Gift

A gift or present is an item given to someone (who is not already the owner) without the expectation of payment or anything in return. Although gift-giving might involve an expectation of reciprocity, a gift is intended to be free. In many countries, the act of mutually exchanging money, goods, etc., may sustain social relationships and contribute to social cohesion. Economists have elaborated the economics of gift-giving into the notion of a gift economy. By extension, the term gift can refer to any item or act of service that makes the other happier or less sad, especially as a favor, including forgiveness and kindness. Gifts are often presented on occasions such as birthdays and holidays.

## Contents

* 1 History
* 1.1 Ancient
* 1.2 Medieval
* 1.3 Modern
* 2 Presentation
* 3 Gift-giving occasions
* 4 Promotional gifts
* 5 As reinforcement and manipulation
* 6 Unwanted gifts
* 7 Legal aspects
* 8 Religious views
* 9 See also
* 10 References
* 11 Further reading

## History

The history of gift-giving is a longstanding human tradition that predates recorded history. The practice has evolved across different cultures and eras, serving various purposes ranging from expressions of love and respect to political allegiance and social obligation. Gift-giving has been documented in archaeological records, ancient literature, religious texts, and historical accounts. Gift-giving has played a central role in social and economic systems throughout human history. Anthropologist Marcel Mauss argued in The Gift (1925) that gifts in archaic societies were embedded in systems of obligation, where the act of giving, receiving, and reciprocating created enduring social bonds.[1] In many early civilizations, gifts were used for religious offerings, royal tribute, diplomatic negotiations, and public displays of generosity by elites.

Archaeological evidence suggests that gift-giving existed among early hominins. Anthropologists believe that the exchange of items, such as tools, food, and ornamental objects, played a role in social bonding and the establishment of alliances among hunter-gatherer communities.[2] For example, the Khoisan people of southern Africa practiced gift exchange as part of social interaction and conflict avoidance mechanisms.[3] Over time, gift-giving evolved into a broader practice encompassing both ceremonial and personal exchanges.

### Ancient

In Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, gifts were presented to rulers and deities as symbols of devotion or allegiance. Archaeological records and cuneiform tablets describe tributes of grain, livestock, and precious metals given as offerings or tokens of loyalty.[4] Similarly, in Mesopotamian and Sumerian societies, gifts played a role in diplomacy and religious offerings. Kings exchanged gifts to reinforce alliances and display wealth.[5]

In ancient Greece and Rome, gift-giving was integral to social and political life. The practice was governed by social norms and expectations, often involving reciprocal obligations. The Roman concept of donum (gift) extended to both personal and state affairs, including patron-client relationships, religious donations, and diplomatic exchanges.[6]

In Homeric epics such as the Iliad and the Odyssey, the giving of gifts, such as weapons, garments, and livestock, was portrayed as a mark of honor and friendship.[7] Greek city-states also exchanged ceremonial gifts during festivals and religious observances.

In Ancient Greece, the institution of xenia (guest-friendship) involved ritualized gift exchanges between hosts and guests. These practices, frequently described in Homeric epics such as the Odyssey, served to strengthen social ties and demonstrate respect.[8]

In the Roman world, elites gave munera (public gifts or services), including gladiatorial games and food distributions, as acts of civic generosity and to enhance political reputation.[9]

In Ancient China, gift-giving was guided by the Confucian ideal of li (ritual propriety). Formal exchanges of gifts—such as jade, scrolls, or tea—were common among the aristocracy and scholars and symbolized respect and social hierarchy.[10]

Many ancient religious traditions also incorporated gift-giving. In the Rigveda, patrons offered cattle, gold, and horses to priests as part of ritual sacrifices.[11] In Christian tradition, the Magi's presentation of gold, frankincense, and myrrh to the infant Jesus is an early example of symbolic religious gift-giving, commemorated in modern Christmas customs.[12]

### Medieval

During the Middle Ages in Europe, gift-giving was closely tied to feudal obligations, religious observances, and courtly traditions. Nobles presented gifts to their monarchs as a sign of loyalty, while monarchs rewarded their vassals with land and titles.[13] The Christian Church promoted charitable giving, especially during religious festivals such as Christmas and Easter, which later influenced the development of holiday gifting traditions.[14]

In Islamic cultures, gift-giving (hiba) was also significant, both as a religious act and as a practice in hospitality. The Qur'an and Hadith literature encourage believers to give generously to others, particularly the needy and travelers.[15]

In the 760s, Bregowin (archbishop of Canterbury) gave a bone casket to Lul (the bishop of Mainz).[16] This was the only known instance of gift-giving between 8th-century missionaries.[16]

Donations to monasteries in medieval Europe peaked between the 9th and 12th centuries.[17] Eventually, people began to explain this by claiming that monks or other holy people contributed disproportionately to a "treasure of merit".[17]

By the Renaissance and early modern era, gift-giving in Europe expanded among the merchant and upper classes. The rise of personal letters and tokens, including jewelry and manuscripts, became popular among the literate elite. In royal courts, the exchange of luxury gifts was part of diplomatic protocol.[18]

In China, Confucian teachings emphasized the importance of li (ritual propriety), which included the appropriate giving and receiving of gifts. Elaborate ceremonies and strict etiquette governed imperial gift exchanges and family rituals.[19]

In sixteenth and seventeenth century France, gift-giving was often patronage in disguise.[20]: 131 This was hidden by terms like grâces, bonté, and bienveillance.[20]: 137 Sometimes actual gifts were given with patron-client letters. These often included money, hunting birds, food, and cloth,[20]: 138–139 and occasionally messengers as well.[20]: 140

### Modern

The Industrial Revolution significantly transformed gift-giving by introducing mass production and consumer goods. With increased accessibility and affordability, gift-giving became more widespread across socioeconomic classes. The emergence of department stores and catalogs in the 19th century, especially in Western Europe and North America, facilitated the commercial aspect of gifting.[21]

Holiday gift-giving became institutionalized with events such as Christmas, Valentine's Day, and Mother's Day. Influenced by Victorian customs and Christian traditions, Christmas became a major gift-exchange occasion, particularly in the United Kingdom and the United States.[22]

Gift-giving during Christmas celebrations in the U.S. began in the early 19th century, initially in the Mid-Atlantic region.[23]: xvi This kind of celebration was Northern European and had its roots in Lutheran theology.[23]: xvi During this era, gifts were usually small and handmade.[23]: xvi

In the late 19th century, U.S. Christmas celebrations began to grow in scale, with more manufacturing of goods.[23]: xvii As early as 1880, the country's businesspeople had begun taking advantage of the holiday to sell more.[23]: xix

In Japan, Valentine's Day gift giving was introduced by Morozoff Ltd. in 1936,[24] and initially targeted foreigners living near Kobe.[24] The holiday was then reintroduced in the 1950s, but was not popular.[24] It only became popular in the 1970s, when it was framed as a time for women to give gifts to men.[24] To fix the gender imbalance, White Day was introduced for the men to give back to women.[24] The typical gift on Valentine's Day in Japan is giri choko ("obligation chocolate").[25] Typical gifts on White Day include chocolate, jewelry, and clothes.[25]

Recent changes in gift-giving have been influenced by technology, consumer preferences, and cultural shifts. In the 20th and 21st centuries, globalized commerce, advertising, and cultural exchange have further diversified gift-giving practices. The expansion of e-commerce and digital platforms has introduced new forms of gifting, such as electronic gift cards and subscription services.[26] There is a growing preference for personalized, handmade, or digitally delivered gifts over traditional store-bought items. Customized gifts like hand-drawn portraits and personalized books are increasingly popular, offering more emotional and cultural significance. E-commerce has played a key role in this transformation, with online platforms providing a convenient way to order personalized and virtual gifts.

The article from ScienceDaily discusses research by the University of Bath showing that personalized gifts create lasting emotional connections and boost self-esteem. The study found that recipients of personalized gifts, such as custom portraits, mugs or clothing, feel more cherished and are more likely to value and care for these items.[27] The emotional impact is enhanced when the thought and effort behind the personalization are communicated. Personalized gifts foster deeper relationships and contribute to sustainability. Various online platforms have contributed to this trend by offering personalized gifts like hand-drawn portraits and customized books.[28] University gift shops, such as The Duck Store and The Harvard Shop,[29] have also embraced this trend, offering customized items that reflect their institutions' traditions.

Additional gift types that reflect modern personalization trends include custom jewelry or accessories featuring engraved names, initials, or birthstones; personalized greeting cards or art prints; digital gifts such as NFTs or tailored online experiences like personalized video messages; handcrafted wellness products including soaps or candles with custom labels; and themed experience kits, for example, cooking kits with personalized recipes.

## Presentation

In many cultures gifts are traditionally packaged in some way. For example, in Western cultures, gifts are often wrapped in wrapping paper and accompanied by a gift note which may note the occasion, the recipient's name and the giver's name. In Chinese culture, red wrapping connotes luck. Although inexpensive gifts are common among colleagues, associates and acquaintances, expensive or amorous gifts are considered more appropriate among close friends, romantic interests or relatives.[30]

## Gift-giving occasions

Gifts under a Christmas tree Modern engagement gifts basket in Bangladesh. Emperor Pedro I of Brazil receives a sword as a gift from his wife Amélie. The object belonged to her father Eugène de Beauharnais, who was Viceroy of Italy and stepson of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Gift-giving occasions may be:

* An expression of love or friendship
* An expression of gratitude for a gift received.
* An expression of piety, in the form of charity.
* An expression of solidarity, in the form of mutual aid.
* To share wealth.
* To offset misfortune.
* Offering travel souvenirs.
* Custom, on occasions (often celebrations) such as
* A birthday (the person who has his or her birthday gives cake, etc. and/or receives gifts).
* A potlatch, in societies where status is associated with gift-giving rather than acquisition.
* Christmas (throughout the history of Christmas gift giving, people have given one another gifts, often pretending they are left by Santa Claus, the Christ Child or Saint Nicholas).
* Feast of Saint Nicholas (people give each other gifts, often supposedly receiving them from Saint Nicholas).
* Easter baskets with chocolate eggs, jelly beans, and chocolate rabbits are gifts given on Easter.
* Greek Orthodox Christians in Greece, will give gifts to family and friends on the Feast of Saint Basil.
* Muslims give gifts to family and friends, known as eidiyah (in Arabic-speaking countries) or eidi (in Iran and South Asia), on Eid al-Fitr (the end of Ramadan) and on Eid al-Adha.
* American Jews give Hanukkah gifts to family and friends.
* Hindus give Diwali and Pongal gifts to family and friends. Rakhi or Raksha Bandhan is another occasion where brothers give gifts to sisters.
* Buddhists give Vesak gifts to family and friends.
* Gifts are given to among African American families and friends on Kwanzaa.
* A wedding (the couple receives gifts and gives food and/or drinks at the wedding reception).
* A wedding anniversary (each spouse receives gifts).
* A funeral (visitors bring flowers, the relatives of the deceased give food and/or drinks after the ceremonial part).
* A birth (the baby receives gifts, or the mother receives a gift from the father known as a push present).
* Passing an examination (the student receives gifts).
* Father's Day (the father receives gifts).
* Mother's Day (the mother receives gifts).
* Siblings Day (the sibling receives gifts)
* The exchange of gifts between a guest and a host, is often a traditional practice.
* Lagniappe
* Retirement Gifts
* Congratulations Gifts
* Engagement Gifts
* Housewarming party Gifts
* Women's day Gifts
* Valentine's Day

## Promotional gifts

## As reinforcement and manipulation

Giving a gift to someone is not necessarily just an altruistic act. It may be given in the hope that the receiver reciprocates in a particular way. It may take the form of positive reinforcement as a reward for compliance, possibly for an underhand manipulative and abusive purpose.[31]

## Unwanted gifts

Giving the appropriate gift that aligns with the recipient's preferences poses a formidable challenge. Gift givers commonly err in the process of gift selection, either by offering gifts that the recipients' do not wish to receive or by failing to provide gifts that recipients earnestly desired. For example, givers avoid giving the same gifts more than once while recipients are more open to receiving a repeated gift,[32] givers prefer to avoid giving self-improvement products (e.g., self-help books) as gifts while recipients are more open to receiving such gifts,[33] when choosing between giving digital and physical gift cards, givers opt for the latter more often than recipients want,[34] and many receivers prefer a future experience instead of an object, or a practical gift that they have requested over a more expensive, showier gift chosen by the giver.[35] One cause of the mismatch between the giver's and receiver's view is that the giver is focused on the act of giving the gift, while the receiver is more interested in the long-term utilitarian value of the gift.[35]

Due to the mismatch between givers' and recipients' gift preferences, a significant fraction of gifts are unwanted, or the giver pays more for the item than the recipient values it, resulting in a misallocation of economic resources known as a deadweight loss. Unwanted gifts are often "regifted", donated to charity, or thrown away.[36] A gift that actually imposes a burden on the recipient, either due to maintenance or storage or disposal costs, is known as a white elephant.

One means of reducing the mismatch between the buyer and receivers' tastes is advance coordination, often undertaken in the form of a wedding registry or Christmas list. Wedding registries in particular are often kept at a single store, which can designate the exact items to be purchased (resulting in matching housewares), and to coordinate purchases so the same gift is not purchased by different guests. One study found that wedding guests who departed from the registry typically did so because they wished to signal a closer relationship to the couple by personalizing a gift, and also found that as a result of not abiding by the recipients' preferences, their gifts were appreciated less often.[37]

An estimated $3.4 billion was spent on unwanted Christmas gifts in the United States in 2017[38] and $10.1 billion in 2024[39] .The day after Christmas is typically the busiest day for returns in countries with large Christmas gift giving traditions.[38][40] The total unredeemed value of gift cards purchased in the U.S. each year is estimated to be about a billion dollars.[36]

In some cases, people know the preferences of recipients very well, and can give highly valued gifts. Some value in gift-giving comes from assisted preference discovery - people receiving gifts they did not know they would like, or which they did not know were available. Behavioral economists propose that the non-material value of gifts lies in strengthening relationships by signalling the giver was thoughtful, or spent time and effort on the gift.[41]

## Legal aspects

At common law, for a gift to have legal effect, it was required that there be (1) intent by the donor to give a gift, and (2) delivery to the recipient of the item to be given as a gift.

In some countries, certain types of gifts above a certain monetary amount are subject to taxation. For the United States, see Gift tax in the United States.

In some contexts, gift giving can be construed as bribery. This tends to occur in situations where the gift is given with an implicit or explicit agreement between the giver of the gift and its receiver that some type of service will be rendered (often outside of normal legitimate methods) because of the gift. Some groups, such as government workers, may have strict rules concerning gift giving and receiving so as to avoid the appearance of impropriety.[42]

Cross border monetary gifts are subject to taxation in both source and destination countries based on the treaty between the two countries.

## Religious views

Lewis Hyde claims in The Gift that Christianity considers the Incarnation and subsequent death of Jesus to be the greatest gift to humankind, and that the Jataka contains a tale of the Buddha in his incarnation as the Wise Hare giving the ultimate alms by offering himself up as a meal for Sakka. (Hyde, 1983, 58–60)

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the bread and wine that are consecrated during the Divine Liturgy are referred to as "the Gifts." They are first of all the gifts of the community (both individually and corporately) to God, and then, after the epiklesis, the Gifts of the Body and Blood of Christ to the Church.

Ritual sacrifices can be seen as return gifts to a deity.

## See also

* Alms
* Altruism
* Atonement
* Charity (practice)
* Christmas gift
* Debt relief
* Diplomatic gift
* Gift economy
* Gift (law)
* Gift tax
* Gift wrapping
* Giving circles
* Green gifting
* Omiyage
* Pasalubong
* Random act of kindness
* Red packet
* Regiving
* Xenia (Greek)

## References

1. ↑ Mauss, Marcel. The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies. Routledge, 1954.
2. ↑ Mauss, Marcel (1954). The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies. London: Cohen & West.
3. ↑ Barnard, Alan (2002). Hunter-Gatherers in History, Archaeology and Anthropology. Oxford: Berg.
4. ↑ Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2003.
5. ↑ Oppenheim, A. Leo (1964). Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization. University of Chicago Press.
6. ↑ Finley, M.I. (1999). The Ancient Economy. University of California Press.
7. ↑ Homer. The Iliad and The Odyssey. Various editions.
8. ↑ Homer. The Odyssey, translated by Robert Fagles. Penguin Classics, 1996.
9. ↑ Hopkins, Keith. Conquerors and Slaves. Cambridge University Press, 1978.
10. ↑ Li, Chenyang. The Confucian Philosophy of Harmony. Routledge, 2013.
11. ↑ Griffith, Ralph T.H. The Hymns of the Rigveda. Evinity Publishing Inc., 2009.
12. ↑ Matthew 2:11, Holy Bible.
13. ↑ Duby, Georges (1980). The Three Orders: Feudal Society Imagined. University of Chicago Press.
14. ↑ Bowler, Gerry (2016). Christmas in the Crosshairs: Two Thousand Years of Denouncing and Defending the World's Most Celebrated Holiday. Oxford University Press.
15. ↑ Rahman, Fazlur (1980). Major Themes of the Qur'an. University of Chicago Press.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Wilson Clay, John-Henry (2009-12-01). "Gift-giving and books in the letters of St Boniface and Lul". Journal of Medieval History 35 (4): 313–325. doi:10.1016/j.jmedhist.2009.08.004. ISSN 0304-4181. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1016/j.jmedhist.2009.08.004.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Silber, Ilana F. (1995). "Gift-giving in the great traditions: the case of donations to monasteries in the medieval West". European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie / Europäisches Archiv für Soziologie 36 (2): 209–243. doi:10.1017/S0003975600007542. ISSN 0003-9756.
18. ↑ Strong, Roy (1984). Art and Power: Renaissance Festivals 1450–1650. Boydell & Brewer.
19. ↑ Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2003). Women and the Family in Chinese History. Routledge.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 KETTERING, SHARON (1988-06-01). "Gift-Giving and Patronage in Early Modern France". French History 2 (2): 131–151. doi:10.1093/fh/2.2.131. ISSN 0269-1191. https://academic.oup.com/fh/article-abstract/2/2/131/638758?redirectedFrom=fulltext.
21. ↑ Cross, Gary S. (1993). Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture. Routledge.
22. ↑ Restad, Penne L. (1995). Christmas in America: A History. Oxford University Press.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 Waits, William (1994) (in en). The Modern Christmas in America: A Cultural History of Gift Giving. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9284-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=xn0VCgAAQBAJ&pg=PR16.
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 Minowa, Yuko; Khomenko, Olga; Belk, Russell W. (March 2011). "Social Change and Gendered Gift-Giving Rituals: A Historical Analysis of Valentine's Day in Japan" (in en). Journal of Macromarketing 31 (1): 44–56. doi:10.1177/0276146710375831. ISSN 0276-1467. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276146710375831.
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Gordenker, Alice (2006-03-21). "White Day" (in en). https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2006/03/21/reference/white-day/.
26. ↑ Belk, Russell W. (2007). Consumer Culture Theory. Emerald Group Publishing.
27. ↑ ScienceDaily, "Personalized Gifts Foster Emotional Connections," December 2024
28. ↑ "Custom Portraits and Personalized Books". https://blueberryillustrations.com/gifts.
29. ↑ "The Harvard Shop". https://shop.harvard.edu.
30. ↑ Brigham, John Carl (1986). Social Psychology. p. 322.
31. ↑ Braiker, Harriet B. (2004). Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation. McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-144672-3.
32. ↑ Givi, Julian (2020-09-01). "(Not) giving the same old song and dance: Givers' misguided concerns about thoughtfulness and boringness keep them from repeating gifts" (in en). Journal of Business Research 117: 87–98. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.05.023. ISSN 0148-2963. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296320303179.
33. ↑ Reshadi, Farnoush (2023-10-01). "Failing to give the gift of improvement: When and why givers withhold self-improvement gifts" (in en). Journal of Business Research 165. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114031. ISSN 0148-2963. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296323003892.
34. ↑ Reshadi, Farnoush; Givi, Julian; Das, Gopal (May 2023). "Gifting digital versus physical gift cards: How and why givers and recipients have different preferences for a gift card's mode of delivery" (in en). Psychology & Marketing 40 (5): 970–978. doi:10.1002/mar.21790. ISSN 0742-6046. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mar.21790.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Galak, Jeff; Givi, Julian; Williams, Elanor F. (December 2016). "Why Certain Gifts Are Great to Give but Not to Get: A Framework for Understanding Errors in Gift Giving" (in en). Current Directions in Psychological Science 25 (6): 380–385. doi:10.1177/0963721416656937. ISSN 0963-7214.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Lee, Timothy B. (December 21, 2016). "The economic case against Christmas presents". Vox. https://www.vox.com/new-money/2016/12/21/14032662/christmas-gift-giving-wasteful.
37. ↑ Mendoza, Nohely (December 26, 2017). "New Study Explores Psychology Of Giving Wedding Gifts". Nexstar Broadcasting (Waco, Texas). https://www.npr.org/2016/06/24/483426485/new-study-explores-psychology-of-giving-wedding-gifts.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Mendoza, Nohely. "Biggest return day of the year". Nexstar Broadcasting (Waco, Texas). http://www.centexproud.com/news/local/biggest-return-day-of-the-year/888734842.
39. ↑ "Americans will waste $10.1B on unwanted holiday gifts — and 53% will get a disappointing present". https://nypost.com/2024/12/20/us-news/americans-will-waste-10-1b-on-unwanted-holiday-gifts-and-53-will-get-a-disappointing-present/.
40. ↑ Musaddique, Shafi (January 2, 2018). "Unwanted Christmas presents set to rise on busiest day of the year for returns". The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/unwanted-christmas-presents-returns-busiest-day-year-working-retail-a8138181.html.
41. ↑ Jeff Guo (December 19, 2014). "No, Virginia, Christmas is not an 'orgy of wealth destruction'". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/storyline/wp/2014/12/19/no-virginia-christmas-is-not-an-orgy-of-wealth-destruction/.
42. ↑ "Gifts and Payments". Washington, D.C.: United States Office of Government Ethics. https://oge.gov/web/oge.nsf/Gifts and Payments.

## Further reading

* Marcel Mauss and W.D. Halls, Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies, W. W. Norton, 2000, trade paperback, ISBN 0-393-32043-X
* Lewis Hyde: The Gift: Imagination and the Erotic Life of Property, 1983 (ISBN 0-394-71519-5), especially part I, "A Theory of Gifts", part of which was originally published as "The Gift Must Always Move" in Co-Evolution Quarterly No. 35, Fall 1982.
* Jean-Luc Marion translated by Jeffrey L. Kosky, "Being Given: Toward a Phenomenology of Giveness", Stanford University Press, 2002 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University, (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN 0-8047-3410-0.
* Suzie Gibson: "Give and take: the anxiety of gift giving at Christmas", The Conversation, 16 December 2014.
* Script error: The function "in_lang" does not exist. Alain Testart, Critique du don : Études sur la circulation non marchande, Paris, Collection Matériologique, éd. Syllepse, 268 p., 2007
* Review of the "World of the Gift"
* Antón, C., Camarero, C. and Gil, F. (2014), The culture of gift giving: What do consumers expect from commercial and personal contexts? Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 13: 31–41. doi: 10.1002/cb.1452
* Joel Waldfogel (2009). Scroogenomics: Why You Shouldn't Buy Presents for the Holidays. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14264-7.

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