Solder alloys

Short description: Metallic material

Soldering copper pipes using a propane torch and a lead-free solder

Solder is a metallic material that is used to connect metal workpieces. The choice of specific solder alloys depends on their melting point, chemical reactivity, mechanical properties, toxicity, and other properties. Hence a wide range of solder alloys exist, and only major ones are listed below. Since early 2000s the use of lead in solder alloys is discouraged by several governmental guidelines in the European Union, Japan and other countries,[1] such as Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive. Despite regulatory encouragement, the industry transition to lead-free solders has encountered technical challenges related to process compatibility, alloy reliability, and solder joint microstructure that have required extensive study and adaptation. [2]

## Contents

* 1 Solder alloys
* 1.1 Notes on the above table
* 1.2 Properties
* 2 References
* 3 External links

## Solder alloys

Note: the subscripts in the composition are mass percentages, not atom/molar ratios.

Composition  | Melting point (°C)  | Non-toxic  | Eutectic | Comments

|
|
|
|

Solidus | Liquidus

100 | 271 | Yes | Pure | Used as a non-superconducting solder in low-temperature physics. Does not wet metals well, forms a mechanically weak joint.[3]

66.7Bi
33.3 | 72.7 |  |  |

61.7Bi
30.8Cd
7.5 | 62[4] | Cd | Yes |

56Sn
30In
14 | 79 | 91 |  | Yes | ChipQuik desoldering alloy, lead-free[5]

51.0Bi
32.5Sn
16.5 | 60.5 | Yes | Yes | Field's metal

50.0Pb
25.0Sn
12.5Cd
12.5 | 71 | Cd, Pb | Near | Wood's metal, mostly used for casting.

50Pb
26.7Sn
13.3Cd
10 | 70 | Cd, Pb | Yes | Cerrobend. Used in low-temperature physics as a solder.[3]

49.5Pb
27.3Sn
13.1Cd
10.1 | 70.9 | Cd, Pb | Near | Lipowitz Metal

50.5Pb
27.8Sn
12.4Cd
9.3 | 70 | 73[6] | Cd, Pb | No |

44.7Pb
22.6In
19.1Cd
5.3Sn
8.3 | 47 | Cd, Pb | Yes | Cerrolow 117. Used as a solder in low-temperature physics.[3]

49Pb
18Sn
12In
21 | 58 | Pb | Yes | Cerrolow 136. Slightly expands on cooling, later shows slight shrinkage in couple hours afterwards. Used as a solder in low-temperature physics.[3] Also the ChipQuik desoldering alloy.[7]

49Pb
18Sn
15In
18 | 58 | 69[8] | Pb | No |

48Pb
25.4Sn
12.8Cd
9.6In
4 | 61 | 65[9] | Cd, Pb | No |

47.5Pb
25.4Sn
12.6Cd
9.5In
5 | 57 | 65[10] | Cd, Pb | No |

58Pb
42 | 124 | 126[11] | Pb |  |

57Sn
43 | 139[12][13] | Yes | Yes | Bi57. Reasonable shear strength and fatigue properties. Combination with lead-tin solder may dramatically lower melting point and lead to joint failure.[14] Low-temperature eutectic solder with high strength.[13] Particularly strong, very brittle.[12] Used extensively in through-hole technology assemblies in IBM mainframe computers where low soldering temperature was required. Can be used as a coating of copper particles to facilitate their bonding under pressure/heat and creating a conductive metallurgical joint.[15] Sensitive to shear rate. Good for electronics. Used in thermoelectric applications. Good thermal fatigue performance.[16] Established history of use. Expands slightly on casting, then undergoes very low further shrinkage or expansion, unlike many other low-temperature alloys which continue changing dimensions for some hours after solidification.[3] https://himikatus.ru/art/phase-diagr1/Bi-Sn.php confirms eutectic at 139 C

52Pb
32Sn
16 | 96 | Pb | yes? | Bi52. Good fatigue resistance combined with low melting point. Reasonable shear strength and fatigue properties. Combination with lead-tin solder may dramatically lower melting point and lead to joint failure.[14]

50.0Pb
31.2Sn
18.8 | 97 | Pb | No | Newton's metal

50Pb
28Sn
22 | 109 | Pb | No | Rose's metal. It was used to secure cast iron railings and balusters in pockets in stone bases and steps. Does not contract on cooling.

46Sn
34Pb
20 | 100 | 105[17] | Pb | No | Bi46

48Bi
32Pb
20 | 140 | 160[18] | Pb | No | For low-temperature soldering of heat-sensitive parts, and for soldering in the vicinity of already soldered joints without their remelting.

43Pb
43Bi
14 | 144 | 163[12] | Pb | No | Bi14. Good fatigue resistance combined with low melting point. Contains phases of tin and lead-bismuth.[14] Useful for step soldering.

46Pb
46Bi
8 | 120 | 167[17] | Pb | No | Bi8

89Zn
8Bi
3 | 191 | 198 | Yes |  | Prone to corrosion and oxidation due to its zinc content. On copper surfaces forms a brittle Cu-Zn intermetallic layer, reducing the fatigue resistance of the joint; nickel plating of copper inhibits this.[15]

86.5Zn
5.5In
4.5Bi
3.5 | 174 | 186[19] | Yes | No | Lead-free. Corrosion concerns and high drossing due to zinc content.

57Sn
42Ag
1 | 137
139 | 139
140[20] | Yes |  | Addition of silver improves mechanical strength. Established history of use. Good thermal fatigue performance. Patented by Motorola.

91.8Bi
4.8Ag
3.4 | 211 | 213[21] | Yes | No | Do not use on lead-containing metallizations.[22]

88In
8.0Ag
3.5Bi
0.5 | 197 | 208 | Yes |  | \-  | Sn
99.3Cu
0.7Ni?Bi? | 227[23] |  | Yes | K100LD, a lead-free silver-free nickel-stabilized alloy, with low dissolving (LD) of copper. Proprietary to Kester. Similar to Sn99Cu1. The nickel content lowers copper erosion and promotes shiny solder fillet. Bismuth acts in synergy with nickel to further reduce copper dissolution and reduces surface tension. Performance similar to SAC alloys at lower cost. K100LDa has 0.2% copper, used to refill wave soldering pots to counteract copper buildup. Lower than optimal nickel content to avoid patents?[24]

74Cd
26 | 123[25] | Cd | Yes |

92Cd
8 | 310? | Cd, Pb | ? | For soldering aluminium.[26][27]

70Sn
30 | 140 | 160[17] | Cd | No | Cd70, thermal-free solder. Produces low thermal EMF joints in copper, does not form parasitic thermocouples. Used in low-temperature physics.[3]

40Pb
42Cd
18 | 145 | Cd, Pb |  | Low melting temperature allows repairing pewter and zinc objects, including die-cast toys.

50Pb
32Cd
18 | 145[17] | Cd, Pb |  | Cd18

82.5Zn
17.5

70Zn
30 | 265 | 300[28] | Cd | No | Medium temperature alloy that provide strong, corrosion-resistant joints on most metals. Works especially well on aluminium-to-aluminium and aluminium-to-copper joints, with excellent corrosion resistance and superior strength in high vibration and high stress applications in electronics, lighting and electrical products.[28]

60Zn
40 | 265 | 316[28] | Cd | No | Medium temperature alloy that provide strong, corrosion-resistant joints on most metals. Works especially well on aluminium-to-aluminium and aluminium-to-copper joints, with excellent corrosion resistance and superior strength in high vibration and high stress applications in electronics, lighting and electrical products.[28]

60Cd
40 | 265 | 335 | Cd |  | For soldering aluminium. Very good wetting.[29]

90Cd
10 | 265 | 399 | Cd |  | For soldering aluminium. Good wetting.[29]

40Zn
27Cd
33 | 176 | 260[30] | Cd | No | KappRad[30] Developed specifically to join and repair aluminium and aluminium/copper radiators and heat exchangers. A lower melting point makes delicate repair work easier.[30]

95Ag
5 | 338 | 393[31] | Cd | No | KappTec General purpose solder that will join all solderable metals except aluminium. High temperature, high strength solder. It is used in applications where alloys melting higher than soft solders are required, but the cost and strength of silver-brazing alloys is not necessary.[31]

78Zn
17Ag
5 | 249 | 316[32] | Cd | No | KappTecZ High temperature, high strength solder that may be used on most metals, but works extremely well on aluminium, copper and stainless steel. It has a high tolerance to vibration and stress, and good elongation for use on dissimilar metals. Above its liquidus of 600 °F, this solder is extremely fluid and will penetrate the closest joints.[32]

51.2Pb
30.6Cd
18.2 | 145[33] | Cd, Pb | Yes | General-purpose. Maintains creep strength well. Unsuitable for gold.

70Sn
15Pb
9.6Cd
5.4 | 125[34] | Cd, Pb |  |

100 | 157 | Yes | Pure | In99. Used for die attachment of some chips. More suitable for soldering gold, dissolution rate of gold is 17 times slower than in tin-based solders and up to 20% of gold can be tolerated without significant embrittlement. Good performance at cryogenic temperatures.[35] Wets many surfaces incl. quartz, glass, and many ceramics. Deforms indefinitely under load. Does not become brittle even at low temperatures. Used as a solder in low-temperature physics, will bond to aluminium. Can be used for soldering to thin metal films or glass with an ultrasonic soldering iron.[3]

75Pb
25 | 156 | 165[13] | Pb | No | Less gold dissolution and more ductile than lead-tin alloys. Used for die attachment, general circuit assembly and packaging closures.[13]

70Pb
30 | 160
165 | 174[12]
175[17][36] | Pb | No | In70. Suitable for gold, low gold-leaching. Good thermal fatigue properties.

60Pb
40 | 174
173 | 185[12]
181[17] | Pb | No | In60. Low gold-leaching. Good thermal fatigue properties.

50Pb
50 | 180
178 | 209[13]
210[17] | Pb | No | In50. Only one phase. Resoldering with lead-tin solder forms indium-tin and indium-lead phases and leads to formation of cracks between the phases, joint weakening and failure.[14] On gold surfaces gold-indium intermetallics tend to be formed, and the joint then fails in the gold-depleted zone and the gold-rich intermetallic.[37] Less gold dissolution and more ductile than lead-tin alloys.[13] Good thermal fatigue properties.

60In
40 | 195 | 225[17] | Pb | No | In40. Low gold-leaching. Good thermal fatigue properties.

70In
30 | 245 | 260[17] | Pb | No | In30

75In
25 | 250
240 | 264[13]
260[38] | Pb | No | In25. Low gold-leaching. Good thermal fatigue properties. Used for die attachment of e.g. GaAs dies.[37] Used also for general circuit assembly and packaging closures. Less dissolution of gold and more ductile than tin-lead alloy.[13]

81In
19 | 270
260 | 280[17]
275[39] | Pb | No | In19. Low gold-leaching. Good thermal fatigue properties.

60Sn
40 | 113 | 122[12] | Yes | No |

52Sn
48 | 118 | Yes | Yes | In52. Suitable for the cases where low-temperature soldering is needed. Can be used for glass sealing.[15] Sharp melting point. Good wettability of glass, quartz, and many ceramics. Good low-temperature malleability, can compensate for different thermal expansion coefficients of joined materials.

50Sn
50 | 118 | 125[40] | Yes | No | Cerroseal 35. Fairly well wets glass, quartz and many ceramics. Malleable, can compensate some thermal expansion differences. Low vapor pressure. Used in low temperature physics as a glass-wetting solder.[3]

52In
48 | 118 | 131[12] | Yes | No | very low tensile strength

58In
42 | 118 | 145[41] | Yes | No |

37.5Pb
37.5In
26 | 134 | 181[17] | Pb | No | In26

37.5Pb
37.5In
25 | 134 | 181[13] | Pb | No | Good wettability. Not recommended for gold.[13]

54Pb
26In
20 | 130
140 | 154[17]
152[42] | Pb | No | In20

70Pb
18In
12 | 162[12] | Pb  | Yes  | General purpose. Good physical properties.
154 | 167[43]

80Pb
15Ag
5 | 142
149 | 149[17]
154[44] | Pb | No | In80. Compatible with gold, minimum gold-leaching. Resistant to thermal fatigue. Can be used in step soldering.

92.5In
5Ag
2.5 | 300 | 310[12] | Pb | No | UNS L51510. Minimal leaching of gold, good thermal fatigue properties. Reducing atmosphere frequently used..

90In
5Ag
5 | 290 | 310[12] | Pb | No |

92.5In
5Au
2.5 | 300 | 310[17] | Pb | No | In5

83.6Zn
7.6In
8.8 | 181 | 187[45] | Yes | No | High dross due to zinc.[46]

77.2In
20Ag
2.8 | 175 | 187[47] | Yes | No | Similar mechanical properties with Sn
63Pb
37, Sn
62Pb
36Ag
2 and Sn
60Pb
40, suitable lead-free replacement. Contains eutectic Sn-In phase with melting point at 118 °C, avoid use above 100 °C.

86.9In
10Ag
3.1 | 204 | 205[48] | Yes |  | Potential use in flip-chip assembly, no issues with tin-indium eutectic phase.

97Ag
3 | 143[49] | Yes | Yes | Wettability and low-temperature malleability of indium, strength improved by addition of silver. Particularly good for cryogenic applications. Used for packaging of photonic devices.

90Ag
10 | 143 | 237[50] | Yes | No | Nearly as wettable and low-temperature malleable as indium. Large plastic range. Can solder silver, fired glass and ceramics.

82In
18 | 451 | 485[17] | Yes | No | Au82. High-temperature, extremely hard, very stiff.

90Sn
10 | 268
275 | 302[12]
302[17] | Pb | No | Sn10, UNS L54520, ASTM10B. Balls for CBGA components, replaced by Sn
95.5Ag
3.9Cu
0.6.[51] Low cost and good bonding properties. Rapidly dissolves gold and silver, not recommended for those.[13] Used for fabrication of car radiators and fuel tanks, for coating and bonding of metals for moderate service temperatures. Body solder.[52] Has low thermal EMF, can be used as an alternative to Cd
70 where parasitic thermocouple voltage has to be avoided.[53]

88Sn
12 | 254 | 296[52] | Pb | No | Used for fabrication of car radiators and fuel tanks, for coating and bonding of metals for moderate service temperatures. Body solder.

85Sn
15 | 227 | 288[52] | Pb | No | Used for coating tubes and sheets and fabrication of car radiators. Body solder.

80Sn
20 | 183 | 280[17] | Pb | No | Sn20, UNS L54711. Used for coating radiator tubes for joining fins.[52]

75Sn
25 | 183 | 266[12] | Pb | No | Crude solder for construction plumbing works, flame-melted. Used for soldering car engine radiators. Used for machine, dip and hand soldering of plumbing fixtures and fittings. Superior body solder.[52]

70Sn
30 | 185
183 | 255
257[17] | Pb | No | Sn30, UNS L54280, crude solder for construction plumbing works, flame-melted, good for machine and torch soldering.[54] Used for soldering car engine radiators. Used for machine, dip and hand soldering of plumbing fixtures and fittings. Superior body solder.[52]

68Sn
32 | 253 | Pb | No | "Plumber solder", for construction plumbing works[55]

67Sn
33 | 187 | 230 | Pb | No | PM 33, crude solder for construction plumbing works, flame-melted, temperature depends on additives

65Sn
35 | 183 | 250[17] | Pb | No | Sn35. Used as a cheaper alternative of Pb
60Sn
40 for wiping and sweating joints.[52]

60Sn
40 | 183 | 238[12]
247[17] | Pb | No | Sn40, UNS L54915. For soldering of brass and car radiators.[54] For bulk soldering, and where wider melting point range is desired. For joining cables. For wiping and joining lead pipes. For repairs of radiators and electrical systems.[52]

55Sn
45 | 183 | 227[52] | Pb | No | For soldering radiator cores, roof seams, and for decorative joints.

50Pb
50 | 183 | 216[12]
212[17] | Pb | No | Sn50, UNS L55030. "Ordinary solder", for soldering of brass, electricity meters, gas meters, formerly also tin cans. General purpose, for standard tinning and sheetmetal work. Becomes brittle below ?150 °C.[56][55] Low cost and good bonding properties. Rapidly dissolves gold and silver, not recommended for those.[13] For wiping and assembling plumbing joints for non-potable water.[52]

60Pb
40 | 183 | 190[12]
188[17] | Pb | Near | Sn60, ASTM60A, ASTM60B. Common in electronics, most popular leaded alloy for dipping. Low cost and good bonding properties. Used in both SMT and through-hole electronics. Rapidly dissolves gold and silver, not recommended for those.[13] Slightly cheaper than Sn
63Pb
37, often used instead for cost reasons as the melting point difference is insignificant in practice. On slow cooling gives slightly duller joints than Sn
63Pb
37.[57]

62Pb
38 | 183 | Pb | Near | "Tinman's solder", used for tinplate fabrication work.[55]

63Pb
37 | 183[58] | Pb | Yes | Sn63, ASTM63A, ASTM63B. Common in electronics; exceptional tinning and wetting properties, also good for stainless steel. One of the most common solders. Low cost and good bonding properties. Used in both SMT and through-hole electronics. Rapidly dissolves gold and silver, not recommended for those.[13] Sn
60Pb
40 is slightly cheaper and is often used instead for cost reasons, as the melting point difference is insignificant in practice. On slow cooling gives slightly brighter joints than Sn
60Pb
40.[57]

70Pb
30 | 183 | 193[12] | Pb | No | Sn70

75Pb
25 | 183  | 238[59] | Pb  | No

90Pb
10 | 183 | 213[17] | Pb | No | formerly used for joints in food industry

95Pb
5 | 238 | Pb | No | plumbing and heating

63Sn
34Zn
3 | 170 | 256 | Pb | No | Poor wetting of aluminium. Poor corrosion rating.[60]

30Pb
50Zn
20 | 177 | 288[61] | Pb | No | Kapp GalvRepair Economical solder for repairing & joining most metals including aluminium and cast iron. Has been used for cast iron and galvanized surface repair.[61]

33Pb
40Zn
28 | 230 | 275[61] | Pb | No | Economical solder for repairing & joining most metals including aluminium and cast iron. Has been used for cast iron and galvanized surface repair.[61]

97.5Ag
1.5Sn
1 | 309[12] | Pb | Yes | Ag1.5, ASTM1.5S. High melting point, used for commutators, armatures, and initial solder joints where remelting when working on nearby joints is undesirable.[54] Silver content reduces solubility of silver coatings in molten solder. Not recommended for gold.[13] Standard PbAgSn eutectic solder, wide use in semiconductor assembly. Reducing protective atmosphere (e.g. 12% hydrogen) often used. High creep resistance, for use at both elevated and cryogenic temperatures.

96Sn
2Ag
2 | 252 | 295[17] | Pb |  | Pb96

95.5Sn
2Ag
2.5 | 299 | 304[12] | Pb | No |

93.5Sn
5Ag
1.5 | 296
305 | 301[12]
306[17] | Pb | No | Pb94, HMP alloy, HMP. Service temperatures up to 255 °C. Useful for step soldering. Also can be used for extremely low temperatures as it remains ductile down to −200 °C, while solders with more than 20% tin become brittle below −70 °C. Higher strength and better wetting than Pb
95Sn
5.[57]

92.5Sn
5Ag
2.5 | 287
299 | 296[12]
304[17] | Pb | No | Pb93.

92Sn
5.5Ag
2.5 | 286 | 301[18] | Pb | No | For higher-temperature applications.

90Sn
5Ag
5 | 292[12] | Pb | Yes |

88Sn
10Ag
2 | 268
267 | 290[12]
299[62] | Pb | No | Sn10, Pb88. Silver content reduces solubility of silver coatings in the solder. Not recommended for gold.[13] Forms a eutectic phase, not recommended for operation above 120 °C.

80Sn
18Ag
2 | 252 | 260[17] | Pb | No | Used for soldering iron and steel[55]

54Sn
45Ag
1 | 177 | 210 | Pb |  | exceptional strength, silver gives it a bright long-lasting finish; ideal for stainless steel[54]

56Pb
39Ag
5 |  | Pb |  | [56]

62.5Pb
36Ag
2.5 | 179[12] | Pb | Yes |

62Pb
36Ag
2 | 179[12] | Pb | Yes | Sn62. Common in electronics. The strongest tin-lead solder. Appearance identical to Sn
60Pb
40 or Sn
63Pb
37. Crystals of Ag
3Sn may be seen growing from the solder. Extended heat treatment leads to formation of crystals of binary alloys. Silver content decreases solubility of silver, making the alloy suitable for soldering silver-metallized surfaces, e.g. SMD capacitors and other silver-metallized ceramics.[56][57][14] Not recommended for gold.[13] General-purpose.

61Pb
36Ag
3 | 205[63] | Pb |  | [56] Often referred as POS61 (Russian: ПОС61) in Russia (silver may not be necessarily present).

97.5Pb
1Ag
1.5 | 305 | Pb | Yes | Important for hybrid circuits assembly.[56]

50Pb
48.5Cu
1.5 | 183 | 215[64] | Pb | No | Savbit, Savbit 1, Sav1. Minimizes dissolution of copper. Originally designed to reduce erosion of the soldering iron tips. About 100 times slower erosion of copper than ordinary tin/lead alloys. Suitable for soldering thin copper platings and very thin copper wires.[57]

60Pb
39Cu
1 |  | Pb | No |

60Pb
38Cu
2 | 183 | 190[17][18] | Pb |  | Cu2. Copper content increases hardness of the alloy and inhibits dissolution of soldering iron tips and part leads in molten solder.

62Pb
37Cu
1 | 183[18] | Pb | Yes | Similar to Sn
63Pb
37. Copper content increases hardness of the alloy and inhibits dissolution of soldering iron tips and part leads in molten solder.

63Pb
37P
0.0015-
0.04 | 183[65] | Pb | Yes | Sn63PbP. A special alloy for HASL machines. Addition of phosphorus reduces oxidation. Unsuitable for wave soldering as it may form metal foam.

80Sn
12Sb
8 |  | Pb | No | Used for soldering iron and steel[55]

80Sb
15Sn
5 | 300 | Pb |  | White Metal Capping. Used for locking mineshaft winding ropes into their tapered end sockets or 'capels'.[66]

79Sn
20Sb
1 | 184 | 270 | Pb | No | Sb1

68Sn
30Sb
2 | 185 | 243[17] | Pb | No | Pb68

63Sn
35Sb
2 | 185 | 243[17] | Pb | No | Sb2

55Sn
43.5Sb
1.5 |  | Pb | No | General purpose solder. Antimony content improves mechanical properties but causes brittleness when soldering cadmium, zinc, or galvanized metals.[55]

97.5Ag
2.5 | 303[12]
304[17] | Pb  | Yes  | Ag2.5, UNS L50132. Used during World War II to conserve tin. Poor corrosion resistance; joints suffered corrosion in both atmospheric and underground conditions, all had to be replaced with Sn-Pb alloy joints.[60] Torch solder.
304 | 579[67]

96Ag
4 | 305 | Pb |  | high-temperature joints[54]

95Ag
5 | 305 | 364[68] | Pb | No |

94.5Ag
5.5 | 305
304 | 364[17]
343[69] | Pb | No | Ag5.5, UNS L50180
Sn | 232 | Yes | Pure | Pure tin is susceptible to tin pest.

Alloys with 99% tin are generally referred to as Sn99. They include elements that retard tin pest. Good strength, non-dulling. Use in food processing equipment, wire tinning, and alloying.[54]

98Ag
2 |  | Yes |  | [56]

96.5Ag
3.5 | 221[12] | Yes | Yes | Sn
96, Sn
96.5, 96S. Fine lamellar structure of densely distributed Ag
3Sn. Annealing at 125 °C coarsens the structure and softens the solder.[51] Creeps via dislocation climb as a result of lattice diffusion.[70] Used as wire for hand soldering rework; compatible with SnCu
0.7, SnAg
3Cu
0.5, SnAg
3.9Cu
0.6, and similar alloys. Used as solder spheres for BGA/CSP components. Used for step soldering and die attachment in high power devices. Established history in the industry.[51] Widely used. Strong lead-free joints. Silver content minimizes solubility of silver coatings. Not recommended for gold.[13] Marginal wetting. Good for step soldering. Used for soldering stainless steel as it wets stainless steel better than other soft solders. Silver content does not suppress dissolution of silver metallizations.[57] High tin content allows absorbing significant amount of gold without embrittlement.[71]

96Ag
4 | 221 | 229 | Yes | No | ASTM96TS. "Silver-bearing solder". Food service equipment, refrigeration, heating, air conditioning, plumbing.[54] Widely used. Strong lead-free joints. Silver content minimizes solubility of silver coatings. Not recommended for gold.[13]

95Ag
5 | 221 | 254[72] | Yes | No | Widely used. Strong lead-free joints. Silver content minimizes solubility of silver coatings. Not recommended for gold. Produces strong and ductile joints on Copper and Stainless Steel. The resulting joints have high tolerance to vibration and stress, with tensile strengths to 30,000 psi on Stainless.[72]

94Ag
6 | 221 | 279[72] | Yes | No | Produces strong and ductile joints on copper and stainless steel. The resulting joints have high tolerance to vibration and stress, with tensile strengths to 30,000 psi on sStainless.[72]

93Ag
7 | 221 | 302[72] | Yes | No | Produces strong and ductile joints on copper and stainless steel. The resulting joints have high tolerance to vibration and stress, with tensile strengths to 31,000 psi on stainless.[72] Audio industry standard for vehicle and home theater speaker installations. Its 7% silver content requires a higher temperature range, but yields superior strength and vibration resistance.[73]

90Au
10 | 217[74] | Yes | Yes |

80Sn
20 | 280 | Yes | Yes | Au80. Good wetting, high strength, low creep, high corrosion resistance, high thermal conductivity, high surface tension, zero wetting angle. Suitable for step soldering. The original flux-less alloy, does not need flux. Used for die attachment and attachment of metal lids to semiconductor packages, e.g. kovar lids to ceramic chip carriers. Coefficient of expansion matching many common materials. Due to zero wetting angle requires pressure to form a void-free joint. Alloy of choice for joining gold-plated and gold-alloy plated surfaces. As some gold dissolves from the surfaces during soldering and moves the composition to non-eutectic state (1% increase of Au content can increase melting point by 30 °C), subsequent desoldering requires higher temperature.[75] Forms a mixture of two brittle intermetallic phases, AuSn and Au
5Sn.[76] Brittle. Proper wetting achieved usually by using nickel surfaces with gold layer on top on both sides of the joint. Comprehensively tested through military standard environmental conditioning. Good long-term electrical performance, history of reliability.[37] One of the best materials for soldering in optoelectronic devices and components packaging. Low vapor pressure, suitable for vacuum work. Generally used in applications that require a melting temperature over 150 °C.[77] Good ductility. Also classified as a braze.

99.3Cu
0.7 | 228[1] | Yes | Yes | Sn99Cu1. Also designated as Sn
99Cu
1. Cheap alternative for wave soldering, recommended by the US NEMI consortium. Coarse microstructure with ductile fractures. Sparsely distributed Cu
6Sn
5.[1][78] Forms large dendritic ß-tin crystals in a network of eutectic microstructure with finely dispersed Cu
6Sn
5. High melting point unfavorable for SMT use. Low strength, high ductility. Susceptible to tin pest.[70] Addition of small amount of nickel increases its fluidity; the highest increase occurs at 0.06% Ni. Such alloys are known as nickel modified or nickel stabilized.[79]

97Cu
3 | 227
232 | 250[80]
332[52] | Yes |  | For high-temperature uses. Allows removing insulation from an enameled wire and applying solder coating in a single operation. For radiator repairs, stained glass windows, and potable water plumbing.

99Cu
0.7Ag
0.3 | 217 | 228[81] | Yes | No | SCA, SAC, or SnAgCu. Tin-silver-copper alloy. Relatively low-cost lead-free alloy for simple applications. Can be used for wave, selective and dip soldering. At high temperatures tends to dissolve copper; copper buildup in the bath has detrimental effect (e.g. increased bridging). Copper content must be maintained between 0.4–0.85%, e.g. by refilling the bath with Sn
96.2Ag
3.8 alloy (designated e.g. SN96Ce). Nitrogen atmosphere can be used to reduce losses by dross formation. Dull, surface shows formation of dendritic tin crystals.

99Ag
0.3Cu
0.7 |  | Yes |  |

98.5Ag
1.0Cu
0.5 | 220 | 225 | Yes | Near | SAC105 alloy contains the least amount of silver among lead-free solders. It is compatible with all flux types and is relatively inexpensive; it exhibits good fatigue resistance, wetting and solder joint reliability

97Cu
2.75Ag
0.25 | 228 | 314[52] | Yes |  | High hardness, creep-resistant. For radiators, stained glass windows, and potable water plumbing. Excellent high-strength solder for radiator repairs. Wide range of patina and colors.

96.5Ag
3.0Cu
0.5 | 217 | 220
218[82][17][83] | Yes | Near | SAC305. It is the JEITA recommended alloy for wave and reflow soldering, with alternatives SnCu for wave and SnAg and SnZnBi for reflow soldering. Usable also for selective soldering and dip soldering. At high temperatures tends to dissolve copper; copper buildup in the bath has detrimental effect (e.g. increased bridging). Copper content must be maintained between 0.4–0.85%, e.g. by refilling the bath with Sn
97Ag
3 alloy. Nitrogen atmosphere can be used to reduce losses by dross formation. Dull, surface shows formation of dendritic tin crystals. Weakens at thermal cycling, concern of whisker growth, large Ag
3Sn intermetallic platelet precipitates causing mechanical weakening and poor shock/drop performance. Tendency to creep.[84]

95.8Ag
3.5Cu
0.7 | 217 | 218 | Yes | Near | SN96C-Ag3.5 A commonly used alloy. Used for wave soldering. Usable also for selective soldering and dip soldering. At high temperatures tends to dissolve copper; copper buildup in the bath has detrimental effect (e.g. increased bridging). Copper content must be maintained between 0.4–0.85%, e.g. by refilling the bath with Sn
96.5Ag
3.5 alloy (designated e.g. SN
96Ce). Nitrogen atmosphere can be used to reduce losses by dross formation. Dull, surface shows formation of dendritic tin crystals.

95.6Ag
3.5Cu
0.9 | 217 | Yes | Yes | Determined by NIST to be truly eutectic.

95.5Ag
4Cu
0.5 | 217[85] | Yes | Yes | SAC405. Lead-Free, Cadmium free formulation designed specifically to replace lead solders in copper and stainless steel plumbing, and in electrical and electronic applications.[86]

95.5Ag
3.9Cu
0.6 | 217[87] | Yes | Yes | Recommended by the US NEMI consortium for reflow soldering. Used as balls for BGA/CSP and CBGA components, a replacement for Sn
10Pb
90. Solder paste for rework of BGA boards.[51] Alloy of choice for general SMT assembly.

95.5Ag
3.8Cu
0.7 | 217[88] | Yes | Near | SN96C. Preferred by the European IDEALS consortium for reflow soldering. Usable also for selective soldering and dip soldering. At high temperatures tends to dissolve copper; copper buildup in the bath has detrimental effect (e.g. increased bridging). Copper content must be maintained between 0.4–0.85%, e.g. by refilling the bath with Sn
96.2Ag
3.8 alloy (designated e.g. SN96Ce). Nitrogen atmosphere can be used to reduce losses by dross formation. Dull, surface shows formation of dendritic tin crystals.

95.5Cu
4Ag
0.5 | 226 | 260[86] | Yes | No | KappFree provides good joint strength, vibration resistance, and thermal cycle fatigue resistance in both piping and electrical products as opposed to tin-lead solders. Higher working temperature. Wets well to brass, copper, and stainless steel. Good electrical conductivity.[86]

95Ag
4Cu
1 |  | Yes |  |

90.7Ag
3.6Cu
0.7Cr
5 | 217 | 1050[89] | Yes | No | C-Solder. Lead-free, low-temperature soldering alloy for joining of various carbon materials including carbon fibres and carbon nanotube fibres in both carbon-carbon and carbon-metal arrangements. Produces mechanically strong and electrically conductive bonds. Provides wetting of carbon[90] and other materials generally considered as difficult to solder, including aluminium, stainless steel, titanium, glass, and ceramics.

65Ag
25Sb
10 | 233 | Yes | Yes | Very high tensile strength. For die attachment. Very brittle. Old Motorola die attach solder.

96.2Ag
2.5Cu
0.8Sb
0.5 | 217[17] | 225 | Yes |  | Ag03A. Patented by AIM alliance.

95.25Ag
3.8Cu
0.7Sb
0.25 |  | Yes |  | Preferred by the European IDEALS consortium for wave soldering.

99.3Cu
0.7Ni
0.05Ge
0.009 | 227[91] |  | Yes | Sn100C, a lead-free silver-free nickel-stabilized alloy. Similar to Sn99Cu1. The nickel content lowers copper erosion and promotes shiny solder fillet. The presence of germanium promotes flow and reduces dross formation. Performance similar to SAC alloys at lower cost. Dross formation rate comparable to lead-tin alloys.

99Sb
1 | 232 | 235[92] | Yes | No |

97Sb
3 | 232 | 238[93] | Yes | No |

95Sb
5 | 235
232 | 240[12][17] | Yes | No | Sb5, ASTM95TA. The US plumbing industry standard. It displays good resistance to thermal fatigue and good shear strength. Forms coarse dendrites of tin-rich solid solution with SbSn intermetallic dispersed between. Very high room-temperature ductility. Creeps via viscous glide of dislocations by pipe diffusion. More creep-resistant than SnAg
3.5. Antimony can be toxic. Used for sealing chip packagings, attaching I/O pins to ceramic substrates, and die attachment; a possible lower-temperature replacement of AuSn.[70] High strength and bright finish. Use in air conditioning, refrigeration, some food containers, and high-temperature applications.[54] Good wettability, good long-term shear strength at 100 °C. Suitable for potable water systems. Used for stained glass, plumbing, and radiator repairs.

91Zn
9 | 199[94] | Yes | Yes | KappAloy9 Designed specifically for aluminium-to-aluminium and aluminium-to-copper soldering. It has good corrosion resistance and tensile strength. Lies between soft solder and silver brazing alloys, thereby avoiding damage to critical electronics and substrate deformation and segregation. Best solder for aluminium wire to Copper busses or copper wire to aluminium busses or contacts.[94] UNS#: L91090

85Zn
15 | 199 | 260[94] | Yes | No | KappAloy15 Designed specifically for aluminium-to-aluminium and aluminium-to-copper soldering. It has good corrosion resistance and tensile strength. Lies between soft solder and silver brazing alloys, thereby avoiding damage to critical electronics and substrate deformation and segregation. Has a wide plastic range this makes it ideal for hand soldering aluminium plates and parts, allowing manipulation of the parts as the solder cools.[94]

80Zn
20 | 199 | 288[94] | Yes | No | KappAloy20 For soldering of aluminium. Good wetting. Used extensively in spray wire form for capacitors and other electronic parts. Higher temperature and higher tensile strength compared to 85Sn/15Zn and 91Sn/9Zn.[94]

70Zn
30 | 199 | 316[94] | Yes | No | KappAloy30 For soldering of aluminium. Good wetting. Used extensively in spray wire form for capacitors and other

60Zn
40 | 199 | 343[94] | Yes | No | KappAloy40 For soldering of aluminium. Good wetting. Used extensively in spray wire form for capacitors and other electronic parts. Higher temperature and higher tensile strength compared to 85Sn/15Zn and 91Sn/9Zn.[94]electronic parts. Higher temperature and higher tensile strength compared to 85Sn/15Zn and 91Sn/9Zn.[94]

60Sn
40 | 199 | 341 | Yes | No | For soldering aluminium. Good wetting.[29]

70Sn
30 | 199 | 376 | Yes | No | For soldering aluminium. Excellent wetting.[60] Good strength.

95Sn
5 | 382 | Yes | yes? | For soldering aluminium. Excellent wetting.[60]

90Zn
7Cu
3 | 200 | 222[95] | Yes | No | Kapp Eco-Babbitt[95] Commonly used in capacitor manufacturing as protective coating to shield against electromotive force (EMF) and electromagnetic interference (EMI) with the specified performance of the capacitor, to prevent current and charge leakage out of and within the layers of the capacitor, and to prevent the development of electron flows within the coating material itself, that would diminish capacitor performance, coating, and capacitor life.[95]

50Zn
49Cu
1 | 200 | 300[96] | Yes | No | Galvanite Lead-free galvanizing solder formulation designed specifically for high quality repairs to galvanized steel surfaces. Simple, effective and easy to use, in both manufacturing and field applications. Metallurgically bonds to the steel, for a seamless protective barrier.[96]

95Ag
3.5Zn
1Cu
0.5 |  | 221[15] | Yes | No |

100 | 419 | Yes | Pure | For soldering aluminium. Good wettability of aluminium, relatively good corrosion resistance.[29]

95Al
5 | 382 | Yes | Yes | For soldering aluminium. Good wetting.[29]

87.5Ge
12.5 | 361
356[17] | Yes | Yes | Au88. Used for die attachment of some chips.[12] The high temperature may be detrimental to the chips and limits reworkability.[37]

98Si
2 | 370 | 800[17] | Yes |  | Au98. A non-eutectic alloy used for die attachment of silicon dies. Ultrasonic assistance is needed to scrub the chip surface so a eutectic (3.1% Si) is reached at reflow.

96.8Si
3.2 | 370[17] | 363[97] | Yes | Yes | Au97.[75] AuSi
3.2 is a eutectic with melting point of 363 °C. AuSi forms a meniscus at the edge of the chip, unlike AuSn, as AuSi reacts with the chip surface. Forms a composite material structure of submicron silicon plates in soft gold matrix. Tough, slow crack propagation.[78]

### Notes on the above table

In the Sn-Pb alloys, tensile strength increases with increasing tin content. Indium-tin alloys with high indium content have very low tensile strength.[12]

For soldering semiconductor materials, e.g. die attachment of silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide, it is important that the solder contains no impurities that could cause doping in the wrong direction. For soldering n-type semiconductors, solder may be doped with antimony (group V); indium (group III) may be added for soldering p-type semiconductors.[60] Most semiconductor solders in practical use are made wholly of elements without a doping effect such as Ph, Sn, Ag, Au, Cu.[98] The use of tin-based lead-free solder carries risks of tin whisker, and intermetallic compound growth (tin pest is however not a common issue due to alloying).[99]

Various fusible alloys can be used as solders with very low melting points; examples include Field's metal (In
51Bi
31.5Sn
16.5), Lipowitz's alloy, Wood's metal (Bi
50Pb
26.7Sn
13.3Cd
10), and Rose's metal (Bi
50Pb
50Sn
50).

### Properties

The thermal conductivity of common solders ranges from 30 to 400 W/(m·K), and the density from 9.25 to 15.00 g/cm3.[100][101]

Material  | Thermal conductivity[101]
(W/m·K)  | Melting point[101]
(°C)

|
|

Sn-37Pb (eutectic) | 50.9 | 183
Sn-0.7Cu | 53[1] | 227
Sn-2.8Ag-20.0In | 53.5 | 175–186
Sn-2.5Ag-0.8Cu-0.5Sb | 57.26 | 215–217
Pb-5Sn | 63 | 310
Lead (Pb) | 35.0 | 327.3
Tin (Sn) | 73.0 | 231.9
Aluminium (Al) | 240 | 660.1
Copper (Cu) | 393–401 | 1083
FR-4 | 1.7 |

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Meng Zhao, Liang Zhang, Zhi-Quan Liu, Ming-Yue Xiong, and Lei Sun (2019). "Structure and properties of Sn-Cu lead-free solders in electronics packaging". Science and Technology of Advanced Materials 20 (1): 421–444. doi:10.1080/14686996.2019.1591168. PMID 31489052. Bibcode: 2019STAdM..20..421Z.
2. ↑ "FACT and FICTION in LEAD Free Soldering". 2025. https://dklmetals.co.uk/PDF Files/Factorfiction.pdf.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `White-2002`
4. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 18 Indium Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=4ccb81db2b7e4eb5a517409445b37deb.
5. ↑ "Chip Quik – SMD Removal Kit (Chip Quik Alloy 2.5ft, flux, alcohol pads) lead-free". http://www.chipquik.com/store/product_info.php?products_id=220001.
6. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 22 Bismuth Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=82d47484509e4e81b53f487bed41a324.
7. ↑ Johnson Manufacturing Co, MSDS for Chip Quik Alloy w/Lead. Retrieved on February 6, 2015.
8. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 21 Bismuth Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=5a48bcea477c4b2eb9153f5fc28243da.
9. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 147 Bismuth Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=bf336aff588c4e72acb714d5a4ae13c6.
10. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 140 Bismuth Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=61beeec304154e14b711984757f073ed.
11. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 67 Bismuth-Lead Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=4c19e3682c3b4d3198f3025b81cce73f.
12. ↑ 12.00 12.01 12.02 12.03 12.04 12.05 12.06 12.07 12.08 12.09 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 12.16 12.17 12.18 12.19 12.20 12.21 12.22 12.23 12.24 12.25 12.26 12.27 12.28 Charles A. Harper (2003). Electronic materials and processes. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 5–8. ISBN 978-0-07-140214-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=CQGPGwFuPRkC&pg=SA5-PA8.
13. ↑ 13.00 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 13.14 13.15 13.16 13.17 13.18 Ray P. Prasad (1997). Surface mount technology: principles and practice. Springer. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-412-12921-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=IcxDPA2U6esC&pg=PA385.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 John H. Lau (1991). Solder joint reliability: theory and applications. Springer. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-442-00260-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=vMpHHWboSAAC&pg=PA178.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Karl J. Puttlitz; Kathleen A. Stalter (2004). Handbook of lead-free solder technology for microelectronic assemblies. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8247-4870-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=H75TywRXUK4C&pg=PA21.
16. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 281 Bi-Sn Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=967a4cd7871b46fa9128a29c303cf8be.
17. ↑ 17.00 17.01 17.02 17.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 17.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 17.11 17.12 17.13 17.14 17.15 17.16 17.17 17.18 17.19 17.20 17.21 17.22 17.23 17.24 17.25 17.26 17.27 17.28 17.29 17.30 17.31 17.32 17.33 17.34 17.35 17.36 17.37 "Solder Alloys". https://invacu.com/solder-alloys.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Pajky_vkladanylist_Cze_ang_2010.indd. (PDF). Retrieved 2010-07-06.
19. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 231 Sn-Zn-In-Bi Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=67e162f8c187441a85e22ea1b98b52a0.
20. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 282 57Bi/42Sn/1Ag Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=3f9d5aa624ea454f81308048ab101817.
21. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 249 91.8Sn/3.4Ag/4.8Bi Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=fbf7a599eb0e407981ed2f785bbe24ee.
22. ↑ Paul T. Vianco and Jerome A. Rejent (1994) "Tin-silver-bismuth solders for electronics assembly " U.S. Patent 5,439,639
23. ↑ K100LD. kester.com
24. ↑ SN100C® Technical Guide. floridacirtech.com
25. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 253 Indium Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=1fef3a2158ba400abe6f7e2a5c171ca1.
26. ↑ George P Luckey (1920) U.S. Patent 1,333,666
27. ↑ Composition And Physical Properties Of Alloys . Csudh.edu (2007-08-18). Retrieved 2010-07-06.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Kapp1`
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 Howard H. Manko (2001). Solders and soldering: materials, design, production, and analysis for reliable bonding. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 396–. ISBN 978-0-07-134417-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=MvSMg5HC1YcC&pg=PA396.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 "KappRad". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc. http://www.kappalloy.com/kapprad-solder.php.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 "KappTec". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/tec-solder.php.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 "KappTecZ". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/tecz-solder.php.
33. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 181 Sn-Pb-Cd Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=199da4a304e44104868eaf537a7c9a16.
34. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 13 Indium Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=802ee7cd28ef4fd59cdc87d7e1fef98b.
35. ↑ T.Q. Collier (May–Jun 2008). "Choosing the best bumb for the buck". Advanced Packaging 17 (4): 24. ISSN 1065-0555. https://books.google.com/books?id=71tVjt0QUrEC&pg=PT27.
36. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 204 In-Pb Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=afcc8e122d334379a6d0d7d7079fc54d.
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 Merrill L. Minges (1989). Electronic Materials Handbook: Packaging. ASM International. p. 758. ISBN 978-0-87170-285-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=c2YxCCaM9RIC&pg=PA758.
38. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 10 Pb-In Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=3cc5ca3fdb7848bda630047dd05bb6b3.
39. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 150 Pb-In Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=d7525946b1a446afa73b5dd52997a283.
40. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 1 Indium-Tin Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=718dfcb678cc42359978349a905862bc.
41. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 87 Indium-Tin Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=aea1c42aa0a341aa948d7103c3a4564b.
42. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 532 Tin Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=fcd842de41fd4fcba9250418612914bf.
43. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 9 Sn-Pb-In Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=5edfeb10d3c74d44967d0d605328c1e8.
44. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 2 In-Pb-Ag Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=03e0734456b74c088b9f9c19f6af6ab9.
45. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 226 Tin Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=64d8ba345b524cdc815a1df1dc7142b0.
46. ↑ Laurence G. Stevens and Charles E. T. White (1992) "Lead-free alloy containing tin, zinc and indium" U.S. Patent 5,242,658
47. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 227 Sn-In-Ag Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=e2f902d610494ab7a7f500fcfbdb43cc.
48. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 254 86.9Sn/10.0In/3.1Ag Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=778b662660244af7b8d9689a007e8813.
49. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 290 In-Ag Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=a8d11bdcc82c4410af96f5d43579d420.
50. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 3 In-Ag Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=08d1a1dea82b4e13ac90e38eecb0b919.
51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 51.3 Sanka Ganesan; Michael Pecht (2006). Lead-free electronics. Wiley. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-471-78617-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=z4Ha0AYdon4C&pg=PA110.
52. ↑ 52.00 52.01 52.02 52.03 52.04 52.05 52.06 52.07 52.08 52.09 52.10 52.11 SOLDER ALLOYS Selection Chart. (PDF). Retrieved 2010-07-06.
53. ↑ Walt Kester James Bryant Walt Jung Scott Wurcer Chuck Kitchin (2005). "Ch. 4. Sensor Signal Conditioning". Op Amp Applications Handbook. Newnes/Elsevier. p. 4.49. ISBN 0-7506-7844-5. http://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/archives/39-05/Web_Ch4_final.pdf. Retrieved 2019-03-10.
54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 54.4 54.5 54.6 54.7 Madara Ogot; Gul Okudan-Kremer (2004). Engineering design: a practical guide. Trafford. p. 445. ISBN 978-1-4120-3850-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=M5BWtQ-xjeUC&pg=PA445.
55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 55.3 55.4 55.5 Kaushish (2008). Manufacturing Processes. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. p. 378. ISBN 978-81-203-3352-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZOXXV9LdcwC&pg=PA378.
56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 56.3 56.4 56.5 Howard H. Manko (2001). Solders and soldering: materials, design, production, and analysis for reliable bonding. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-07-134417-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=MvSMg5HC1YcC&pg=PA164.
57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 57.3 57.4 57.5 Properties of Solders. farnell.com.
58. ↑ "Balve Zinn Solder Sn63Pb37 – Balver Zinn". http://www.balverzinn.com/solder-Sn63Pb37.html?file=tl_files/balverzinn/downloads/datenblaetter_en/Solder Sn63Pb37.pdf.
59. ↑ "Safety Data Sheet". January 1, 2017. https://resource.bakerdist.com/is/content/Watscocom/Gemaire/amerway_sn50pb50_article_1456219847370_en_ss.pdf.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 60.3 60.4 Symposium on Solder. ASTM International. 1957. p. 114. https://books.google.com/books?id=gW6zNhhy5ZQC&pg=PA114.
61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 "Kapp GalvRepair". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/tin-zinc-lead-solder.php.
62. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 228 Pb-Sn-Ag Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=5ef2e290b637430483aab758ac193f3c.
63. ↑ "Alloy Temperature Chart". Kester. https://www.kester.com/Portals/0/Documents/Knowledge Base/Alloy Temperature Chart.pdf.
64. ↑ 3439-00-577-7594 Solder, Tin Alloy. Tpub.com. Retrieved 2010-07-06.
65. ↑ "Balver Zinn Solder Sn63PbP". http://www.balverzinn.com/downloads/Solder_Sn63PbP.pdf.
66. ↑ T R Barnard (1959). "Winding Ropes and Guide Ropes". Mechanical Engineering. Coal Mining Series (2nd ed.). London: Virtue. pp. 374–375.
67. ↑ "97.5Pb-2.5Ag Lead-Silver Solder, ASTM Class 2.5S UNS L50132". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=299122b40d9246bfa960a15e875d1464.
68. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 175 Lead Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=7a0646b6fbce4f79b2cee716edc3f66f.
69. ↑ "94.5Pb-5.5Ag Lead-Silver Solder, ASTM Class 5.5S; UNS L50180". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=0225ffa15e7e4a87a61bf164dc0f77e1.
70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 Karl J. Puttlitz; Kathleen A. Stalter (2004). Handbook of lead-free solder technology for microelectronic assemblies. CRC Press. p. 541. ISBN 978-0-8247-4870-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=H75TywRXUK4C&pg=PA541.
71. ↑ "Solder selection for photonic packaging". AIM Metals & Alloys. 27 February 2013. http://www.aimsolder.com/specialty-materials-division-solders-photonic-packing.
72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 72.3 72.4 72.5 "KappZapp". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/zapp-solder.php.
73. ↑ "KappZapp7". SolderDirect.com. http://www.solderdirect.com/all-products/non-aluminum-soldering/kappzapp/kappzapp7tm.html.
74. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 238 Sn-Au Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=ec6a4e98e2294ead8788107da410c9d8.
75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 "Indium Corporation Global Solder Supplier Electronics Assembly Materials". http://www.indium.com/_dynamo/download.php?docid=298.
76. ↑ "Chip Scale Review Magazine". Chipscalereview.com. 2004-04-20. http://www.chipscalereview.com/issues/1004/article.php?type=feature&article=f3.
77. ↑ "High-Temperature Gold Solder & Braze Materials". Indium Corporation. http://www.indium.com/gold/files/2010/12/98217.pdf.
78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 Sanka Ganesan; Michael Pecht (2006). Lead-free electronics. Wiley. p. 404. ISBN 978-0-471-78617-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=z4Ha0AYdon4C&pg=PA110.
79. ↑ Keith William Sweatman and Tetsuro Nishimura (January 2006). "The Fluidity of the Ni-Modified Sn-Cu Eutectic Lead-Free Solder". Nihon Superior Co., Ltd. http://www.aimsolder.com/sites/default/files/the_fluidity_of_the_ni-modified_sn-cu_eutectic_lead-free_solder_white_paper.pdf.
80. ↑ Balver Zinn Solder Sn97Cu3
81. ↑ "Balver Zinn Solder SCA (SnCu0.7Ag0.3)". http://www.balverzinn.com/downloads/Solder_SCA.pdf.
82. ↑ Alakayleh, Abdallah; Hamasha, Sa'd; Alahmer, Ali (2024). "The impact of paste alloy, paste volume, and surface finish on solder joint reliability". Microelectronics Reliability (Elsevier) 158. doi:10.1016/j.microrel.2024.111112. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0026271424001379.
83. ↑ "Balver Zinn Solder SN97C (SnAg3.0Cu0.5)". http://www.balverzinn.com/tl_files/balverzinn/downloads/datenblaetter_en/Solder SN97C.pdf.
84. ↑ Karl Seelig (2017) New Pb-Free Solder Alloy for Demanding Applications. VP Technology, AIM Solder
85. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 246 95.5Sn/4.0Ag/0.5Cu Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=19662ece2a4a4bb2bbe7aa522f916185.
86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 "KappFree". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/kappfree-elec-solder.php.
87. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 252 95.5Sn/3.9Ag/0.6Cu Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=a811b22a9ddd406d88a92130ebc9a9f0.
88. ↑ "Balver Zinn Solder SN96C (SnAg3,8Cu0,7)". http://www.balverzinn.com/downloads/Solder_SN96C.pdf.
89. ↑ M. Burda (2015). "Soldering of carbon materials using transition metal rich alloys". ACS Nano 9 (8): 8099–107. doi:10.1021/acsnano.5b02176. PMID 26256042.
90. ↑ "Technical Data Sheet, Cametics C-Solder active soldering alloy". http://www.cametics.com/resources/upload/data sheets/Cametics C-SOLDER Technical data sheet - August 2016.pdf.
91. ↑ SN100C® LEAD-FREE SOLDER ALLOY. aimsolder.com
92. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 129 99Sn/1Sb Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=6b43308933eb48bba5f38c1217c73ce3.
93. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 131 97Sn/3Sb Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=fc88a689e7ab481194cc1c5a1e2eb6a1.
94. ↑ 94.00 94.01 94.02 94.03 94.04 94.05 94.06 94.07 94.08 94.09 "KappAloy". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/tin-zinc-solder.php.
95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 95.2 Kapp Alloy. "Kapp Eco Babbitt". http://www.smtnet.com/company/index.cfm?fuseaction=view_company&company_id=54254&component=catalog&catalog_id=18662.
96. ↑ 96.0 96.1 "Galvanite". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/galvanite-solder.php.
97. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 184 Gold Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=ac3061509fca4befa1191973be39cd62.
98. ↑ "Soft Solder Die Attach". https://sst.semiconductor-digest.com/2003/04/soft-solder-die-attach/.
99. ↑ Nan Jiang (2019). "Reliability issues of lead-free solder joints in electronic devices". Science and Technology of Advanced Materials 20 (1): 876–901. doi:10.1080/14686996.2019.1640072. PMID 31528239. Bibcode: 2019STAdM..20..876J.
100. ↑ "Thermal Properties of Metals, Conductivity, Thermal Expansion, Specific Heat – Engineers Edge". http://www.engineersedge.com/properties_of_metals.htm.
101. ↑ 101.0 101.1 101.2 "Database for Solder Properties with Emphasis on New Lead-free Solders". metallurgy.nist.gov. 2012-07-10. http://www.metallurgy.nist.gov/solder/NIST_LeadfreeSolder_v4.pdf.

## External links

* Phase diagrams of different types of solder alloys

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