
* Lisbon Principles (1997)
* Kyoto Protocol (1997)
* Earth Charter (2000)
* UN Millennium Declaration (2000)
* Earth Summit 2002 (Rio+10, Johannesburg)
* UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20, 2012)
* Sustainable Development Goals (2015)
* Paris Agreement (2015)
* UN Ocean Conference (2017)

* Category
* Lists
* Science
* Studies
* Degrees

* v
* t
* e

Global human population

Major topics|

* Biocapacity
* Demographics of the world
* Optimum population
* Overpopulation
* Malthusian catastrophe
* Population
* Population ethics
* Population momentum
* Sustainable development
* Women's reproductive rights
* Zero population growth

Biological and
related topics|

* Family planning
* Pledge two or fewer
* Human population planning
* One-child policy
* Two-child policy
* Population biology
* Population decline
* Population density
* Physiological density
* Population dynamics
* Population growth
* Population model
* Population pyramid
* Projections of population growth

Human impact on
the environment|

* Deforestation
* Desalination
* Desertification
* Environmental impact
* of agriculture
* of aviation
* of biodiesel
* of concrete
* of electricity generation
* of the energy industry
* of fishing
* of irrigation
* of mining
* of off-roading
* of oil shale industry
* of palm oil
* of paper
* of the petroleum industry
* of reservoirs
* of shipping
* of war
* Industrialisation
* Land degradation
* Land reclamation
* Overconsumption
* Pollution
* Quarrying
* Urbanization
* Loss of green belts
* Urban sprawl
* Waste
* Water scarcity
* Overdrafting

Population
ecology

* Carrying capacity
* Deep ecology
* Earth's energy budget
* Food security
* Habitat destruction
* I = P × A × T
* Kaya identity
* Malthusian growth model
* Overshoot (population)
* World energy consumption
* World energy resources
* World3 model

Literature|

* A Modest Proposal
* Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc.
* An Essay on the Principle of Population
* "How Much Land Does a Man Need?"
* Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth
* Population Control: Real Costs, Illusory Benefits
* The Limits to Growth
* The Population Bomb
* The Skeptical Environmentalist
* The Ultimate Resource

Publications|

* Population and Environment
* Population and Development Review

Lists|

* Population and housing censuses by country
* Metropolitan areas by population
* Population milestone babies

Events and
organizations

* 7 Billion Actions
* Extinction Rebellion
* International Conference on Population and Development
* Population Action International
* Population Connection
* Population Matters
* Population Research Institute
* United Nations Population Fund
* Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
* World Population Day
* World Population Foundation

Related topics|

* Classic Maya collapse
* Fertility and intelligence
* Green Revolution
* Holocene extinction
* Migration

* Commons
* Human overpopulation
* Human activities with impact on the environment
* Human migration

0.00

(0 votes)

Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate change mitigation. Read more

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Earth:Climate_change_mitigation&oldid=4352001"
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template