Bursa

Bursa[lower-alpha 1] is a city in northwestern Turkey and the administrative center of Bursa Province. It is the fourth-most populous city in Turkey and second-most populous in the Marmara Region after Istanbul. According to 2025 end of year estimate, the province has a population of 3,263,011 while Bursa city has a population of around 2.5 million.[lower-alpha 2] Bursa is one of the centers of Turkey's automotive production, becoming an industrial center of the country.[1] The city provides various places of interest.

Historically, Bursa was known as Prusa or Prousa (Ancient Greek: Προῦσα), or Prusa near Olympus or Prusa under Olympus (Προῦσα ἐπὶ τῷ Ὀλύμπῳ, Προῦσα πρὸς τῷ Ὀλύμπῳ). The city became the capital of the Ottoman Empire (back then the Ottoman Beylik) from 1335 until the 1360s.

A more recent nickname is Yeşil Bursa ("Green Bursa") referring to the parks and gardens located across the city, as well as to the vast, varied forests of the surrounding region. Bursa has a rather orderly urban growth and borders a fertile plain. The mausoleums of the early Ottoman sultans are located in Bursa, and the city's main landmarks include numerous edifices built throughout the Ottoman period. Bursa also has thermal baths, old Ottoman mansions, palaces, and several museums. Mount Uludağ, known in classical antiquity as the Mysian Olympus or, alternatively, Bithynian Olympus, towers over the city and has a ski resort.

The shadow play characters Karagöz and Hacivat, according to some stories, are based on historic personalities who lived and died in Bursa in the 14th century.[2][3]

## Contents

* 1 History
* 1.1 Antiquity
* 1.2 Middle Ages
* 1.3 Modern Era
* 1.4 Jewish community
* 2 Geography
* 2.1 Climate
* 3 Economy
* 4 Transportation
* 5 Education
* 6 Sports
* 7 Politics
* 8 Culture and tourism
* 8.1 Ulu Cami (Grand Mosque)
* 8.2 Mosques and külliye complexes
* 8.3 Bazaars and caravanserais
* 8.4 Other historic monuments
* 8.5 Museums
* 8.6 Parks and gardens
* 8.7 Hot springs and thermal baths
* 8.8 Gallery
* 8.9 Twin towns – sister cities
* 9 See also
* 10 References
* 10.1 Books and Journals
* 10.2 Footnotes
* 11 Further reading
* 12 External links

## History

### Antiquity

Athena, bronze, 2nd century AD, at Bursa Archaeological Museum

The earliest known human settlement near Bursa's current location was at the Ilıpınar Mound in c. 6000 BC.[4] It was followed by the Bithynian city of Prusa, which was built by King Prusias I of Bithynia.[5] The city was also referred to as Prusa ad Olympum after its location at the foot of the Bithynian Olympus (present day Mount Uludağ).[6] One of the known characteristics of Prusa at that time was its hot springs that's dubbed as the "royal waters".[7] In 75/74 BC, Nicomedes IV, the last king of Bithynia, bequeated his entire kingdom to the Roman Republic in his last testament before he died.[8]

According to a letter that's written to Roman Emperor Trajan (r. 98–117) by Roman author Pliny the Younger, then the Imperial Governor of Bithynia and Pontus, constructions of baths took place in Prusa after a permit by the reigning emperor.

> To Trajan.

> When I was looking about, Sir, for a place upon which to build the baths which you have graciously allowed to be erected at Prusa, I was pleased with a site on which there once stood, I am told, a beautiful mansion which is now in a ruinous and unsightly condition.

— Epistulae, book X.70[9]

An early Roman artifact was found in Bursa. It was composed of woman's silver toiletry articles. It is currently reserved in the British Museum since 1913.[10]

### Middle Ages

Encyclopædia Britannica suggests that, when Prusa was under Byzantine rule, the city prospered after the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I built a palace there.[11] Prusa then became a garrison city in 562, where imperial guards were stationed. Already by the mid-6th century, Prusa was known as a famous silk textile manufacturing centre.[12]

Ottoman architecture in Bursa

Bursa became the capital city of the early Ottoman Empire following its capture from the Byzantines in 1326. During the Ottoman rule, the city witnessed a considerable amount of urban growth, such as the building of hospitals, caravanserais (including the Koza Han), and madrasas.[12] The first official Ottoman mint was established in the city.[12] After conquering Adrianople (later Edirne) in East Thrace, the Ottomans turned it into the new capital city in the 1360s.[lower-alpha 3]

No longer a capital city, Bursa still retained its spiritual and commercial importance in the Ottoman Empire.[14] In Bursa, the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I built the Bayezid I Complex (which contains the Bayezid I Mosque) between 1390 and 1395 and the Grand Mosque of Bursa between 1396 and 1400.[15][16] After the defeat and capture of Bayezid in the Battle of Ankara by the forces of Emir Timur in 1402, the latter's grandson, Muhammad Sultan Mirza, had Bursa pillaged and burned.[17] Timur then assigned the administration of Bursa to his protégé, a son of Savcı Bey.[18] Bursa was later put under the control of Ottoman co-ruler and pretender Îsâ Çelebi during the Ottoman interregnum following the death of Bayezid in captivity.[lower-alpha 4] On May 1403, Bursa was annexed by Mehmed Çelebi in the aftermath of the Battle of Ulubad.[18] According to a folio, Bursa is recorded to have a total of 174 quarters which was inhabited by 6,457 tax-paying heads of households in 1487.[19]

Historical population

Year| Pop.| ±%
1927| 61,451| —
1940| 77,598| +26.3%
1955 | 128,875| +66.1%
1980| 487,604| +278.4%
2000 | 1,184,144| +142.8%
[20]

Bursa was a hub of the Ottoman silk trade. The city housed a dockyard for many cargo ships and became a place of distribution of silk and other commodities from the East, particularly Ming China, to the rest of the Mediterranean world, which included the Italian city-states, particularly Genoa and Florence.[21][22] Bursa was a part of the land route of the Armenian trade networks.[23] Bursa also became a resort town with many springs, centered in an area named Cekirge, such as the Ottoman hammams Eski and Yeni Kaplıcas.[12] Sometime during a Devshirme levy in 1603-4, the villagers of Eğerciler (later called Eğerce), a Christian village in Bursa and provider of sheep to Istanbul, declared that the children of the village were very much needed as shepherds. They also asserted that even though they were not obliged to give any children to the army, the officers took some anyway. The Ottoman government responded by issuing a decree that commanded the return of the children.[24] In 1827, Bursa was set as the capital of Hüdavendigâr Eyalet until, following the Vilayet Law, the Hüdavendigâr Vilayet from 1867 to the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in 1922.

### Modern Era

In July 1915, thousands of the Orthodox Christian populations took refugee in Bursa under the order of the Ottoman government under the political party Committee for Union and Progress (CUP) after being forced out of their coastal villages.[25] This mass-migration worsened the conditions of the Greek population of Bursa, who have previously managed to survive the attacks and boycotts of 1914.[25] Deportation orders later came to the Armenian population of Bursa after a series of deportations in Adapazari.[25] Many of the Protestant population of Armenian descent in Bursa were initially spared from deportation.[25] Killings even occurred in Çengiler, a village outside of Bursa, after some villagers tried to resist deportation.[25] During the Greco-Turkish War, the Greek troops of Asia Minor captured Bursa in the early July of 1920 after clashes with Turkish forces around the city.[26] On 11 September 1922, the Turkish Nationalist Army recaptured Bursa during the Great Offensive.[27]

* Picture from the von Hallwyl family's journey through Asia Minor and Turkey 27 April - 20 June 1901. Bursa - Hallwyl Museum.

* Bursa, Turkey, ca. 1895.

* Picture from the von Hallwyl family's journey through Asia Minor and Turkey 27 April - 20 June 1901. Bursa - Hallwyl Museum.

* Picture of the Irgandı Bridge from the von Hallwyl family's journey through Asia Minor and Turkey 27 April - 20 June 1901. Bursa - Hallwyl Museum.

Bursa's industry, which was based off of foreign-owned silk factories since the 19th century, was accelerated and improved by the production of other industrial sectors, such as textile production, automotive manufacturing, and agriculture-based industries.[28] Public factories and private industrial enterprises are also enstablished in the city later during the Turkish Republic.[29]

Entrance to the building of the Bursa Chamber of Commerce and Industry (BTSO), a Bursa-based professional association that focuses on commerce and industry since 1889.

Immigrations to Bursa happened as early as 1877, when many of the Ottoman population migrated from Rumelia, Romania, and Bulgaria fleeing the Russo-Turkish War. The immigrants in Bursa later settled in neighborhoods enstablished by the then-serving Vali, Ahmed Vefik Pasha.[30] A major part of the Muslim immigrants of Turkish descent also settled in Bursa after forced migration from Bulgaria in between 1950-51 and also in 1989.[31] Bursa became an immigrant city due to its status as a large city alongside Istanbul, İzmir, and Ankara due to its industries and bussinesses, which increased employment opportunity.[32] The city was also more preferred to other larger cities by the immigrants from the northeast provinces of Turkey due to perceived similarity of culture, climate, and geography with their home provinces.[32]

### Jewish community

Bursa was initially the home to a small Romaniote Jewish community that settled there before the Ottoman conquest in 1326.[33] The Jewish community later underwent a demographic shift with the arrival of Sephardic Jews who arrived in the city after the expulsion from Spain after the Alhambra Decree in 1492, with Judeo-Spanish (Ladino) overtaking the Judeo-Greek as the community's main language.[33]

Mayor Synagogue in Bursa

Throughout the Ottoman period, most Jews in Bursa resided in Kuruçeşme, the city's Jewish quarter. Etz Chaim (Eṣ Ḥayyim), the oldest synagogue in Bursa, predated the Ottoman conquest, while the Gerush and Mayor synagogues were established by Sephardic newcomers. Despite the 1851 fire destroying Etz Chaim, the other two remain, along with the Berut synagogue. Bursa also had a Jewish cemetery until recently.[34]

Though never a major center, Bursa's Jewish population fluctuated. Dubious data suggests 683 families in 1571/72, dropping to 141 by 1696/97. By 1883, there were 2,179 Jews, with an influx of 400 from Akkerman in 1887. Pre-World War I, the population reached 3,500, but emigration reduced it to 140 by the early 21st century.[34]

Engaged in the local economy, Bursa's Jews were shop owners and involved in guilds. In the 16th and 17th centuries, they excelled in textile manufacturing, silk trade, goldsmithing, and finance. But the community periodically struggled both economically and with antisemitism; an 1886 report highlighted poverty,[34] and Bursa faced blood libels in 1592 and 1865.

Despite its size, the community produced renowned halakhic scholars across centuries. Modern schooling arrived in 1886 with Alliance Israélite Universelle, but it closed in 1923 during the secularization program. Jewish children then attended Turkish schools for a modern education.[34]

As of 2021, there are 60 Jews left in Bursa, one active synagogue and one Jewish cemetery.[35][36]

## Geography

Köppen map of Bursa Province and surrounding regions:[37]

* BSk

* Csa

* Csb

* Cfa

* Dsb

* Dsc

The area covered by Bursa corresponds to 1.41% of Turkey's land area, which makes the city 27th in the country in terms of land area.[38] Bursa stands on the northwestern slopes of Mount Uludağ (known as the Mysian Olympus in classical antiquity), on the banks of the Nilüfer River, in the southern Marmara Region. It is the capital city of Bursa Province, which borders the Sea of Marmara and Yalova to the north; Kocaeli and Sakarya to the northeast; Bilecik to the east; and Kütahya and Balıkesir to the south.

### Climate

Bursa has a Mediterranean climate (Csa/Cs) under the Köppen and Trewartha classifications. The city has hot, dry summers that last from June until September. Winters are cool and damp, also containing the most rainfall. There can be snow on the ground which will last for a week or two. Air pollution is a chronic problem in Bursa.[39]

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## Economy

Bursa is one of the leading industrial and agricultural production centres in Turkey.

Bursa is the largest production centre of the Turkish automotive industry.[44] Factories of motor vehicle producers like Fiat, Renault and Karsan, as well as automotive parts producers like Bosch, Mako, Valeo, Johnson Controls, Delphi have been active in the city for decades. The textile and food industries are equally strong, with Coca-Cola, Pepsi Cola and other beverage brands, as well as fresh and canned food industries being present in the city's organized industrial zones.

Apart from its large automotive industry, Bursa also produces a substantial amount of dairy products (by Sütaş),[45] processed food (by Tat),[46] and beverages (by Uludağ).[47]

Nilüfer River and Hüdavendigar Park

Traditionally, Bursa was famous for being the largest centre of silk trade in the Byzantine and later the Ottoman empires, during the period of the lucrative Silk Road. The city is still a major centre for textiles in Turkey and is home to the Bursa International Textiles and Trade Centre (Bursa Uluslararası Tekstil ve Ticaret Merkezi, or BUTTIM). Bursa was also known for its fertile soil and agricultural activities, which have decreased in the recent decades due to the heavy industrialization of the city.

Bursa is a major centre for tourism. One of the most popular skiing resorts in Turkey is located on Mount Uludağ, just next to the city proper. Bursa's thermal baths have been used for therapeutical purposes since Roman times. Apart from the baths that are operated by hotels, Uludağ University has a physical therapy centre which also makes use of thermal water.

## Transportation

Tram type "Silkworm" is produced in Bursa by Turkish manufacturer Durmazlar.

Bursa has a metro (Bursaray), trams[48] and a bus system for inner-city public transport, while taxi cabs are also available. Bursa's Yenişehir Airport is 49 km (30 mi) away from the city centre. The citizens of Bursa also prefer Istanbul's airports such as Istanbul Airport and Sabiha Gökçen International Airport for flights to foreign countries, due to Istanbul's proximity to Bursa. There are numerous daily bus and ferry services between the two cities.

Bursa – Mt. Uludağ gondola lift

The 8.8 km (5.5 mi) long Bursa Uludağ Gondola (Turkish: Teleferik) connects Bursa with the ski resort areas 1,870 m (6,140 ft) high on the mountain Uludağ.[49]

The only railway station in Bursa is the Harmancık station on the Balıkesir-Kütahya railway, which was opened in 1930.

The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Bursa, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 62 min. 12% of public transit riders ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 18 min, while 31% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip on public transit is 8.1 km (5.0 mi), while 17% travel for over 12 km (7.5 mi) in a single direction.[50]

## Education

Bursa Technical University campus

Bursa has two public universities and one private university. Uludağ University, founded in 1975, is the oldest institution of higher education in the city. Founded first as the Bursa University then renamed Uludağ University in 1982,[51] the university has a student body of 47,000, one of the largest in Turkey. Bursa Technical University[52] is the second public university of Bursa and was established in 2010, beginning education in the 2011–2012 academic year.

The first private university in Bursa was the Bursa Orhangazi University,[53] which started education in the 2012–2013 academic year. However, Orhangazi University was shut down by the Turkish government after the failed coup attempt of July 2016.

Istanbul Commerce University has opened graduate programs in Bursa in 2013.[54]

The vocational high schools, Bursa Sports High School,[55] and Bursa Agriculture Vocational High School,[56] are located in Osmangazi district.

## Sports

Timsah Arena is the home of Bursaspor, which won the Süper Lig (Super League) championship title at the end of the 2009–10 season.

The city has one professional football club, Bursaspor, which formerly competed in the Süper Lig (Super League), the top-tier of Turkish football, until finishing 16th at the end of the 2018–19 Süper Lig season and being relegated to the TFF First League. A few years earlier, Bursaspor had managed to become the Turkish champions at the end of the 2009–10 Süper Lig season, thereby becoming the second Anatolian club to ever win the Süper Lig championship title after Trabzonspor. Henceforth, Bursaspor was often considered to be one of the five biggest football clubs in Turkey, along with Galatasaray, Fenerbahçe, Beşiktaş and Trabzonspor. The club's relegation to the TFF First League at the end of the 2018–19 season was a major shock for its fans and became a first in the history of Turkish football. Never had a club which had won the Süper Lig championship title been relegated.

Bursaspor plays its home games at the Timsah Arena (meaning "Crocodile Arena", crocodile being the mascot of the team), which has a seating capacity of 45,000.

The city has three professional basketball teams in the Turkish Basketball League, Bursaspor and Tofaş S.K., which is among the most successful teams. The club plays its games at the Tofaş Nilüfer Sports Hall. Also, Final Spor plays in the second division.

## Politics

| Parts of this place (those related to the name of the current mayor and the most recent local election) need to be updated. Please update this place to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2026)

|

Bursa district Municipalities
Local elections, 2024

AKP|

9 / 17

CHP|

6 / 17

IYIP|

2 / 17

The current mayor of the Bursa Metropolitan Municipality, Mustafa Bozbey (tr), is elected from the main opposition party, Republican People's Party (CHP), in March 2024.

Alinur Aktaş from the Justice and Development Party (AKP) was in office between 2019 and 2024, when the AKP coalition won 49.6% of the vote against the CHP coalition which got 47% of the vote.[57]

## Culture and tourism

### Ulu Cami (Grand Mosque)

The Grand Mosque and Orhan Gazi Square in Bursa

Ulu Cami is the largest mosque in Bursa and a landmark of early Ottoman architecture, which incorporated many elements from Seljuk architecture.

Ordered by Sultan Bayezid I, the mosque was designed and built by architect Ali Neccar in 1396–1400. It is a large and rectangular building, with a total of twenty domes that are arranged in four rows of five, and are supported by 12 columns. Supposedly the twenty domes were built instead of the twenty separate mosques which Sultan Bayezid I had promised for winning the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. The mosque has two minarets.

Bursa Atatürk Museum

Inside the mosque, there are 192 monumental wall inscriptions written by the famous calligraphers of that period. There is also a fountain (şadırvan) where worshipers can perform ritual ablutions before prayer; the dome over the şadırvan is capped by a skylight which creates a soft, serene light below; thus playing an important role in the illumination of the large building.

The Bursa Forestry Museum Yeşil Mosque

The horizontally spacious and dimly lit interior is designed to feel peaceful and contemplative. The subdivisions of space formed by multiple domes and pillars create a sense of privacy and even intimacy. This atmosphere contrasts with the later Ottoman mosques (see for example the works of Suleiman the Magnificent's chief architect, Mimar Sinan.) The mosques that were built after the conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, and influenced by the design of the 6th century Byzantine basilica of Hagia Sophia, had increasingly elevated and large central domes, which create a vertical emphasis that is intended to be more overwhelming; to convey the divine power of Allah, the majesty of the Ottoman Sultan, and the governmental authority of the Ottoman State.

Botanical Park of Bursa The village of Cumalıkızık, near Bursa, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site with Ottoman era historic houses.

### Mosques and külliye complexes

* Bursa Grand Mosque and külliye
* Yeşil Mosque and külliye
* Bayezid I Mosque and külliye
* Muradiye Mosque and külliye
* Emir Sultan Mosque and külliye
* Orhan Gazi Mosque and külliye
* Hüdavendigar Mosque and külliye
* Koca Sinan Paşa Mosque and külliye
* İshak Paşa Mosque and külliye
* Karacabey Grand Mosque
* Karabaş-i Veli Cultural Centre
* Somuncu Baba Mosque
* Üftade Tekkesi Mosque and complex
* Babasultan Mosque and complex

### Bazaars and caravanserais

* Yıldırım Bazaar (bedesten)
* Koza Han
* Pirinç Han
* İpek Han

### Other historic monuments

* Bursa Castle
* Irgandı Bridge
* İnkaya Sycamore, a massive and impressive 600-year-old tree (Platanus orientalis)

### Museums

* Bursa Archaeological Museum
* Bursa Atatürk Museum,[58]
* Bursa City Museum,[59]
* Bursa Energy Museum
* Bursa Forestry Museum
* Bursa Karagöz Museum
* Bursa Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art
* Bursa Turkish Architecture Museum
* İznik Museum
* Mudanya Armistice House
* Museum of Ottoman House
* Tofaş Museum of Cars and Anatolian Carriages

### Parks and gardens

* Uludağ National Park
* Bursa Zoo and Botanical Garden
* Bursa Hüdavendigar Kent Park

### Hot springs and thermal baths

* Keramet hot spring
* Çekirge hot spring
* Armutlu hot spring
* Oylat hot spring
* Gemlik hot spring
* Çelik Palas thermal bath

### Gallery

* Bursa Citadel Main Gate

* Orhan Gazi Mosque

* Emir Sultan Mosque

* Koza Han (Silk Bazaar) in Bursa

* Entrance of the Yeşil Cami (Green Mosque)

* Muradiye Mosque and Külliye in Bursa

* Governorate of Bursa

* Mt. Uludağ is a popular ski destination.

* Statue of Atatürk in Bursa

* Şehreküstü Mosque

* Interior of Yeşil Mosque

* Bursa French Catholic Church

* Saltanatkapı (Citadel Main Gate)

* Old City Hall

* Tophane Clocktower

* Tomb of Osman Gazi

* Tomb of Orhan Gazi

* Interior of the Grand Mosque

* Koza Han (Silk Bazaar)

* Irgandı Bridge

* A view of Bursa in the late 19th century

* Bursa, c. 1895

* Atatürk delivering a speech in Bursa, 1924

* A view of Bursa from the foothills of Mt. Uludağ

### Twin towns – sister cities

Bursa is twinned with:[60]

* Darmstadt, Germany (1971)
* Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (1972)
* Oulu, Finland (1978)
* Kairouan, Tunisia (1987)
* Anshan, China (1991)
* Bitola, North Macedonia (1996)
* Ceadîr-Lunga, Moldova (1997)
* Kyzylorda, Kazakhstan (1997)
* Mascara, Algeria (1998)
* Kulmbach, Germany (1998)
* Pleven, Bulgaria (1998)
* Plovdiv, Bulgaria (1998)
* Tirana, Albania (1998)
* Košice, Slovakia (2000)
* Vinnytsia, Ukraine (2004)
* Szentendre, Hungary (2005)
* Template:Country data KOS Pristina, Kosovo (2010)
* Bakhchysarai, Ukraine (2010)
* Momchilgrad, Bulgaria (2010)
* Mogilev, Belarus (2013)
* Hebron, Palestine (2014)
* Herzliya, Israel (2014)
* Veliko Tărnovo, Bulgaria (2017)
* Template:Country data SOM Galkayo, Somalia (2018)

## See also

* 1855 Bursa earthquake
* Complex of Mehmed I
* Emirsultan Mosque
* Grand Mosque of Bursa
* Green Tomb and Mosque
* List of people from Bursa
* List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey
* Siege of Bursa

## References

1. ↑ "The Automatic Industry in Turkey". 12 February 2021. https://eraiturkey.com/2021/02/the-automotive-industry-in-turkey/.
2. ↑ "Karagöz'ün Tarihçesi" (in tr). http://www.karagoz.org.tr/tr/karagoz-blog/karagoz-tarihcesi.
3. ↑ Özek, Chengiz (2018). "500 years of Karagöz". Journal of Studies on Theater of Animated Forms 1 (Móin Móin): 237. doi:10.5965/2595034701152016234. https://www.academia.edu/58601280. Retrieved 22 August 2025. "According to one of these, Hacivat was a stonemason and Karagöz a blacksmith during the reign of Sultan Osman in the early 14th century. While the pair was working on the construction of a mosque in Bursa they distracted the other workers with their witty repartee, so that the work fell behind schedule and the sultan ordered their execution.".
4. ↑ Roodenberg & Alpaslan-Roodenberg 2013, p. 69.
5. ↑ Bowie 2022, p. 74.
6. ↑ Anthon 1851, p. 1135.
7. ↑ "Athenaeus' Deipnosophistae Book II". https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Athenaeus/2A*.html#:~:text=royal waters.
8. ↑ Mayor 2010, p. 260.
9. ↑ "Pliny the Younger's Epistulae Book X.70". https://www.attalus.org/pliny/ep10b.html#70.
10. ↑ Databases of the artifacts in the British Museum website:
* The mirror.
* The pyxis
* The patera
* The bowl
* The simpulum
* The distaff
* The spoon
11. ↑ "Bursa, Turkey". https://www.britannica.com/place/Bursa-Turkey.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Dumper & Stanley 2007, p. 101.
13. ↑ Template:TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi
14. ↑ "Ottoman Capital Bursa". http://www.kultur.gov.tr/–EN,33810/ottoman-capital-bursa.html. "...in 1363 the Ottoman capital moved from Bursa to Edirne, although Bursa retained its spiritual and economic importance."
15. ↑ "Bayezid I Complex". http://www.archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=2872.
16. ↑ "Great Mosque of Bursa". http://www.archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=2881.
17. ↑ Nizami & Habib 1970, p. 128.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Kastritsis 2007, p. 79.
19. ↑ Faroqhi 2008, pp. 361–362.
20. ↑ "BURSA (Nüfusun tarihsel gelişimi)" (in tr). http://bgc.org.tr/ansiklopedi/bursa-nufusun-tarihsel-gelisimi-.html#:~:text=Bursa kent merkezinde Cumhuriyet döneminin 1927'deki ilk sayımdan itibaren nüfusun gelişimi şöyle olmuştur:.
21. ↑ Chen 2021, p. 443.
22. ↑ Lowry 2003, pp. 9–10.
23. ↑ Ganjalyan, Tamara (12 March 2019). "Armenian trade networks". https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-networks/economic-networks/tamara-ganjalyan-armenian-trade-networks#section_2#:~:text=Bursa.
24. ↑ Yilmaz 2015, p. 909.
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 Gingeras 2016, p. 171.
26. ↑ Dumper & Stanley 2007, p. 103.
27. ↑ Öztürkmen, Nida (8 September 2025). "The Liberation of Bursa (11 September 1922)". https://kureansiklopedi.com/en/detay/the-liberation-of-bursa-11-september-1922-57997/.
28. ↑ "BURSA: INDUSTRIAL KEY ROLE IN TURKEY’S ECONOMY". https://conexioconsulting.com/en/bursa-industrial-key-role-in-turkeys-economy/.
29. ↑ "General Overview to the Economy of Bursa". http://www.bcci.org/?page=bursaeconomy/bursaeconomy.asp.
30. ↑ Guler, Arslan & Durak 2016, p. 654.
31. ↑ Guler, Arslan & Durak 2016, p. 355.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Çakmak & Oktay 2017, p. 128-129.
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Bursa, Turkey". http://archive.diarna.org/site/detail/public/1106/.
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Bornstein-Makovetsky 2010.
35. ↑ Chitrik, Mendy. "The Blogs: The Expulsion Synagogue" (in en-US). https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the-expulsion-synagogue/.
36. ↑ "Discovering the Jewish Heritage of Bursa, Turkey" (in en-US). 11 September 2023. https://newyorkjewishtravelguide.com/2023/09/11/discovering-the-jewish-heritage-of-bursa-turkey/.
37. ↑ "Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Nature Scientific Data. DOI:10.1038/sdata.2018.214.
38. ↑ GLHN (2022-07-23). "Bursa - Coğrafya" (in tr). https://gulhansozluk.com/bursa/.
39. ↑ (in tr) ﻿Kara Rapor 2020: Hava Kirliliği ve Sağlık Etkileri﻿ (Report). Right to Clean Air Platform Turkey. August 2020. https://www.temizhavahakki.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Kara-Rapor-2020-Son27082020.pdf.
40. ↑ "Resmi İstatistikler: İllerimize Ait Mevism Normalleri (1991–2020)" (in tr). Turkish State Meteorological Service. https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?k=H&m=BURSA.
41. ↑ "İllerimize Ait Genel İstatistik Verileri" (in tr). Turkish State Meteorological Service. https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?k=A&m=BURSA.
42. ↑ "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020: Bursa" (CSV). National centers for Environmental Information. https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Turkiye/CSV/Bursa_17116.csv.
43. ↑ "Bursa - weather data by months". http://www.meteomanz.com/sy3?l=1&cou=6290&ind=17116&m1=01&y1=2000&m2=07&y2=2024.
44. ↑ "Turkey: A centre of excellence in automotive industry". Automotive Meetings Turkey. http://turkey.automotivemeetings.com/index.php/automotive-industry.
45. ↑ "Sütaş Süt Ürünleri A.Ş.". http://www.sutas.com.tr/.
46. ↑ "Tat". http://www.tat.com.tr/.
47. ↑ "Uludağ Beverages". http://www.uludagicecek.com.tr/.
48. ↑ DVV Media UK. "Bursa circular tramway opens". Railway Gazette. http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/bursa-circular-tramway-opens.html.
49. ↑ "GD8 Bursa I + II + III - References - Company - LEITNER ropeways". https://www.leitner-ropeways.com/en/company/references/gd8-bursa-i-ii-iii-716/.
50. ↑ "Bursa Public Transportation Statistics". Global Public Transit Index by Moovit. https://moovitapp.com/insights/en/Moovit_Insights_Public_Transit_Index_Turkey_Bursa-3663. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence.
51. ↑ "Uludağ Üniversitesi Hakkında". https://www.uludag.edu.tr/konu/view/15.
52. ↑ "Bursa Teknik Üniversitesi". Btu.edu.tr. http://www.btu.edu.tr/.
53. ↑ "Bursa Orhangazi Üniversitesi". Bou.edu.tr. http://www.bou.edu.tr/.
54. ↑ "Istanbul Commerce University at Bursa" (in tr). http://www.iticu.edu.tr/tr/duyuru/detay/Kategori/id/0/id/172.
55. ↑ "Bursa Celal Sönmez Spor Lisesi, geleceğin şampiyonlarını arıyor" (in tr). Bursada Bugün. 14 June 2020. https://www.bursadabugun.com/haber/bursa-celal-sonmez-spor-lisesi-gelecegin-sampiyonlarini-ariyor-1301227.html.
56. ↑ "Kültür Envanteri Anıt - Tarım Meslek Lisesi - Bursa" (in tr). Türkiye Kültür Portalı. 13 May 2013. https://www.kulturportali.gov.tr/turkiye/bursa/kulturenvanteri/tarim-meslek-lisesi.
57. ↑ "Bursa Seçim Sonuçları - 31 Mart Bursa Yerel Seçim Sonuçları" (in tr-TR). https://www.haberler.com/secim/2019/yerel-secimler/bursa-secim-sonuclari/.
58. ↑ "Bursa - Atatürk Museum". http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN-103965/bursa
ataturk-museum.html.
59. ↑ "Bursa City Museum". http://ndr.com.tr/en/museum/detail/bursa-city-museum.
60. ↑ "Kardeş Şehirler" (in tr). Bursa. https://www.bursa.bel.tr/sayfa/kardes-sehirler-261.

### Books and Journals

* Roodenberg, Jacob; Alpaslan-Roodenberg, Songül (2013). "Ilıpınar and Menteşe: Early Farming Communities in the Eastern Marmara". The Neolithic in Turkey (5): 69 - 81. https://www.academia.edu/4495727/Ilıpınar_and_Menteşe_Early_Farming_Communities_in_the_Eastern_Marmara. Retrieved 15 December 2025.
* Bowie, Ewen (2022). "Greek High Culture in Hellenistic and Early Imperial Bithynia: Towards a Prosopography of Practitioners of Greek Culture in Bithynia Down to the Middle of the Third Century AD". Mnemosyne (Brill Publishers) (75): 73-112. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357773307_Greek_High_Culture_in_Hellenistic_and_Early_Imperial_Bithynia_Towards_a_Prosopography_of_Practitioners_of_Greek_Culture_in_Bithynia_Down_to_the_Middle_of_the_Third_Century_AD. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
* Anthon, Charles (1851). A Classical Dictionary. New York: Harper. ISBN 9781419173844. https://archive.org/details/classicaldiction00anth/page/1135/mode/1up?view=theater. Retrieved 23 August 2025.
* Mayor, Adrienne (2010). The Poison King: The Life and Legend of Mithradates, Rome's Deadliest Enemy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12683-8. https://archive.org/details/poisonkinglifele0000mayo/page/260/mode/1up?q=Nicomedes. Retrieved 27 December 2025.
* Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E. (2007) (in en). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5. https://archive.org/details/citiesofmiddleea0000unse/page/101/mode/1up?q=101. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
* Nizami, Khaliq Ahmed; Habib, Mohammad (1970). A Compehensive History of India. 5. New Delhi: People's Publishing House. ISBN 978-8170071570. https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12483/page/n160/mode/1up. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
* Kastritsis, Dimitris (2007). The Sons of Bayezid: Empire Building and Representation in the Ottoman Civil War of 1402-13. The Ottoman Empire and its Heritage. 38. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-15836-8. https://brill.com/display/title/13748?rskey=9Zaypp&result=1. Retrieved 29 January 2026.
* Faroqhi, Suraiya (2008). "At the Ottoman Empire's Industrious Core: The Story of Bursa". in Jayyusi, Salma K.. The city of Islamic World. 1. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-9004-17168-8. https://books.google.co.id/books?id=tO55DwAAQBAJ&printsec=copyright&pg=PA361#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 6 February 2026.
* Chen, Yuan Julian (2021). "Between the Islamic and Chinese Universal Empires: The Ottoman Empire, Ming Dynasty, and Global Age of Explorations". Journal of Early Modern History (25): 422-456. https://www.academia.edu/59068575/_Between_the_Islamic_and_Chinese_Universal_Empires_The_Ottoman_Empire_Ming_Dynasty_and_Global_Age_of_Explorations_Journal_of_Early_Modern_History_25_5_2021_422_56. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
* Lowry, Heath W. (2003). Ottoman Bursa in Travel Accounts. Indiana University. ISBN 978-1878318169. https://www.academia.edu/9464370/Ottoman_Bursa_in_Travel_Accounts_ENG. Retrieved 8 February 2026.
* Yilmaz, Gülay (2015). "The Devshirme System and the Levied Children of Bursa in 1603-4". Belleten 79 (286): 901-930. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299244876_The_devshirme_system_and_the_levied_children_of_Bursa_in_1603-4. Retrieved 8 February 2026.
* Gingeras, Ryan (2016). Fall of the Sultanate: The Great War and the End of the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1922. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199676071. https://books.google.co.id/books?id=AYiMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA171&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
* Guler, Fatma B. et al. (2016). "Socio-Cultural Structure and Space that Transformed under the Influence of Population Movements (Migration) in Bursa". International Journal of Social Science and Humanity 6: 653-659. https://www.academia.edu/118839748/Socio_Cultural_Structure_and_Space_that_Transformed_under_the_Influence_of_Population_Movements_Migration_in_Bursa. Retrieved 1 April 2026.
* Çakmak, Fatih; Oktay, Erkan (2017). "Research of Internal Migration by Compartment Models: The Case of Erzurum-Bursa". International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science 6: 127-148. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316480486_Research_of_Internal_Migration_by_Compartment_Models_The_Case_of_Erzurum-Bursa#:~:text=Migration in Turkey usually tends to be directed&text=According to the results, there is a,from Erzurum to Bursa depending on the. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
* Bornstein-Makovetsky, Leah (2010). "Bursa (Prousa)". in Stillman, Norman A.. Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World Online. Brill Publishers. https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EJIO/COM-0004710.xml. Retrieved 11 October 2023.

### Footnotes

1. ↑ tr
2. ↑ There are not defined city boundaries in Turkey. TURKSTAT publishes population data only for provinces and districts which also includes rural neighborhoods. However, around 2.5 million people live in the districts up to 20 miles to the city center. This rough estimate is the sum of resident populations of Osmangazi, Nilüfer, Yıldırım, Mudanya, Gürsu, Kestel and figures for official Syrian refugee population of the province which is excluded in TURKSTAT population estimates.
3. ↑ İslâm Ansiklopedisi: "It is disputed when the Ottomans conquered this place; various dates have been put forward in this regard, such as 1361, 1362, 1367 and 1369. Among these, the opinion that Edirne was captured in 1361 as a result of a systematic conquest policy by Murad and Lala Şahin, while Orhan Gazi was still alive, gains prominence. However, it has also been stated that the date of conquest may have occurred after 1366 (1369), based on an elegy showing that the city metropolitan Polykarpos was in Edirne in this capacity until 1366."[13]
4. ↑ Kastritsis: "It is not known exactly how Isa was able to take power from this son of Savcı, but the records of the Genoese colony of Pera make it clear that by January 1403, Isa was viewed as the dominant Ottoman ruler in Anatolia (dominans in Turchia)"[18]

## Further reading

## External links

| Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Bursa.

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* Bursa Metropolitan Municipality
* Bursa Governorship
* Bursa Son Dakika
* Acil Bildiri Erken Uyarı Sistemi
* Bursa Yol Yardım | Bursa Oto Lastik Yol Yardım | Bursa Lastik Yol Yardım
* Bursa Spa | Bursa Masaj Salonu

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*[c.]: circa
*[r]: reign
*[Pop.]: Population
*[±%]: Percent change