Renewable energy resources

This article does not receive scheduled updates. If you would like to help our coverage grow, consider donating to Ballotpedia. Contact our team to suggest an update.

on Energy

* Fiscal policy
* Budgets
* Budget and finances by state
* Tax policy by state
* State Budget Terms
* State government tax collections by source
* Total state expenditures
* State spending by function as a percent of total expenditures
* State debt
* Finance
* Financial regulation in the United States
* Dodd-Frank Act
* Federal Reserve
* Pensions
* Pension policy by state
* Public pension health by state
* Pension reform in San Jose and San Diego
* Pension Terms and Definitions
* Public pensions
* Civil liberties
* Affirmative action
* Campaign finance
* Nonprofit regulation
* Education
* Public education by state
* School choice by state
* Charter schools by state
* Higher education by state
* Education policy in the United States
* Public education in the United States
* Education statistics
* Education statistics in the United States
* Education spending per pupil
* Number of schools by school type in the U.S.
* Demographic information for all students in the United States
* Public school system expenditures in the United States
* Public school system revenues in the United States
* Public school teacher salaries in the United States
* Graduation rates by groups in state
* Public high school dropout rates by state
* ACT and SAT scores in the United States
* NAEP scores by state
* Major terms
* Blended learning
* Charter schools
* Common Core
* Dropout rate
* Progressive education
* Regulatory Adjusted Cohort Graduation Rate
* School vouchers
* Teacher merit pay
* United States education agencies
* Elections
* Voting policy
* Voter identification laws by state
* Online voter registration
* Early voting
* Ballot access
* Ballot access for presidential candidates
* Ballot access for major and minor party candidates
* List of political parties in the United States
* Political party designation
* Redistricting
* State-by-state redistricting procedures
* Majority-minority districts
* Energy and Environment
* Energy Policy by state
* Fracking Portal
* Fracking information by state
* Fracking
* Fracking in the United States
* Energy policy in the United States
* Energy use in the United States
* Oil and gas on federal lands by state
* Energy terms and definitions
* Agencies and legislation
* Environmental Policy by state
* Endangered Species Policy
* Endangered species policy by state
* Environmental policy in the United States
* Environmental statistics
* Endangered species statistics
* Glossary of environmental terms
* Glossary of endangered species terms
* Healthcare
* Healthcare policy by state
* Medicaid spending by state
* Effect of the Affordable Care Act by state
* Healthcare policy in the United States
* Affordable Care Act
* Immigration
* Immigration in the United States
* Immigration by state

* * *

* * *

Fracking in the U.S.
Energy policy in the U.S.
State fracking policy
State energy policy
Glossary of energy terms

Renewable energy is generated from naturally replenished sources, such as sunlight, wind, rain, water flow, and geothermal heat. Types of renewable energy resources include wind energy, solar energy, nuclear power, geothermal energy, hydroelectric energy, and biomass.[1] This article introduces these types of renewable energy resources and includes a description of each and the policy debate—if any—related to that resource. The article concludes with data on the use of renewable energy resources to generate electricity in the U.S.

## Contents

* 1 Background
* 2 Wind energy
* 2.1 Policy debate
* 3 Solar energy
* 3.1 Policy debate
* 4 Nuclear power
* 4.1 Policy debate
* 5 Geothermal
* 6 Hydroelectric energy
* 7 Biomass
* 8 Use in electricity generation
* 9 See also
* 10 Footnotes

## Background[edit]

Unlike fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, renewable energy resources use energy from naturally replenished sources. By contrast, fossil fuels are formed over millions of years from decayed animal and plant matter buried under rock layers. The formation of fossil fuels is limited by the amount of animal and plant matter, the length of time that the matter has been underground, and the temperature and pressure that has been applied to the matter over time.[2][1]

## Wind energy[edit]

See also: Wind energy

A wind farm in Idaho

Wind energy is generated using the kinetic energy of naturally occurring wind, which is converted into mechanical energy or electricity. The primary form of wind energy involves the use of wind turbine blades that rotate and power a generator to create electricity. Larger wind turbines over a large area can generate 100 kilowatts of electricity or more (known as utility-scale wind energy), while smaller turbines can provide mechanical energy or electricity for homes, farms, and businesses.[3][4]

### Policy debate[edit]

In 1992, Congress passed the Energy Policy Act, which enacted a production tax credit of 1.5 cents per kilowatt hour for companies that generate electricity from wind. As part of the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2016, passed by Congress in late 2015, the tax credit for wind facilities began its phase-down on January 1, 2017. For wind facilities that began construction in 2017, the credit was reduced to 1.2 cents per kilowatt hour. For facilities that began construction in 2018, the credit was reduced to 0.9 cents per credit. For facilities that begin in 2019, the credit was reduced to 0.6 cents per credit.[5][6]

Proponents of wind energy argue that the industry supports thousands of jobs. The American Wind Energy Association, a wind power advocacy group, argued, "Wind energy supported over 100,000 well-paying American jobs in 2016, including 25,000 manufacturing jobs." Additionally, the group argued that the industry helped to produce additional economic activity through income and jobs in rural areas, which the group claimed contained 71 percent of U.S. wind farms. Additionally, the group argued that wind projects provided landowners at least $245 million in lease payments in 2016 and that taxes collected by local governments on these payments paid for services in rural areas, including public education and roads.[7]

Opponents of policies favoring wind energy argue that federal grants and subsidies obscure the actual cost and price of wind power. Specifically, these opponents argue that U.S. taxpayers pay more in federal taxes than wind energy companies receive in subsidies. A November 2015 study published by the Institute for Energy Research, a research group that supports free market energy policies, argued, "Taxpayers in 30 states and the District of Columbia paid more in taxes to the federal government over the past 10 years [2005 to 2014] to support wind subsidies than wind producers who own wind facilities in those states received in subsidy allocations." Other opponents of policies favoring wind energy argue that federal wind subsidies and credits benefit large wind companies, including foreign-based companies. Randy Simmons, a professor of economics at Utah State University, argued in 2015, "More generally, the beneficiaries of federal renewable energy policies tend to be large companies, not individual taxpayers or small businesses."[8]

## Solar energy[edit]

See also: Solar energy

Two solar PV panels on a rooftop

Solar energy is generated by collecting the radiant heat of the sun to convert into thermal energy or electricity. The two main types of solar energy production are photovoltaic (PV) solar and concentrating solar power (CSP). PV solar uses panels containing cells that absorb photons from sunlight. This creates a field of electricity across the panel. CSP is used on a larger scale in industrial facilities. CSP involves the use of mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight into tubes containing liquid. These tubes collect sunlight, and the heated liquid warms and transforms water into steam to generate electricity.[9][10]

### Policy debate[edit]

Proponents of solar energy argue that solar has become more economically viable for consumers and helps create jobs and income. In an article published in September 2015 by Sunworks, Inc., a solar energy provider, the company argued that the average U.S. household can reduce their electricity payments by using solar energy and see an average savings of between $20,000 to $60,000 over two decades. Solar Energy Industries Association, a solar energy advocacy group, argued that solar power accounted for approximately 250,000 jobs in 2016. Additionally, the association argued that the Solar Investment Tax Credit, passed in 2006, allowed for growth and stability in the solar industry.[11]

Opponents of policies favoring solar energy argue that it remains costly despite government policies to promote its use. In an October 2016 study, the Institute for Energy Research, a nonprofit research group that supports free market energy policies, argued that policies such as the Solar Investment Tax Credit and Renewable Portfolio Standards at the state level have shifted costs to taxpayers and electric utility ratepayers to the benefit of solar energy companies. The study's authors concluded, "Current solar subsidies and net metering schemes through U.S. states continue to draw capital away from its most efficient use, often at the benefit of U.S. solar panel producers and installation companies, such as SolarCity, but at the expense of electricity consumers."[12]

## Nuclear power[edit]

See also: Nuclear power

Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station in New Jersey

Nuclear power generates energy using heat that escapes during the fission process. Fission occurs when the isotopes of certain elements are split to release part of their energy as heat. Uranium-235 (U-235) is one isotope that is more likely to fission. With enough U-235 packaged in rods, the fission process produces heat that can be used to generate electricity in power plants. Nuclear power plants generate energy the same way as steam-electric power plants. Water is heated with nuclear-generated energy until it becomes steam; this steam then turns a turbine and generates electricity.[13]

### Policy debate[edit]

Proponents of nuclear power argue that Americans should continue investing in nuclear power because it is an energy-dense supply of affordable, reliable electricity. Further, proponents argue that nuclear power does not produce carbon dioxide emissions and, once a nuclear plant is built, energy is produced for less cost per kilowatt hour than fossil fuels like oil or coal or other renewable resources like solar and wind. Power plants also use far less land to generate energy than is used for solar or wind farms, according to nuclear power proponents.[14]

Opponents argue that the upfront costs of constructing nuclear power plants are too high and that maintaining older plants is costly and potentially dangerous. Although nuclear power plants do not produce carbon dioxide emissions, opponents argue that other potential environmental impacts can occur during uranium mining and that nuclear reactors require too much water for keeping reactors cool. Additionally, opponents argue that radioactive waste is difficult to store safely and effectively, and thus policies should be enacted to shift from nuclear to solar and wind energy.[15]

## Geothermal[edit]

See also: Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is generated by using water or steam from geothermal reservoirs under the earth's surface to generate electricity and to power heat or water pumps. Areas known as hot spots contain geothermal energy and can be found in states like Alaska, California, Nevada, and Oregon. Rock under the surface is broken up by earthquakes and the movement of magma. Water then rises to the surface, creating geysers and natural hot springs, such as Old Faithful at Yellowstone National Park.[16][17][18][19]

Types of geothermal power systems (click to enlarge)

Three types of geothermal plant designs are described below:[18][19]

* A dry steam plant takes steam directly through a turbine to generate electricity and then to a condenser, which changes the steam into water.
* A flash steam plant takes in hot water and de-pressurizes it into steam to drive a turbine.
* A binary cycle power plant takes hot water through a heat exchanger, which contains a liquid known as isobutane. Isobutane, which boils at a lower temperature than water, and water are converted into steam to power a turbine.

## Hydroelectric energy[edit]

See also: Hydroelectric energy

A diagram of a hydroelectric dam (click to enlarge)

Hydroelectric energy (also known as hydroelectric power or hydropower) is produced by using a flow of water to generate electricity. The amount of water available for producing hydroelectricity depends on the amount of precipitation that flows into streams and rivers. The potential for hydroelectric power also depends on seasonal variations in precipitation and the likelihood of changes in precipitation trends, such as droughts.[19][20][21]

Water must move at a sufficient speed and volume to spin a turbine which generates electricity. Impoundments or dams are generally used to increase the volume of moving water. For example, a dam contains an opening in which water flows down a pipe. At a sufficient speed and volume, the moving water is able to rotate a turbine. Different kinds of turbines are used at hydroelectric facilities depending on the distance between the turbine and the dam. The turbine rotates the magnets inside a generator to produce electricity. The magnets are mounted near a rotor attached to the turbine shaft. As the rotor turns, the magnets move past nearby conductors. This causes electricity to flow. Hydroelectric facilities with dams can control the generation of electricity by controlling the timing and flow of the water that rotates the turbines.[21][22][23]

## Biomass[edit]

See also: Biomass

A biomass conversion plant

Biomass is organic material from plants and animals. Biomass materials are carbon-based and can contain a mixture of organic molecules such as oxygen, nitrogen, and heavy metals. Biomass contains energy from the sun. When it is burned, chemical energy is released as heat. Biomass can be burned directly for energy or converted into fuels such as biofuels, fuel ethanol, butanol, and biogas.[24][25][19]

The following are five types of biomass:

* Virgin wood is lumber and wood processing waste such as bark, wood chips, and pellets.[26]
* Food waste is food residue that is discarded during food production. This waste can include husks, shells, cores, skins, and peels.[27]
* Agricultural residue includes excess agricultural harvest, such as straw, manure, and corn stalks.[28]
* Energy crops are grown for energy purposes. These crops include grasses, wheat, sugar beets, corn, and potatoes.[29]
* Industrial waste can include untreated wood and wood composites, paper pulp, sewage, and textiles.[30]

## Use in electricity generation[edit]

In 2015, the United States generated 4.07 trillion kilowatt hours of electricity according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration. Of that total, 544.2 million kilowatt hours—13.3 percent—came from renewable energy sources. The table below shows net generation of electricity from renewable sources from 2005 to 2015 (in thousand megawatt hours).

Net generation from renewable sources, 2005-2015 (in thousand megawatt hours).

Year | Wind | Solar photovoltaic | Solar thermal | Wood and wood-derived fuel | Landfill gas | Biogenic solid waste | Other biomass | Geothermal | Conventional hydroelectric | Total*
2005 | 17,811 | 16 | 535 | 38,856 | 5,142 | 8,330 | 1,948 | 14,692 | 270,321 | 357,651
2006 | 26,589 | 15 | 493 | 38,762 | 5,677 | 8,478 | 1,944 | 14,568 | 289,246 | 385,772
2007 | 34,450 | 16 | 596 | 39,014 | 6,158 | 8,304 | 2,063 | 14,637 | 247,510 | 352,747
2008 | 55,363 | 76 | 788 | 37,300 | 7,156 | 8,097 | 2,481 | 14,840 | 254,831 | 380,932
2009 | 73,886 | 157 | 735 | 36,050 | 7,924 | 8,058 | 2,461 | 15,009 | 273,445 | 417,724
2010 | 94,652 | 423 | 789 | 37,172 | 8,377 | 7,927 | 2,613 | 15,219 | 260,203 | 427,376
2011 | 120,177 | 1,012 | 806 | 37,449 | 9,044 | 7,354 | 2,824 | 15,316 | 319,355 | 513,336
2012 | 140,822 | 3,451 | 876 | 37,799 | 9,803 | 7,320 | 2,700 | 15,562 | 276,240 | 494,573
2013 | 167,840 | 8,121 | 915 | 40,028 | 10,658 | 7,186 | 2,986 | 15,775 | 268,565 | 522,073
2014 | 181,655 | 15,250 | 2,441 | 42,340 | 11,220 | 7,228 | 3,202 | 15,877 | 259,367 | 538,579
2015 | 190,719 | 21,666 | 3,227 | 41,929 | 11,291 | 7,211 | 3,201 | 15,918 | 249,080 | 544,241
*Total refers to all utility-scale renewable electricity generation.
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Table 3.1.B. Net Generation from Renewable Sources: Total (All Sectors), 2005 - 2015"

## See also[edit]

* Fossil fuels

* Energy use in the U.S.

* Fracking

* Glossary of energy terms

## Footnotes[edit]

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 PennState Extension, "What is Renewable Energy?" accessed May 12, 2017
2. ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica, "Renewable energy," accessed May 11, 2017
3. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Glossary, W” accessed January 29, 2014
4. ↑ U.S. Department of Energy, "History of Wind Energy," accessed March 26, 2015
5. ↑ U.S. Department of Energy, "History of Wind Energy," accessed March 26, 2015
6. ↑ U.S. Department of Energy, "Renewable Electricity Production Tax Credit," accessed April 10, 2017
7. ↑ American Wind Energy Association, "Wind 101: the basics of wind energy," accessed November 11, 2014
8. ↑ Institute for Energy Research, "Estimating the State-Level Impact of Federal Wind Energy Subsidies," November 2015
9. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Glossary S,” accessed January 29, 2014
10. ↑ U.S. Department of Energy, "Solar Energy Technology Basics," August 16, 2013
11. ↑ Solar Energy Industries Association, "Solar Industry Data," accessed April 7, 2017
12. ↑ Institute for Energy Research, "The High Cost of Rooftop Solar Subsidies," October 2016
13. ↑ Department of Energy, "The History of Nuclear Energy," accessed March 13, 2014
14. ↑ The Heritage Foundation, "Nuclear Power is True 'Green' Energy," January 30, 2009
15. ↑ Sierra Club, "Sierra Club Nuclear Free Campaign," accessed December 2, 2016
16. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Glossary, G,” accessed January 29, 2014
17. ↑ Energy Informative, "Geothermal Energy Pros and Cons," June 1, 2013
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Union of Concerned Scientists, "How Geothermal Energy Works," December 22, 2014
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Geothermal Basics," accessed November 11, 2014 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; name "EIA" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; name "EIA" defined multiple times with different content
20. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Glossary, H” accessed January 29, 2014
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Union of Concerned Scientists, "How Hydroelectric Energy Works," accessed March 8, 2017
22. ↑ U.S. Geological Survey, "Hydroelectric power: How it works," accessed March 8, 2017
23. ↑ U.S. Geological Survey, "Hydroelectric power water use," accessed November 11, 2014
24. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Glossary, B” accessed January 29, 2014
25. ↑ Biomass Energy Centre, "What Is Biomass?" accessed May 14, 2014
26. ↑ Biomass Energy Centre, "Virgin Wood," accessed May 14, 2014
27. ↑ Biomass Energy Centre, "Agricultural residue," accessed May 14, 2014
28. ↑ Biomass Energy Centre, "Agricultural residue," accessed May 14, 2014
29. ↑ Biomass Energy Centre, "Energy crops," accessed May 14, 2014
30. ↑ Biomass Energy Centre, "Energy crops," accessed May 14, 2014

v • e

Energy Policy

Background|

Energy policy in the United States • Fracking in the United States • Energy use in the United States • Electricity prices in the United States • Historic state electricity prices • Historic state natural gas prices • State energy production rankings • Environmental Policy • State environmental policy pages • Environmental policy in the United States • Energy and Environmental News

* * *

Terms|

Abandoned mine drainage • Biofuels • Biomass • BTEX • Clean Air Act • Clean Water Act • Coal • Coalbed methane • Compressed natural gas • Crude oil • Directional drilling • Directional well • Electrical grid • Energy siting • Ethanol • Flare • Flowback • Frac sand • Frack fluid • Fracking • Geosteering • Geothermal energy • Horizontal drilling • Hydrocarbons • Hydroelectric energy • Liquid Petroleum Gases • Megawatt • Megawatt hour • Methane • Mineral rights • Natural gas • Natural gas liquids • Natural gas storage • Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials • Nuclear power • Oil shale • Petrochemicals • Petroleum • Petroleum systems • Produced water • Proppants • Public Trust Doctrine • Renewable energy resources • Renewable Portfolio Standards • Seismicity • Shale gas • Shale play • Slick water frac • Slurry • Solar energy • Traditional energy resources • Vertical drilling • Volatile organic compounds • Wellbore • Wind energy

* * *

State energy information|

Alabama • Alaska • Arizona • Arkansas • California • Colorado • Connecticut • Delaware • Florida • Georgia • Hawaii • Idaho • Illinois • Indiana • Iowa • Kansas • Kentucky • Louisiana • Maine • Maryland • Massachusetts • Michigan • Minnesota • Mississippi • Missouri • Montana • Nebraska • Nevada • New Hampshire • New Jersey • New Mexico • New York • North Carolina • North Dakota • Ohio • Oklahoma • Oregon • Pennsylvania • Rhode Island • South Carolina • South Dakota • Tennessee • Texas • Utah • Vermont • Virginia • Washington • West Virginia • Wisconsin • Wyoming

* * *

State fracking policy|

Alabama • Alaska • Arizona • Arkansas • California • Colorado • Connecticut • Delaware • Florida • Georgia • Hawaii • Idaho • Illinois • Indiana • Iowa • Kansas • Kentucky • Louisiana • Maine • Maryland • Massachusetts • Michigan • Minnesota • Mississippi • Missouri • Montana • Nebraska • Nevada • New Hampshire • New Jersey • New Mexico • New York • North Carolina • North Dakota • Ohio • Oklahoma • Oregon • Pennsylvania • Rhode Island • South Carolina • South Dakota • Tennessee • Texas • Utah • Vermont • Virginia • Washington • West Virginia • Wisconsin • Wyoming

* * *

Ballotpedia

About

Overview • What people are saying • Support Ballotpedia • Contact • Contribute • Job opportunities

* * *

Executive: Leslie Graves, Founder and CEO • Gwen Beattie, Chief Operating Officer

Communications: Alison Graves, Director of Communications • Carley Allensworth • Abigail Campbell • Sarah Groat • Nathaniel Harwood • Dillon Redmond
External Relations:  Geoff Pallay, Director of External Relations • Ken Carbullido, Vice President of Election Product and Technology Strategy • Ashley Fleming • Thomas Mardik • Hannah Nelson
Operations: Meghann Olshefski, Director of Operations • Amanda Herbert • Mandy Morris • Caroline Presnell • Kelly Rindfleisch
Tech: Matt Latourelle, Director of Technology Operations • Ryan Burch • Kirsten Corrao • Beth Dellea • Travis Eden • Tate Kamish • Margaret Kearney • Eric Lotto • Joseph Sanchez • Mary Susmitha

Contributors: Scott Rasmussen

* * *

Editorial Content

Josh Altic, Director of Content • Daniel Anderson, Associate Director of Elections & Data • Cory Eucalitto, Associate Director of Features • Ryan Byrne, Managing Editor of Ballot Measures • Mandy McConnell, Managing Editor of News • Doug Kronaizl, Managing Editor of Local Expansion • Abbey Smith, Managing Editor of Elections • Janie Valentine, Managing Editor of Law • Joel Williams, Managing Editor of Events • Joseph Greaney, Managing Editor of Policy • Andrew Bahl • Jaclyn Beran • Marielle Bricker • Joseph Brusgard • Emma Burlingame • Kelly Coyle • Jon Dunn • Victoria Edwards • Thomas Ellis • Nicole Fisher • Thomas Grobben • Brianna Hosea • Molly Kehoe • Tyler King • Glorie Martinez • Norm Leahy, Senior Editor • Nathan Maxwell • Brandon McCauley • Andrew McNair • Ellie Mikus • Mackenzie Murphy • Kaley Platek • Samantha Post • Adam Powell • Annelise Reinwald • Spencer Richardson • Victoria Rose • Briana Ryan • Myj Saintyl • Maddy Salucka • Emma Soukup • Alexis Thacker • Mina Vogel • Samuel Wonacott • Trenton Woodcox • Heather Yates