Commonwealth of Nations

Short description: Political association which developed from the British Empire

"The Commonwealth" redirects here. For other uses, see Commonwealth (disambiguation).

Commonwealth of Nations

Flag

Logo

Current member states

Former member states

British Overseas Territories
and Crown Dependencies

Headquarters| Marlborough House, London, United Kingdom
Working language| English
Type| Voluntary association[1]
Member states|

56 states

* Antigua and Barbuda
* Australia
* Bangladesh
* Barbados
* Belize
* Botswana
* Brunei
* Cameroon
* Canada
* Cyprus
* Dominica
* Eswatini
* Fiji
* Gabon
* Gambia
* Ghana
* Grenada
* Guyana
* India
* Jamaica
* Kenya
* Kiribati
* Lesotho
* Malawi
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Malta
* Mauritius
* Mozambique
* Namibia
* Nauru
* New Zealand
* Nigeria
* Pakistan
* Papua New Guinea
* Rwanda
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
* Samoa
* Seychelles
* Sierra Leone
* Singapore
* Solomon Islands
* South Africa
* Sri Lanka
* Tanzania
* The Bahamas
* Togo
* Tonga
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Tuvalu
* Uganda
* United Kingdom
* Vanuatu
* Zambia

Leaders

• Head

| Charles III[2]

• Secretary-General

| Shirley Ayorkor Botchwey

• Chair-in-Office

| La'auli Leuatea Schmidt
Establishment

• Balfour Declaration

| 19 November 1926

• Statute of Westminster

| 11 December 1931[3]

• London Declaration

| 28 April 1949
Area

• Total

| 29,958,050 km2 (11,566,870 sq mi)
Population

• 2016 estimate

| 2,418,964,000

• Density

| 75/km2 (194.2/sq mi)

Website
thecommonwealth.org

Preceded by |

|

|  | British Empire

|

The Commonwealth of Nations, often referred to as the British Commonwealth or simply the Commonwealth,[4]: 1 [5] is an international association of 56 member states, the vast majority of which are former territories of its predecessor, the British Empire.[2] They are connected through their use of the English language and their cultural and historical ties. Its chief institutions are the Commonwealth Secretariat, focusing on intergovernmental relations, and the Commonwealth Foundation, focusing on non-governmental relations between member nations.[6] Additionally, numerous intergovernmental and civil organisations are officially recognised by the Secretariat.[7]

The Commonwealth dates back to the first half of the 20th century, with the decolonisation of the Empire through the increased self-governance of its territories. It was created as the British Commonwealth of Nations through the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference,[8] and formalised by the United Kingdom through the Statute of Westminster in 1931. In 1949, the London Declaration allowed India to remain in the association as a republic, with others following.[9][10]

Commonwealth citizens enjoy benefits in some member countries, particularly in the United Kingdom, and Commonwealth countries are represented to one another by high commissions rather than embassies. Member states have no legal obligations to one another, though various economic, judicial and military arrangements exist between countries. The Commonwealth Charter defines their shared values of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law,[11] as promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games.

The Head of the Commonwealth is Charles III. He is king of 15 member states, known as the Commonwealth realms, while 36 other members are republics, and five have different monarchs. Although he became head upon the death of his mother, Elizabeth II, the position is not technically hereditary.[12] A majority of Commonwealth countries are small states, with small island developing states constituting almost half its membership.

## Contents

* 1 History
* 1.1 Conceptual origins
* 1.2 Adoption and formalisation
* 1.3 Second World War
* 1.4 Decolonisation and self-governance
* 1.5 Commonwealth republics
* 1.6 Proposals to include Europe
* 1.7 Expansion and global engagement
* 2 Structure
* 2.1 Head of the Commonwealth
* 2.2 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting
* 2.3 Commonwealth Secretariat
* 2.4 Commonwealth citizenship and high commissioners
* 2.5 Judicial
* 2.6 Military
* 2.6.1 Gurkhas
* 3 Membership
* 3.1 Criteria
* 3.2 Members
* 3.3 Economy of member countries
* 3.4 Applicants
* 3.5 Suspension
* 3.6 Withdrawal and termination
* 4 Politics
* 4.1 Objectives and activities
* 4.2 Competence
* 5 Economy
* 5.1 Economic data by member
* 5.2 Postwar
* 5.2.1 UK joins the European Economic Community
* 5.3 Trade
* 6 Commonwealth organisations
* 6.1 Commonwealth Foundation
* 6.2 Commonwealth Games
* 6.3 Commonwealth Youth Games
* 6.4 Commonwealth War Graves Commission
* 6.5 Commonwealth of Learning
* 6.6 Commonwealth Local Government Forum
* 7 Culture
* 7.1 Sport
* 7.2 Literature
* 7.3 Politics and judiciary
* 7.4 Symbols
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 Further reading
* 11.1 Primary sources
* 12 External links

## History

### Conceptual origins

Main articles: Place:British Empire and Historiography of the Place:British Empire

Draft of the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty, with "British Empire" crossed out and "British Commonwealth of Nations" added by hand The prime ministers of the five members at the 1944 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference: (L-R) Mackenzie King (Canada), Jan Smuts (South Africa), Winston Churchill (United Kingdom), Peter Fraser (New Zealand) and John Curtin (Australia)

Queen Elizabeth II, in her address to Canada on Dominion Day in 1959, pointed out that the Confederation of Canada on 1 July 1867 had been the birth of the "first independent country within the British Empire". She declared: "So, it also marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations."[13] As long ago as 18 January 1884 Lord Rosebery, while visiting Adelaide, South Australia, had described the changing British Empire, as some of its colonies became more independent, as a "Commonwealth of Nations".[14][15] Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887, leading to the creation of the Imperial Conferences in 1911.[16][17]

The Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. A specific proposal was presented by Jan Smuts in 1917 when he coined the term "the British Commonwealth of Nations" and envisioned the "future constitutional relations and readjustments in essence"[18] at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, attended by delegates from the Dominions as well as the United Kingdom.[19][20] The term first received imperial statutory recognition in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, when the term British Commonwealth of Nations was substituted for British Empire in the wording of the oath taken by members of parliament of the Irish Free State.[21]

### Adoption and formalisation

In the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference, the United Kingdom and its dominions agreed that they were "autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations." The term 'Commonwealth' was officially adopted to describe the community.[22]

These aspects of the relationship were formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931, which applied to Canada, the Irish Free State and South Africa without the need for ratification, but Australia, New Zealand and Newfoundland had to ratify the statute for it to take effect.[23] Newfoundland never did as due to economic hardship and the need for financial assistance from London, Newfoundland voluntarily accepted the suspension of self-government in 1934 and governance reverted to direct control from London. Newfoundland later joined Canada as its tenth province in 1949.[24] Australia and New Zealand ratified the statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively.[25][26]

Although the Union of South Africa was not among the Dominions that needed to adopt the Statute of Westminster for it to take effect, two laws — the Status of the Union Act, 1934, and the Royal Executive Functions and Seals Act, 1934 — were passed by the Parliament of South Africa to confirm South Africa's status as a sovereign state, and to incorporate the Statute of Westminster into the law of South Africa.[27]

### Second World War

A poster from the Second World War, depicting soldiers from Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Colony of Southern Rhodesia, South Africa and the British Raj

The Commonwealth and Empire were involved in every major theatre of the Second World War. This included the establishment of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan by the governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand for pilots from across the Empire and its Dominions.[28][29] Immediately after the war, troops from Australia, Britain, India and New Zealand made up the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan.[30] It was subsequently the basis of the British Commonwealth forces in Korea.[31]

### Decolonisation and self-governance

For a more comprehensive list, see List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom.

After the Second World War ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, and members of the Commonwealth.[32] There remain the 14 mainly self-governing British Overseas Territories which retain some political association with the United Kingdom.[33] In April 1949, following the London Declaration, the word "British" was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature.[32]

Burma (officially Myanmar since 1989) and Aden (now part of Yemen) are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Former British protectorates and mandates that did not become members of the Commonwealth are Egypt (independent in 1922), Iraq (1932), Transjordan (1946), Mandatory Palestine (part of which became the State of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956), British Somaliland (which united with the former Italian Somaliland in 1960 to form the Somali Republic), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971) and the United Arab Emirates (1971).[34]

The post-war Commonwealth was given a fresh mission by Queen Elizabeth II in her Christmas Day 1953 broadcast, in which she envisioned the Commonwealth as "an entirely new conception – built on the highest qualities of the Spirit of Man: friendship, loyalty, and the desire for freedom and peace".[35] However, the British treasury was so weak that it could not operate independently of the United States. Furthermore, the loss of defence and financial roles undermined Joseph Chamberlain's early 20th-century vision of a world empire that could combine Imperial Preference, mutual defence and social growth. In addition, the United Kingdom's cosmopolitan role in world affairs became increasingly limited, especially with the independence of India and Singapore.[36] While British politicians at first hoped that the Commonwealth would preserve and project British influence, they gradually lost their enthusiasm, argues Krishnan Srinivasan. Early enthusiasm waned as British policies came under fire at Commonwealth meetings. Public opinion became troubled as immigration from non-white member states became large-scale (see also: Commonwealth diaspora).[37]

The term "New Commonwealth" gained usage in the UK, especially in the 1960s and 1970s, to refer to recently decolonised countries, predominantly non-white and developing countries. It was often used in debates regarding immigration from these countries.[38] The United Kingdom and the pre-1945 dominions became informally known as the "Old Commonwealth", or more pointedly as the "white Commonwealth",[39] in reference to what had been known as the "White Dominions".[40]

### Commonwealth republics

On 18 April 1949, Ireland formally became a republic in accordance with the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 passed by its parliament; in doing so, it also formally left the Commonwealth.[41] While Ireland had not actively participated in the Commonwealth since the early 1930s, other dominions wished to become republics without losing Commonwealth ties. The issue came to a head in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London. Under the London Declaration, as drafted by V. K. Krishna Menon, India agreed, when it became a republic in January 1950, it would remain in the Commonwealth and accept the British Sovereign as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth". Upon hearing this, King George VI told Menon: "So, I've become 'as such'."[42] Some other Commonwealth countries that have since become republics have chosen to leave, while others, such as Guyana, Mauritius and Dominica, have remained members.[43]

India's inaugural prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru declared on 16 May 1949, shortly following the Declaration, during the Constituent Assembly Debates that:[44]

“  | We join the Commonwealth obviously because we think it is beneficial to us and to certain causes in the world that we wish to advance. The other countries of the Commonwealth want us to remain there because they think it is beneficial to them. It is mutually understood that it is to the advantage of the nations in the Commonwealth and therefore they join. At the same time, it is made perfectly clear that each country is completely free to go its own way; it may be that they may go, sometimes go so far as to break away from the Commonwealth...Otherwise, apart from breaking the evil parts of the association, it is better to keep a co-operative association going which may do good in this world rather than break it.  | ”

|
|

The London Declaration is often seen as marking the beginning of the modern Commonwealth. Following India's precedent, other nations became republics, or constitutional monarchies with their own monarchs. While some countries retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, their monarchies developed differently and soon became (or had already become) essentially independent of the British monarchy. The monarch is regarded as a separate legal personality in each realm, even though the same person is monarch of each realm.[45][46][47][48]

### Proposals to include Europe

At a time when Germany and France, together with Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, were planning what later became the European Union, and newly independent African countries were joining the Commonwealth, new ideas were floated to prevent the United Kingdom from becoming isolated in economic affairs. British trade with the Commonwealth was four times larger than its trade with Europe. In 1956 and 1957, the British government, under Prime Minister Anthony Eden, considered a "Plan G" to create a European free trade zone while also protecting the favoured status of the Commonwealth.[49][50][51]

At the time of the Suez Crisis in 1956, and in the face of colonial unrest and international tensions, French prime minister Guy Mollet proposed to British prime minister Anthony Eden that their two countries be joined in a "union". When that proposal was turned down, Mollet suggested that France join the Commonwealth, possibly with "a common citizenship arrangement on the Irish basis". These ideas faded away with the end of the Suez Crisis.[52][53][54]

### Expansion and global engagement

The 2024 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Samoa

The first member admitted without any constitutional link to the British Empire was Mozambique – a former Portuguese colony – in 1995 following its first democratic elections. Its entry preceded the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines.[55] In 2009, Rwanda became the second country admitted to the Commonwealth without any constitutional links to Britain. It was a Belgian trust territory that had been a district of German East Africa until World War I.[56]

In 2022, Togo (a former French mandate territory) and Gabon (a former French colony) joined the Commonwealth, despite having never been under British rule.[57] Togolese foreign minister Robert Dussey foresaw opportunities for Togolese citizens to learn English, and to benefit from access to education and culture. The country sought closer ties with the Anglophone world.[58] In 2024 alone, trade between Togo and Britain increased by 94 per cent; the country also sought to expand trade with India.[59][60] Meanwhile, Gabon was partially suspended from the Commonwealth in September 2023 following a military coup, with two years given by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group for the country to hold new elections before a full suspension would be considered.[61][62] Gabon's partial suspension was lifted in July 2025, following a presidential election.[63]

Commonwealth linkages became the subject of renewed interest during the second term of United States president Donald Trump. In 2025 — during Russia's invasion of Ukraine — Australia, Canada, Cyprus and New Zealand aligned themselves with the pro-Ukraine "coalition of the willing" spearheaded by British prime minister Keir Starmer.[64][65][66][67] During the 2025 Liberal Party leadership contest in Canada, in light of aggressive actions taken by America, the ultimate victor Mark Carney expressed support for deepening relations with Britain, Australia and New Zealand.[68] Trump expressed interest in the United States becoming a member or "associate" member of the association, following tabloid reporting that this would be offered by Britain.[69]

Writing about America's shirking of global responsibility and the supposed ineffectiveness of the United Nations, Australian-British lawyer Geoffrey Robertson opined that "Europe and the Commonwealth countries, plus Japan and Brazil and Indonesia, might together have more impact than the Security Council – if for example China moved to invade Taiwan."[70] Amidst the Gaza war, Britain, Australia, Canada and New Zealand imposed sanctions on two Israeli government ministers, alongside Norway.[71] In 2026, as Carney sought to unify middle powers, Antigua and Barbuda prime minister Gaston Browne argued in a Daily Telegraph opinion piece that the Commonwealth was ideal for that purpose.[72]

## Structure

### Head of the Commonwealth

Queen Elizabeth II, the longest-serving Head of the Commonwealth, was in office for 70 years.

Under the formula of the London Declaration, Charles III is the Head of the Commonwealth.[2][73] However, when the monarch dies, the successor to the crown does not automatically become the new head of the Commonwealth.[74] Despite this, at their meeting in April 2018, Commonwealth leaders agreed that Prince Charles should succeed his mother Elizabeth II as head after her death.[75] The position is symbolic, representing the free association of independent members,[73] the majority of which (36) are republics, and five have monarchs of different royal houses (Brunei, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malaysia and Tonga).

### Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting

The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth Heads of Government, including (among others) prime ministers and presidents, assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM is the successor to the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Meetings and, earlier, the Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences, dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers and others. Members in arrears, as special members before them, are not invited to send representatives to either ministerial meetings or CHOGMs.[73]

The head of government hosting the CHOGM is called the chair-in-office (CIO) and retains the position until the following CHOGM.[76]

### Commonwealth Secretariat

Marlborough House, London, the headquarters of the Commonwealth Secretariat, the Commonwealth's principal intergovernmental institution

The Commonwealth Secretariat, established in 1965, is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth, facilitating consultation and co-operation among member governments and countries.[77] It is responsible to member governments collectively. The Commonwealth of Nations is represented in the United Nations General Assembly by the Secretariat as an observer. The secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication among the member governments. It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of the Commonwealth's fundamental political values.[78]

The secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth secretary-general, who is elected by the CHOG for no more than two four-year terms. Two deputy secretaries-general assist.[79] The present secretary-general is Shirley Ayorkor Botchwey, from Ghana, succeeding Patricia Scotland. The first secretary-general was Arnold Smith of Canada (1965–1975), followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana (1975–1990), Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria (1990–1999), Don McKinnon of New Zealand (2000–2008), and Kamalesh Sharma of India (2008–2016).

### Commonwealth citizenship and high commissioners

The high commission of The Gambia in New Delhi

Some member states grant particular rights to Commonwealth citizens. The United Kingdom and several others, mostly in the Caribbean, grant the right to vote to resident Commonwealth citizens.[80] Some countries, including the United Kingdom, have preferential citizenship acquisition or residency policies for Commonwealth citizens.[81][82][83] Initially, Commonwealth countries were not considered to be "foreign" to each other as their citizens were British subjects.[84][85][86] Citizenship laws evolved as the Commonwealth developed from the Empire. In Australia, for the purpose of considering certain constitutional and legal provisions in the High Court case of Sue v Hill, the United Kingdom was held to be a "foreign power".[87] Similarly, in Nolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, the nationals of other Commonwealth realms were held to be "aliens" though they were subjects of the Queen.[88]

Commonwealth citizens may receive consular assistance from other Commonwealth countries. In particular, British embassies and consulates may provide assistance to Commonwealth nationals in non-Commonwealth countries if their own country is not represented.[89] Commonwealth citizens are eligible to apply for British emergency passports.[90] Australia issues Documents of Identity in exceptional circumstances to resident Commonwealth citizens who are unable to obtain valid travel documents from their countries of origin and must travel urgently.[91]

The close association among Commonwealth countries is reflected in their diplomatic protocols. For example, when engaging bilaterally with one another, Commonwealth governments exchange high commissioners instead of ambassadors.[92]

### Judicial

The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the highest court of appeal for several Commonwealth nations.

The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the supreme court of 14 Commonwealth countries, including the Cook Islands and Niue which are under the Realm of New Zealand (though New Zealand itself does not make appeals to the Privy Council).[93]

Pacific Island states often appoint judges from other Commonwealth countries.[94][95] For instance, Commonwealth nationals are eligible to serve on the High Court of Fiji.[96][97]

### Military

Warships during a Five Power Defence Arrangements joint exercise

Commonwealth citizens are eligible to serve in the British Armed Forces. According to the British Army, "Commonwealth soldiers are, and always will be, an important and valued part" of its fabric.[98] Visa fees for Commonwealth personnel seeking to settle in Britain were scrapped in 2022.[99]

The Five Power Defence Arrangements is a defence partnership between Commonwealth countries Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore and Britain.[100]

#### Gurkhas

Gurkha soldiers from Nepal, a non-Commonwealth country, have long served in the British Army and the forces of several Commonwealth countries.[101] They are employed by the British Army (Brigade of Gurkhas), Indian Army (Gorkha regiments) and Royal Brunei Armed Forces (Gurkha Reserve Unit), as well the Gurkha Contingent of the Singapore Police Force. Most members of Brunei's Gurkha Reserve Unit are veterans from the British Army and Singaporean police.[102][103]

## Membership

The members of the Commonwealth shaded according to their political status. Commonwealth realms are shown in blue, while republics are shaded pink, and members with their own monarchies are displayed in green.

### Criteria

The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have developed over time from a series of separate documents. The Statute of Westminster 1931, as a fundamental founding document of the organisation, laid out that membership required dominionhood. The 1949 London Declaration ended this, allowing republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition that they recognised King George VI as "Head of the Commonwealth".[104] In the wake of the wave of decolonisation in the 1960s, these constitutional principles were augmented by political, economic, and social principles. The first of these was set out in 1961, when it was decided that respect for racial equality would be a requirement for membership, leading directly to the withdrawal of South Africa's re-application (which they were required to make under the formula of the London Declaration upon becoming a republic). The 14 points of the 1971 Singapore Declaration dedicated all members to the principles of world peace, liberty, human rights, equality, and free trade.[105]

These criteria were unenforceable for two decades,[106] until, in 1991, the Harare Declaration was issued, dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation, the end of the Cold War, and the end of apartheid in South Africa.[107] The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, which created the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which has the power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration.[108] Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration, the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would "as a rule" have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member.[109]

In addition to this new rule, the former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements are that members must accept and comply with the Harare principles, be fully sovereign states, recognise King Charles III as head of the Commonwealth, accept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication, and respect the wishes of the general population with regard to Commonwealth membership.[109] These requirements had undergone review, and a report on potential amendments was presented by the Committee on Commonwealth Membership at the 2007 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.[110] New members were not admitted at this meeting, though applications for admission were considered at the 2009 CHOGM.[111]

New members must "as a general rule" have a direct constitutional link to an existing member. In most cases, this is due to being a former colony of the United Kingdom, but some have links to other countries, either exclusively or more directly (e.g., Bangladesh to Pakistan, Samoa to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea to Australia, and Singapore to Malaysia). Mozambique, in 1995, was the first country to join without such a constitutional connection, leading to the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines.[55]

In 2009, Rwanda, formerly under Belgian and German rule, joined.[56] Consideration for Rwanda's admission was considered an "exceptional circumstance" by the Commonwealth Secretariat.[112] Rwanda was permitted to join despite the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) finding that "the state of governance and human rights in Rwanda does not satisfy Commonwealth standards", and that it "does not therefore qualify for admission".[113] The CHRI commented that: "It does not make sense to admit a state that already does not satisfy Commonwealth standards. This would tarnish the reputation of the Commonwealth and confirm the opinion of many people and civic organisations that the leaders of its governments do not really care for democracy and human rights, and that its periodic, solemn declarations are merely hot air."[113]

In 2022, the former French territories of Togo and Gabon joined the Commonwealth.[57]

### Members

Flags of the Commonwealth countries in Parliament Square, London on Commonwealth Day The Commonwealth flag flying at the Parliament of Canada in Ottawa

The Commonwealth comprises 56 countries, across all inhabited continents.[114] 33 members are small states, including 25 small island developing states. In 2023, the Commonwealth had a population of 2.5 billion.[115] The Commonwealth is the largest association of 'Third World' or 'Global South' countries.[116]

With a population of 1.4 billion in 2023, India is the most populous Commonwealth country. Tuvalu is the smallest member, with about 12,000 people in that year.[115]

The status of "member in arrears" is used to denote those that are in arrears in paying subscription dues. The status was originally known as "special membership", but was renamed on the Committee on Commonwealth Membership's recommendation.[117] There are currently no members in arrears. The last member in arrears, Nauru, returned to full membership in June 2011.[118] Nauru previously alternated between special and full membership since joining the Commonwealth, depending on its financial situation.[119]

### Economy of member countries

In 2019, the Commonwealth members had a combined gross domestic product of over $9 trillion, 78 per cent of which is accounted for by the four largest economies: India ($3.737 trillion), United Kingdom ($3.124 trillion), Canada ($1.652 trillion), and Australia ($1.379 trillion).[120]

### Applicants

In 1997 the Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that, to become a member of the Commonwealth, an applicant country should, as a rule, have had a constitutional association with an existing Commonwealth member; that it should comply with Commonwealth values, principles and priorities as set out in the Harare Declaration; and that it should accept Commonwealth norms and conventions.[121]

South Sudanese politicians have expressed interest in joining the Commonwealth.[122] A senior Commonwealth source stated in 2006 that "many people have assumed an interest from Israel, but there has been no formal approach".[123] Israel and Palestine are both potential candidates for membership.[123]

President Yahya Jammeh unilaterally withdrew the Gambia from the Commonwealth in October 2013.[124] However, newly elected president Adama Barrow returned the country to the organisation in February 2018.[125]

Other eligible applicants could be any of the remaining inhabited British Overseas Territories, Crown Dependencies, Australian external territories and the Associated States of New Zealand if they become fully independent.[126] Many such jurisdictions are already directly represented within the Commonwealth, particularly through the Commonwealth Family.[127] There are also former British possessions that have not become independent. Although Hong Kong has become part of China, it continues to participate in some of the institutions within the Commonwealth Family, including the Commonwealth Lawyers Association, the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the Commonwealth Association of Legislative Counsel[128][129] and the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC).

All three of the Crown dependencies regard their existing situation as unsatisfactory and have lobbied for change. In 2012, the States of Jersey called on the UK foreign secretary to request that the Commonwealth heads of government "consider granting associate membership to Jersey and the other Crown Dependencies as well as any other territories at a similarly advanced stage of autonomy". Jersey proposed that it be accorded "self-representation in all Commonwealth meetings; full participation in debates and procedures, with a right to speak where relevant and the opportunity to enter into discussions with those who are full members; and no right to vote in the Ministerial or Heads of Government meetings, which is reserved for full members".[130] The States of Guernsey and the Government of the Isle of Man made calls of a similar nature in the same year for a more integrated relationship with the Commonwealth,[131] including more direct representation and enhanced participation in Commonwealth organisations and meetings, including Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings.[132] The Chief Minister of the Isle of Man said that a "closer connection with the Commonwealth itself would be a welcome further development of the Island's international relationships".[133]

### Suspension

Members can be suspended "from the Councils of the Commonwealth" for "serious or persistent violations" of the Harare Declaration, particularly in abrogating their responsibility to have democratic government.[134] Suspensions are agreed by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which meets regularly to address potential breaches of the Harare Declaration. Suspended members are not represented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and ministers, although they remain members of the organisation.

Zimbabwe was suspended from the Commonwealth during Robert Mugabe's presidency, subsequently withdrawing. It applied to rejoin after his removal from power.

Nigeria was suspended between 11 November 1995 and 29 May 1999,[135] following its execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa on the eve of the 1995 CHOGM.[136] Pakistan was the second country to be suspended, on 18 October 1999, following the military coup by Pervez Musharraf.[137] The Commonwealth's longest suspension came to an end on 22 May 2004, when Pakistan's suspension was lifted following the restoration of the country's constitution.[138] Pakistan was suspended for a second time, far more briefly, for six months from 22 November 2007, when Musharraf called a state of emergency.[139] Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 over concerns regarding the electoral and land reform policies of Robert Mugabe's ZANU-PF government,[140] before it withdrew from the organisation in 2003.[141] On 15 May 2018, the country applied to rejoin the Commonwealth.[142] Zimbabweans continue to be recognised as Commonwealth citizens in Britain.[143]

The declaration of a Republic in Fiji in 1987, after military coups designed to deny Indo-Fijians political power, was not accompanied by an application to remain. Commonwealth membership was held to have lapsed until 1997, after discriminatory provisions in the republican constitution were repealed and reapplication for membership made.[144][145] Fiji has since been suspended twice, with the first imposed from 6 June 2000[146] to 20 December 2001 after another coup.[140] Fiji was suspended yet again in December 2006, following the most recent coup. At first, the suspension applied only to membership on the Councils of the Commonwealth.[144][147] After failing to meet a Commonwealth deadline for setting a date for national elections by 2010, Fiji was "fully suspended" on 1 September 2009.[144][147] The secretary-general of the Commonwealth, Kamalesh Sharma, confirmed that full suspension meant that Fiji would be excluded from Commonwealth meetings, sporting events and the technical assistance programme (with an exception for assistance in re-establishing democracy). Sharma stated that Fiji would remain a member of the Commonwealth during its suspension, but would be excluded from emblematic representation by the secretariat.[144] On 19 March 2014 Fiji's full suspension was amended to a suspension from councils of the Commonwealth by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group, permitting Fiji to join a number of Commonwealth activities, including the Commonwealth Games.[148] Fiji's suspension was lifted in September 2014.[149] The Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group fully reinstated Fiji as a member following elections in September 2014.[150]

Most recently, during 2013 and 2014, international pressure mounted to suspend Sri Lanka from the Commonwealth, citing grave human rights violations by the government of President Mahinda Rajapaksa. There were also calls to change the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2013 from Sri Lanka to another member country. Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper threatened to boycott the event, but was instead represented at the meeting by Deepak Obhrai. UK prime minister David Cameron also chose to attend.[151][152] These concerns were rendered moot by the election of opposition leader Maithripala Sirisena as president in 2015.[153]

### Withdrawal and termination

As membership is purely voluntary, member governments can choose at any time to leave the Commonwealth. The first state to do so was Ireland in 1949 following its decision to declare itself a republic, although it had not participated in the Commonwealth since 1932. At the time, all members accepted the British monarch as head of state as a condition of membership. This rule was changed after Ireland's departure to allow India to retain membership when it became a republic in 1950, although Ireland did not rejoin. Now, the majority of the Commonwealth members, including all those from Africa, are republics or have their own native monarch.

Pakistan left on 30 January 1972 in protest at the Commonwealth's recognition of breakaway Bangladesh, but rejoined on 2 August 1989. Zimbabwe's membership was suspended in 2002 on the grounds of alleged human rights violations and deliberate misgovernment, and Zimbabwe's government terminated its membership in 2003.[154] The Gambia left the Commonwealth on 3 October 2013,[124] and rejoined on 8 February 2018.[125]

The Maldives withdrew from the Commonwealth on 13 October 2016,[155][156] citing the Commonwealth's "punitive actions against the Maldives since 2012" after the allegedly forced resignation of Maldivian President Mohamed Nasheed among the reasons for withdrawal.[156] Following the election of Ibrahim Mohamed Solih as president in November 2018, the Maldives announced its intention to reapply to join the Commonwealth.[157] It rejoined on 1 February 2020.[158]

Having left the Commonwealth in 1961 over its apartheid policies, South Africa was readmitted in 1994 following non-racial elections.

No country has been formally expelled from the Commonwealth.[159] However, South Africa's application to remain a member of the organisation after becoming a republic in 1961 was effectively blocked due to hostility from many members, particularly those in Africa and Asia as well as Canada, to apartheid. The South African government withdrew its application when it became clear at the 1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference that it would be rejected.[160] South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in 1994, following its first multiracial elections that year. The Commonwealth provided technical assistance and training for a peacekeeping force prior to election, with Commonwealth observers significantly present during the election itself.[161]

The transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong in 1997 ended the territory's status as a part of the Commonwealth through the United Kingdom. Non-sovereign states or regions are not permitted to become members of the Commonwealth. The government of China has not pursued membership. Hong Kong has nevertheless continued to participate in some of the organisations of the Commonwealth Family, such as the Commonwealth Lawyers Association (hosted the Commonwealth Lawyers Conference in 1983 and 2009), the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association (and the Westminster Seminar on Parliamentary Practice and Procedures), the Association of Commonwealth Universities and the Commonwealth Association of Legislative Counsel,[128][129] as well as the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC).

## Politics

### Objectives and activities

The Commonwealth's objectives were first outlined in the 1971 Singapore Declaration, which committed the Commonwealth to the institution of world peace; promotion of representative democracy and individual liberty; the pursuit of equality and opposition to racism; the fight against poverty, ignorance, and disease; and free trade.[162] To these were added opposition to discrimination on the basis of sex by the Lusaka Declaration of 1979,[105] and environmental sustainability by the Langkawi Declaration of 1989.[163] These objectives were reinforced by the Harare Declaration in 1991.[164]

The Commonwealth's highest-priority aims concern the promotion of democracy and development, as outlined in the 2003 Aso Rock Declaration,[165] which built on those in Singapore and Harare and clarified their terms of reference, stating, "We are committed to democracy, good governance, human rights, gender equality, and a more equitable sharing of the benefits of globalisation."[166]

### Competence

In October 2010, a leaked memo from the Secretary General instructing staff not to speak out on human rights was published, leading to accusations that the Commonwealth was not being vocal enough on its core values.[167]

The Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 considered a report by a Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group (EPG) panel which asserted that the organisation had lost its relevance and was decaying due to the lack of a mechanism to censure member countries when they violated human rights or democratic norms.[168] The panel made 106 "urgent" recommendations including the adoption of a Charter of the Commonwealth, the creation of a new commissioner on the rule of law, democracy and human rights to track persistent human rights abuses and allegations of political repression by Commonwealth member states, recommendations for the repeal of laws against homosexuality in 41 Commonwealth states and a ban on forced marriage.[169][170] The failure to release the report, or accept its recommendations for reforms in the area of human rights, democracy and the rule of law, was described as a "disgrace" by former British foreign secretary Malcolm Rifkind, a member of the EPG, who told a press conference: "The Commonwealth faces a very significant problem. It's not a problem of hostility or antagonism, it's more of a problem of indifference. Its purpose is being questioned, its relevance is being questioned and part of that is because its commitment to enforce the values for which it stands is becoming ambiguous in the eyes of many member states. The Commonwealth is not a private club of the governments or the secretariat. It belongs to the people of the Commonwealth."[170]

In the end, two-thirds of the EPG's 106 urgently recommended reforms were referred to study groups, an act described by one EPG member as having them "kicked into the long grass". There was no agreement to create the recommended position of human rights commissioner, instead a ministerial management group was empowered with enforcement: the group includes alleged human rights offenders. It was agreed to develop a charter of values for the Commonwealth without any decision on how compliance with its principles would be enforced.[168]

The result of the effort was that a new Charter of the Commonwealth was signed by Queen Elizabeth II on 11 March 2013 at Marlborough House, which opposes "all forms of discrimination, whether rooted in gender, race, colour, creed, political belief or other grounds".[171][172]

## Economy

See also: List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP

### Economic data by member

Economies of the Commonwealth of Nations 2012

| Member states  | Population[173][174]
(2018) | GDP (nominal, US$)  | GDP (PPP, US$)

|
|
|

millions[175] | per capita[176] | millions[177] | per capita[178]
Antigua and Barbuda  | 96,286  | 1,176  | 12,480  | 1,778  | 18,492
Australia  | 24,898,152  | 1,520,608  | 61,789  | 1,008,547  | 41,974
Bahamas  | 385,637  | 8,149  | 22,431  | 11,765  | 31,978
Bangladesh  | 161,376,708  | 115,610  | 743  | 291,299  | 1,777
Barbados  | 286,641  | 3,685  | 13,453  | —  | —
Belize  | 383,071  | 1,448  | 4,059  | 2,381  | 6,672
Botswana  | 2,254,068  | 14,411  | 8,533  | 34,038  | 14,746
Brunei  | 428,963  | 16,954  | 40,301  | 21,992  | 51,760
Cameroon  | 25,216,267  | 24,984  | 1,260  | 50,820  | 2,359
Canada  | 37,064,562  | 1,821,424  | 50,344  | 1,489,165  | 40,420
Cyprus  | 1,189,265  | 22,981  | 30,670  | 26,720  | 32,254
Dominica  | 71,625  | 480  | 7,154  | 906  | 13,288
Eswatini  | 1,136,281  | 3,747  | 3,831  | 6,458  | 6,053
Ghana  | 29,767,102  | 40,710  | 1,570  | 51,943  | 1,871
Grenada  | 111,454  | 790  | 7,780  | 1,142  | 10,837
Guyana  | 779,006  | 2,851  | 3,408  | 2,704  | —
India  | 1,352,642,280  | 3,732,224  | 2,171  | 11,468,022  | 7,874
Jamaica  | 2,934,847  | 14,840  | 5,335  | —  | —
Kenya  | 51,392,565  | 37,229  | 808  | 76,016  | 1,710
Kiribati  | 115,847  | 176  | 1,649  | 248  | 2,337
Lesotho  | 2,108,328  | 2,448  | 1,106  | 4,027  | 1,691
Malawi  | 18,143,217  | 4,264  | 365  | 14,344  | 893
Malaysia  | 31,528,033  | 303,526  | 9,977  | 501,249  | 16,051
Maldives  | 515,696  | 2,222  | 6,405  | 3,070  | 8,871
Malta  | 439,248  | 8,722  | 21,380  | 12,138  | 27,504
Mauritius  | 1,267,185  | 10,492  | 8,755  | 20,210  | 14,420
Mozambique  | 29,496,004  | 14,588  | 533  | 25,805  | 975
Namibia  | 2,448,301  | 12,807  | 5,383  | 16,918  | 6,801
Nauru  | 10,670  | —  | —  | —  | —
New Zealand  | 4,743,131  | 139,768  | 36,254  | 139,640  | 31,082
Nigeria  | 195,874,685  | 262,606  | 1,502  | 449,289  | 2,533
Pakistan  | 212,228,286  | 231,182  | 1,189  | 517,873  | 2,745
Papua New Guinea  | 8,606,323  | 15,654  | 1,845  | 20,771  | 2,676
Rwanda  | 1,230,197  | 7,103  | 8,874  | 15,517  | 1,282
Saint Kitts and Nevis  | 52,441  | 748  | 13,144  | 966  | 17,226
Saint Lucia  | 181,889  | 1,186  | 7,154  | 2,016  | 11,597
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines  | 110,211  | 713  | 6,291  | 1,202  | 10,715
Samoa  | 196,129  | 677  | 3,485  | 853  | 4,475
Seychelles  | 97,096  | 1,032  | 12,321  | 2,371  | 25,788
Sierra Leone  | 7,650,150  | 3,796  | 496  | 8,125  | 1,131
Singapore  | 5,757,499  | 274,701  | 46,241  | 328,323  | 60,688
Solomon Islands  | 652,857  | 1,008  | 1,517  | 1,718  | 2,923
South Africa  | 57,792,518  | 384,313  | 8,070  | 585,625  | 10,960
Sri Lanka  | 21,228,763  | 59,421  | 2,835  | 126,993  | 5,582
Tanzania  | 56,313,438  | 28,249  | 532  | 74,269  | 1,512
Tonga  | 103,197  | 472  | 4,152  | 527  | 4,886
Trinidad and Tobago  | 1,389,843  | 23,986  | 16,699  | 35,638  | 25,074
Tuvalu  | 11,508  | 37  | 3,636  | —  | —
Uganda  | 42,729,036  | 19,881  | 487  | 49,130  | 1,345
United Kingdom  | 67,141,684  | 3,124,650[179] | 38,974  | 3,174,921  | 35,598
Vanuatu  | 292,680  | 785  | 3,094  | 1,139  | 4,379
Zambia  | 17,351,708  | 20,678  | 1,425  | 24,096  | 1,621
Template:Country data Commonwealth of Nations | 2,418,964,000 | 9,766,209 | 3,844 | 13,119,929 | 4,035

### Postwar

During the Second World War, the British Empire played a major role in supporting British finances. Foreign exchange reserves were pooled in London, to be used to fight the war. In effect, the United Kingdom procured £2.3 billion, of which £1.3 billion was from British India. The debt was held in the form of British government securities and became known as "sterling balances". By 1950, India, Pakistan, and Ceylon had spent much of their sterling, while other countries accumulated more. The sterling area included all of the Commonwealth except for Canada, together with some smaller countries especially in the Persian Gulf. They held their foreign-exchange in sterling, protecting that currency from runs and facilitating trade and investment inside the Commonwealth. It was a formal relationship with fixed exchange rates, periodic meetings at Commonwealth summits to coordinate trade policy, and domestic economic policies. The United Kingdom ran a trade surplus, and the other countries were mostly producers of raw materials sold to the United Kingdom. The commercial rationale was gradually less attractive to the Commonwealth; however, access to the growing London capital market remained an important advantage to the newly independent nations. As the United Kingdom moved increasingly close to Europe, however, the long-term ties began to be in doubt.[180]

#### UK joins the European Economic Community

By 1961, with a sluggish economy, the United Kingdom attempted to join the European Economic Community, but this was repeatedly vetoed by Charles de Gaulle.[181] Entry was finally achieved in 1973. Queen Elizabeth was one of the few remaining links between the UK and the Commonwealth. Historian Ben Pimlott argues that joining Europe "constituted the most decisive step yet in the progress of severance of familial ties between the United Kingdom and its former Empire... It reduced the remaining links to sentimental and cultural ones, and legal niceties."[182]

The newly independent countries of Africa and Asia concentrated on their own internal political and economic development, and sometimes their role in the Cold War. The United States, international agencies, and the Soviet Union became important players, and the British role receded. While there was opposition to British entry into the EEC from many countries, such as Australia, others preferred the economic advantages brought by British access to the Common Market.[183] The historic ties between the former dominion nations and the United Kingdom were rapidly fraying. The Canadian economy increasingly focused on trade with the United States, and not on trade with the United Kingdom or other Commonwealth nations. Internal Canadian disputes revolved around the growing American cultural and economic presence, and the strong force of Quebec nationalism. In 1964, the Maple Leaf flag replaced the Canadian Ensign, with Gregory Johnson describing it as "the last gasp of empire".[184] Australia and New Zealand were generally opposed to the United Kingdom's entry and exerted considerable influence on the eventual terms of accession in 1972, for which the United Kingdom agreed to transitional arrangements and monetary compensation to protect important export markets.[185][186] Russell Ward summarises the period in economic terms:[187]

> In fact the United Kingdom, as Australia's chief trading partner, was being very rapidly replaced just at this time by the United States and an economically resurgent Japan, but most people were scarcely aware of this.... It was feared that British entry into the Common Market was bound to mean abolition, or at least scaling down, of preferential tariff arrangements for Australians goods.

### Trade

Research by the Royal Commonwealth Society in 2010 showed that Commonwealth countries imported 50 per cent more on average from others in the association, and exported an average of 38 per cent more. Smaller and less wealthy countries have a higher propensity to trade within the Commonwealth.[188] In 2024 alone, two years after Togo joined, its trade with Britain increased by 94 per cent.[59][60] Intra-Commonwealth trade involves lesser transaction costs, as a result of legal and linguistic commonalities — including widespread use of common law — and established business networks.[189]

At the 2005 summit in Malta, the heads of government endorsed pursuing free trade among Commonwealth members on a bilateral basis.[190] In 2025, Commonwealth Secretary-General Shirley Ayorkor Botchwey endorsed the ultimate creation of a Commonwealth free trade area.[191]

Following its vote in June 2016 to leave the European Union,[192] some in the United Kingdom suggested the Commonwealth as an alternative to its EU membership, and the government sought to increase trade within the association.[193][194] It was far from clear that this would offer sufficient economic benefit to replace trade with the EU, or that it would be acceptable to other member states.[195] Britain's first newly negotiated trade deal was the Australia–United Kingdom Free Trade Agreement, signed in 2021.[196][197][198] In 2023, ten per cent of British exports went to the Commonwealth, whilst eight per cent of its imports were from Commonwealth countries; India was the most significant.[199]

Canada exempts most goods from the Commonwealth Caribbean, consisting of Commonwealth countries and British Overseas Territories in the region, from import duties.[200]

## Commonwealth organisations

Commonwealth countries share many links outside government, with various non-governmental organisations, notably for sport, culture, education, law, and charity operating across the association. Some, such as Sight Savers International and the English-Speaking Union, also operate outside the Commonwealth, though their operations began and largely remain within.[201]

The University of Cape Town, a member of the Association of Commonwealth Universities

The Commonwealth Secretariat regulates formal accreditation with the Commonwealth through its Accreditation Committee. The admittance criteria includes upholding a commitment to the Commonwealth Charter. Formally accredited organisations include the Association of Commonwealth Universities, which manages the Commonwealth Scholarship allowing students to study in other Commonwealth countries, and the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association which links together over 180 Commonwealth parliaments.[202]

### Commonwealth Foundation

Main article: Organization:Commonwealth Foundation

The Commonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmental organisation, resourced by and reporting to Commonwealth governments, and guided by Commonwealth values and priorities. Its mandate is to strengthen civil society in the achievement of Commonwealth priorities: democracy and good governance, respect for human rights and gender equality, poverty eradication, people-centred and sustainable development, and to promote arts and culture.[203]

The Foundation was established in 1965 by the Heads of Government. Admittance is open to all members of the Commonwealth, and in December 2008, stood at 46 out of the 53 member countries. Associate Membership, which is open to associated states or overseas territories of member governments, has been granted to Gibraltar. 2005 saw celebrations for the Foundation's 40th Anniversary. The Foundation is headquartered in Marlborough House, Pall Mall, London. Regular liaison and co-operation between the Secretariat and the Foundation is in place. The Foundation continues to serve the broad purposes for which it was established as written in the Memorandum of Understanding.[203]

### Commonwealth Games

The Commonwealth Games are the third-largest multi-sport event in the world, bringing together globally popular sports and peculiarly "Commonwealth" sports, such as rugby sevens, shown here at the 2006 Games in Melbourne.

The Commonwealth Games, a multi-sport event, is held every four years; the 2018 Commonwealth Games were held in Gold Coast, Australia, 2022 Commonwealth Games in Birmingham and 2026 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow. As well as the usual athletic disciplines, as at the Summer Olympic Games, the games include sports particularly popular in the Commonwealth, such as bowls, netball, and rugby sevens. Started in 1930 as the Empire Games, the games were founded on the Olympic model of amateurism, but were deliberately designed to be "the Friendly Games",[204] with the goal of promoting relations between Commonwealth countries and celebrating their shared sporting and cultural heritage.[205]

The games are the Commonwealth's most visible activity[204] and interest in the operation of the Commonwealth increases greatly when the Games are held.[206] There is controversy over whether the games—and sport generally—should be involved in the Commonwealth's wider political concerns.[205] The 1977 Gleneagles Agreement was signed to commit Commonwealth countries to combat apartheid through discouraging sporting contact with South Africa (which was not then a member), while the 1986 games were boycotted by most African, Asian, and Caribbean countries for the failure of other countries to enforce the Gleneagles Agreement.[207]

### Commonwealth Youth Games

The Commonwealth Youth Games is the youth version of the Commonwealth Games and it is aimed at younger athletes aged between 14 and 18 years. The 2000 Commonwealth Youth Games was the inaugural edition of the Commonwealth Youth Games, first held in Edinburgh, Scotland.

The most recent edition of the games was held in 2023 in Trinidad and Tobago.

### Commonwealth War Graves Commission

Main article: Organization:Commonwealth War Graves Commission

The Commonwealth War Graves Commission commemorates 1.7 million Commonwealth war dead and maintains 2,500 war cemeteries around the world, including this one in Gallipoli.

The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is responsible for maintaining the war graves of 1.7 million service personnel who died in the First and Second World Wars fighting for Commonwealth member states. Founded in 1917 (as the Imperial War Graves Commission), the commission has constructed 2,500 war cemeteries, and maintains individual graves at another 20,000 sites around the world.[208] The vast majority of the latter are civilian cemeteries in the United Kingdom. In 1998, the CWGC made the records of its buried available online to facilitate easier searching.[209]

Commonwealth war cemeteries often feature similar horticulture and architecture, with larger cemeteries being home to a Cross of Sacrifice and Stone of Remembrance. The CWGC is notable for marking the graves identically, regardless of the rank, country of origin, race, or religion of the buried.[209][note 1] It is funded by voluntary agreement by six Commonwealth members, in proportion to the nationality of the casualties in the graves maintained,[208] with 75 per cent of the funding coming from the United Kingdom.[209]

### Commonwealth of Learning

The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergovernmental organisation created by the heads of government to encourage the development and sharing of open learning/distance education knowledge, resources and technologies. COL is helping developing nations improve access to quality education and training.[211]

### Commonwealth Local Government Forum

Main article: Organization:Commonwealth Local Government Forum

The Commonwealth Local Government Forum (CLGF) is a global local government organisation, bringing together local authorities, their national associations and the ministries responsible for local government in the member countries of the Commonwealth. CLGF works with national and local governments to support the development of democratic values and good local governance and is the associated organisation officially recognised by Commonwealth Heads of Government as the representative body for local government in the Commonwealth.[212]

CLGF is unique in bringing together central, provincial and local spheres of government involved in local government policy and decision-making. CLGF members include local government associations, individual local authorities, ministries dealing with local government, and research and professional organisations who work with local government. Practitioner to practitioner support is at the core of CLGF's work across the Commonwealth and within the region, using CLGF's own members to support others both within and between regions. CLGF is a member of the Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments, the formal partner of the UN Major Group of Local Authorities.[213]

## Culture

Commonwealth countries share a common culture which includes the English language, sports, legal systems, education and government. These commonalities are the result of the association's heritage, having developed out of the British Empire.[214][215] Symbols of the Commonwealth include the Commonwealth Flag and Commonwealth Day. Remembrance Day is commemorated across the Commonwealth.[216][217] Celebrations for Guy Fawkes Night take place in some countries.[218]

Regarding the British identity of the Commonwealth, Kenyan academic Ali Mazrui posited, "in the ultimate analysis, what could a New Zealander have in common with a Jamaican or a Zambian, if not the bonds of a shared British-ness?"[219][220][4]: 62

### Sport

Rwanda Cricket Stadium, Kigali, Rwanda. Commonwealth membership has been credited with popularising the game in the country, which was never in the British Empire.

Many Commonwealth nations play similar sports that are considered quintessentially British in character, rooted in and developed under British rule or hegemony, including cricket, association football, rugby, field hockey and netball. These ties are particularly strong between the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa across rugby union, cricket, netball, and field hockey, with Australia in rugby league, with the Caribbean nations in cricket and netball, and with the Indian subcontinent in cricket and hockey. Canada, by contrast, is dominated by North American sports, including baseball instead of cricket, basketball rather than netball, ice hockey rather than field hockey and Canadian football, rather than rugby union or league. Canada does, however, maintain small enthusiastic communities in all the more traditional Commonwealth sports, having reached the World Cup in each of them, and is the homeplace of the Commonwealth Games, hosting the inaugural edition in Hamilton in 1930.[221]

This shared sporting landscape has led to the development of friendly national rivalries between the main sporting nations that have often defined their relations with each other, and in the cases of India, Australia and New Zealand, have played a major part in defining their emerging national character (in cricket, rugby league and rugby union). Indeed, said rivalries preserved close ties by providing a constant in international relationships, even as the Empire transformed into the Commonwealth.[222] Externally, playing these sports is seen to be a sign of sharing a certain Commonwealth culture; the adoption of cricket at schools in Rwanda was viewed as symbolic of the country's move towards Commonwealth membership.[223][224] Rwanda's membership of the Commonwealth was credited with helping to popularise the sport domestically, with both men and women playing it in orphanages, schools, universities and cricket clubs.[225]

The Commonwealth Games alongside the youth version, a quadrennial multi-sports event held in the middle year of an Olympic cycle is the most visible demonstration of these sporting ties. The Games include standard multi-sports disciplines like athletics, swimming, gymnastics, weightlifting, boxing, field hockey, and cycling, but also includes sports popular in the Commonwealth that are distinct to the Games such as netball, squash and lawn bowls. They are also more avowedly political than events like the Olympics, promoting what are seen as Commonwealth values; historically, a history of shared military endeavour was celebrated and promoted, parasport and disability sport is fully integrated, and the Commonwealth Games Federation has publicly backed the rights of LGBT people, despite the continuing criminalisation of homosexuality in many Commonwealth countries.

### Literature

The shared history of British presence has produced a substantial body of writing in many languages, known as Commonwealth literature.[226][227] The Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies (ACLALS) has 11 branches worldwide and holds an international conference every three years.[228]

Ugandan-British novelist Jennifer Nansubuga Makumbi won the Commonwealth Short Story Prize in 2014.

In 1987, the Commonwealth Foundation established the annual Commonwealth Writers' Prize "to encourage and reward the upsurge of new Commonwealth fiction and ensure that works of merit reach a wider audience outside their country of origin". Prizes are awarded for the best book and best first book in the Commonwealth; there are also regional prizes for the best book and best first book in each of four regions. Although not officially affiliated with the Commonwealth, the prestigious annual Man Booker Prize, one of the highest honours in literature,[229] used to be awarded only to authors from Commonwealth countries or former members such as Ireland and Zimbabwe. Since 2014, however, writers of any nationality have been eligible for the prize providing that they write originally in English and their novels are published by established publishers in the United Kingdom.[230] Today, the Commonwealth Foundation awards the annual Commonwealth Short Story Prize.[231]

South African writer Olive Schreiner

South African writer Olive Schreiner's famous novel The Story of an African Farm was published in 1883 and New Zealander Katherine Mansfield published her first collection of short stories, In a German Pension, in 1911. The first major novelist from the Indian sub-continent to write in English, R. K. Narayan, began publishing in England in the 1930s, thanks to the encouragement of English novelist Graham Greene.[232] Caribbean writer Jean Rhys' writing career began as early as 1928, though her most famous work, Wide Sargasso Sea, was not published until 1966. South African Alan Paton's famous Cry, the Beloved Country dates to 1948. Doris Lessing from Southern Rhodesia, now Zimbabwe, was a dominant presence in the English literary scene, frequently publishing from 1950 on throughout the 20th century. She won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2007.[233]

Salman Rushdie is another post-Second World War writer from the former British colonies who permanently settled in the United Kingdom. Rushdie achieved fame with Midnight's Children (1981). His most controversial novel, The Satanic Verses (1989), was inspired in part by the life of Muhammad. V. S. Naipaul (born 1932), born in Trinidad, was another immigrant, who wrote, among other things, A Bend in the River (1979). Naipaul won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2001.[234]

Many other Commonwealth writers have achieved an international reputation for works in English, including Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe, and playwright Wole Soyinka. Soyinka won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1986, as did South African novelist Nadine Gordimer in 1995. Other South African writers in English are novelist J. M. Coetzee (Nobel Prize 2003) and playwright Athol Fugard. Kenya's most internationally renowned author is Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, author of novels, plays and short stories in English. Poet Derek Walcott, from Saint Lucia in the Caribbean, was another Nobel Prize winner in 1992. An Australian, Patrick White, a major novelist in this period, whose first work was published in 1939, won in 1973. Other noteworthy Australian writers at the end of this period are poet Les Murray, and novelist Peter Carey, who is one of only four writers to have won the Booker Prize twice.[235]

### Politics and judiciary

Parliament House, New Delhi, India. The Commonwealth Charter states the Commonwealth's commitment to democracy, and many Commonwealth countries use the Westminster system. Lighting of a jubilee beacon for Queen Elizabeth II's Platinum Jubilee in 2022 in Wellington, New Zealand

Commonwealth countries have similar legal and government systems, whilst the Commonwealth Charter includes commitments to democracy, human rights and the rule of law. Most Commonwealth countries have a Westminster system of parliamentary democracy, with elected legislatures, multi-party elections, responsible government and often two chambers.[236] The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association facilitates co-operation between legislatures across the Commonwealth, and the Commonwealth Local Government Forum promotes good governance among local government officials.[237]

Nonetheless, Commonwealth leadership was criticised for admitting Gabon as a member at the 2022 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Kigali, Rwanda – a country with poor human rights record – despite the fact that Gabon had been governed for 56 years by the kleptocratic Bongo family, until they were overthrown in a coup in 2023.[238]

Most Commonwealth countries use common law, modelled on English law.[239] The Latimer House Principles adopted in 2003 reflect the separation of powers.[240] Judges are appointed by independent commissions in most Commonwealth countries, a change which took place across the Commonwealth in the late 20th and early 21st centuries and is reflected in the Cape Town Principles.[241]

### Symbols

The Commonwealth has adopted a number of symbols that represent the association of its members. The English language is recognised as a symbol of the members' heritage; as well as being considered a symbol of the Commonwealth, recognition of it as "the means of Commonwealth communication" is a prerequisite for Commonwealth membership.

The flag of the Commonwealth consists of the symbol of the Commonwealth Secretariat, a gold globe surrounded by emanating rays, on a dark blue field; it was designed for the second CHOGM in 1973, and officially adopted on 26 March 1976. 1976 also saw the organisation agree to a common date on which to commemorate Commonwealth Day, the second Monday in March, having developed separately on different dates from Empire Day celebrations.[242]

Also to mark the 60th anniversary (Diamond Jubilee) of the London Declaration in 2009, the Commonwealth Secretariat commissioned Paul Carroll to compose "The Commonwealth Anthem". The lyrics of the Anthem are taken from the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[243] The Commonwealth Youth Orchestra published renditions of the Anthem with and without an introductory narrative.[244]Cite error: Closing `</ref>` missing for `<ref>` tag[245][246][247]

## See also

* Anglosphere
* English-speaking world
* Commonwealth Caribbean
* List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP
* La Francophonie (OIF), an association of countries where the French language and French culture are prominent
* Community of Portuguese Language Countries, a grouping of Portuguese-speaking countries and territories
* Organization of Ibero-American States, consisting of Iberophone nations
* Latin Union, which consisted of nations using Romance languages
* Dutch Language Union

## Notes

1. ↑ Each headstone contains the national emblem or regimental badge, rank, name, unit, date of death and age of each casualty inscribed above an appropriate religious symbol and a more personal dedication chosen by relatives.[210]

## References

1. ↑ "Commonwealth Charter". 6 June 2013. http://thecommonwealth.org/our-charter. "Recalling that the Commonwealth is a voluntary association of independent and equal sovereign states, each responsible for its own policies, consulting and co-operating in the common interests of our peoples and in the promotion of international understanding and world peace, and influencing international society to the benefit of all through the pursuit of common principles and values"
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 "About Us". Commonwealth Secretariat. https://thecommonwealth.org/about-us.
3. ↑ "Annex B – Territories Forming Part of the Commonwealth". Her Majesty's Civil Service. September 2011. http://www.civilservice.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/AnnexB_Commonwealth.pdf.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Srinivasan, Krishnan (2008). The rise, decline, and future of the British Commonwealth (Paperback ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-20367-9.
5. ↑ "Profile: The Commonwealth". February 2012. https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1554175.stm.
6. ↑ "The Commonwealth". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/191086/191247/the_commonwealth.
7. ↑ "Commonwealth Family". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/151814/commonwealth_family/.
8. ↑ "Imperial Conference 1926 Inter-Imperial Relations Committee Report, Proceedings and Memoranda". November 1926. https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/cth11_doc_1926.pdf.
9. ↑ "The London Declaration". Commonwealth of Nations. 26 April 1949. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/document/181889/34293/35468/214257/londondeclaration.htm.
10. ↑ "Our history". Commonwealth Secretariat. https://thecommonwealth.org/history.
11. ↑ "Commonwealth Charter". Commonwealth Secretariat. https://thecommonwealth.org/charter.
12. ↑ "The Commonwealth" (in en). 21 May 2019. https://www.victorialeague.co.uk/our-commonwealth.
13. ↑ Queen Elizabeth II (1 July 1959). Queen Elizabeth's 1959 Dominion Day Message. Government House (Rideau Hall), Ottawa: CBC. Archived from the original on 20 November 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
14. ↑ "18 January 1884" (in en-UK). https://liberalhistory.org.uk/timeline-event/on-this-day-18-1-1884/.
15. ↑ "History – Though the modern Commonwealth is just 60 years old, the idea took root in the 19th century". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/191086/34493/history.
16. ↑ Mole, Stuart (September 2004). "Seminars for statesmen': the evolution of the Commonwealth summit". The Round Table 93 (376): 533–546. doi:10.1080/0035853042000289128. ISSN 0035-8533.
17. ↑ Kendle, J.E. (1967). "The Colonial and Imperial Conferences, 1887-1911: A Study in Imperial Organization". The American Historical Review. Imperial Studies (London: Longmans for the Royal Commonwealth Society) XXVIII. doi:10.1086/ahr/74.3.999. https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/74/3/999/91500.
18. ↑ McDonald, Simon (12 March 2018). "Commonwealth Heads Of Government Meeting 2018" (in en). https://civilservice.blog.gov.uk/2018/03/12/commonwealth-heads-of-government-meeting-2018/.
19. ↑ F.S. Crafford, Jan Smuts: A Biography (2005) p. 142
20. ↑ The Irish Oath of Allegiance, agreed in 1921, included the Irish Free State's "adherence to and membership of the group of nations forming the British Commonwealth of Nations".
21. ↑ Pakenham, Frank (1972). Peace by ordeal: an account, from first-hand sources of the negotiation and signature of the Anglo-Irish Treaty 1921. Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 978-0-283-97908-8.
22. ↑ Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. 1991. pp. 297–298. ISBN 978-0-313-26257-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=uyqepNdgUWkC&pg=PA297.
23. ↑ Statute of Westminster as enacted
24. ↑ "The Commission of Government, 1934–1949". Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage. January 2003. http://www.heritage.nf.ca/law/commission_gov.html.
25. ↑ Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 (Cth)
26. ↑ "New Zealand Sovereignty: 1857, 1907, 1947, or 1987?". New Zealand Parliament. August 2007. http://www.parliament.nz/en-NZ/ParlSupport/ResearchPapers/9/1/8/00PLLawRP07041-New-Zealand-sovereignty-1857-1907-1947-or-1987.htm.
27. ↑ Dugard, John; Bethlehem, Daniel; Plessis, Max du; Katz, Anton (2005). International law: a South African perspective. Lansdowne, South Africa: Juta. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-7021-7121-5.
28. ↑ "History of the Creation of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan". 28 September 2010. http://www.airmuseum.ca/bcatp.html.
29. ↑ "Fact File : Commonwealth and Allied Forces". https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/timeline/factfiles/nonflash/a6651218.shtml.
30. ↑ "British Commonwealth Occupation Force 1945–52". https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/bcof.
31. ↑ Jeffrey Grey, The Commonwealth Armies and the Korean War: An Alliance Study. Manchester University Press ND, 1990, ISBN 0719027705, 9780719027703, p. 110
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 "Celebrating thecommonwealth@60". Commonwealth Secretariat. 26 April 2009. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/191086/34493/187367/celebrating_thecommonwealth_60.
33. ↑ "Supporting the Overseas Territories". UK Government. https://www.gov.uk/government/policies/protecting-and-developing-the-overseas-territories. "There are 14 Overseas Territories which retain a constitutional link with the UK. .... Most of the Territories are largely self-governing, each with its own constitution and its own government, which enacts local laws. Although the relationship is rooted in four centuries of shared history, the UK government's relationship with its Territories today is a modern one, based on mutual benefits and responsibilities. The foundations of this relationship are partnership, shared values, and the right of the people of each territory to choose to freely choose whether to remain a British Overseas Territory or to seek an alternative future."
34. ↑ Chris Cook and John Paxton, Commonwealth Political Facts (Macmillan, 1978).
35. ↑ Brian Harrison, Seeking a Role: The United Kingdom 1951—1970 (Oxford UP, 2009), p. 102.
36. ↑ Harrison, Seeking a Role: The United Kingdom 1951—1970, p. 103.
37. ↑ Krishnan Srinivasan, "Nobody's Commonwealth? The Commonwealth in Britain's post-imperial adjustment." Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 44.2 (2006): 257–269.
38. ↑ Hennessy, Patrick (5 June 2004). "Blair calls for quotas on immigrants from 'New Commonwealth'". The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1463759/Blair-calls-for-quotas-on-immigrants-from-New-Commonwealth.html.
39. ↑ de Villiers, Marq (1998). "Review of The Ambiguous Champion: Canada and South Africa in the Trudeau and Mulroney Years by Linda Freeman". International Journal 53 (4): 783–785 : 783. doi:10.2307/40203728. ISSN 0020-7020. ; Miles, Robert (2016). "The Racialization of British Politics". Political Studies 38 (2): 277–285. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.1990.tb01493.x. ISSN 0032-3217.
40. ↑ Merriman, J.; Winter, J., eds (2006). "British Empire". Europe since 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of War and Reconstruction. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 45. ISBN 978-0-684-31366-5. OCLC 68221208.
41. ↑ Whyte, J. H. (2010). "Economic crisis and political cold war, 1949-57". in Hill, J. R.. A New History of Ireland. VII: Ireland, 1921–84. Oxford University Press. p. 277 (footnote 20). ISBN 978-0-19-161559-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=PfFXarIhGqEC&pg=PA277. Retrieved 6 August 2019. "The Republic of Ireland Act, 1948...repealed the external relations act, and provided for the declaration of a republic, which came into force on 18 Apr. 1949, when Ireland left the commonwealth."
42. ↑ "Staying loyal to George". Indian Express. 19 February 2010. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/staying-loyal-to-george/581730/0.
43. ↑ "Barbados to remove Queen Elizabeth as head of state". BBC News. 16 September 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-54174794.
44. ↑ "Constituent Assembly Debates (India)". Delhi: Parliament of India. 16 May 1949. http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/debates/vol8p1.htm.
45. ↑ Bogdanor, Vernon (12 February 1998), The Monarchy and the Constitution, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 288, ISBN 978-0-19-829334-7, https://books.google.com/books?id=mN6SzMefot4C&q="overseas+realms"&pg=PA289
46. ↑ High Commissioner in United Kingdom (24 November 1952). "Royal Style and Titles". Documents on Canadian External Relations > Royal Style and Titles 18 (2). DEA/50121-B-40. http://www.international.gc.ca/department/history-histoire/dcer/details-en.asp?intRefid=3498.
47. ↑ Smy, William A. (2008). "Royal titles and styles". The Loyalist Gazette XLVI (1). http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb1372/is_1_46/ai_n29437278/. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
48. ↑ "The Invisible Crown". Monarchy Canada. http://www.monarchist.ca/mc/invisibl.htm.
49. ↑ Gowland, David (2009). Britain and European Integration Since 1945: On the Sidelines. Routledge. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-134-35452-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=dvt-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46.
50. ↑ James R. V. Ellison, "Perfidious Albion? Britain, Plan G and European Integration, 1955–1956", Contemporary British History (1996) 10#4 pp 1–34.
51. ↑ Martin Schaad, "Plan G – A "Counterblast"? British Policy Towards the Messina Countries, 1956", Contemporary European History (1998) 7#1 pp 39–60.
52. ↑ Clout, Laura (15 January 2007). "France offered to 'merge' with UK in 1950s". The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatfeedback/4202596/France-offered-to-merge-with-UK-in-1950s.html.
53. ↑ Thomson, Mike (15 January 2007). "UK – When Britain and France nearly married". https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6261885.stm.
54. ↑ British Government Policy and Decolonisation, 1945–63: Scrutinising the Official Mind. Taylor & Francis. 2013. pp. 137–43. ISBN 978-1-135-28441-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAFeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA143.
55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 "Rwanda: Joining the Commonwealth". The New Times (AllAfrica). 27 November 2009.
56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Kron, Josh (28 November 2009). "Rwanda Joins British Commonwealth". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/29/world/africa/29rwanda.html.
57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Turner, Camilla (22 June 2022). "Togo and Gabon to become newest members of Commonwealth this week". The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2022/06/22/togo-gabon-become-newest-members-commonwealth-week/.
58. ↑ Lawson, Alice (24 June 2022). "Togo sees Commonwealth entry as pivot to English-speaking world". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/togo-sees-commonwealth-entry-pivot-english-speaking-world-2022-06-24/.
59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 "Togo's Commonwealth Advantage: A Gateway to Investment and Growth". https://www.cweic.org/insights/interview-with-togo/.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Verma, Nidhi (6 March 2025). "India fertiliser company in talks to buy phosphate from Togo, sources say". in Paul, Sonali. https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/india-fertiliser-company-talks-buy-phosphate-togo-sources-say-2025-03-06/.
61. ↑ "Gabon partially suspended from the Commonwealth pending restoration of democracy". Commonwealth Secretariat. https://thecommonwealth.org/news/gabon-partially-suspended-commonwealth-pending-restoration-democracy.
62. ↑ "Gabon partially suspended from Commonwealth after coup". BBC News. 20 September 2023. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-66861734.
63. ↑ "Commonwealth lifts Gabon's partial suspension following April presidential vote". 16 August 2025. https://www.africanews.com/2025/07/16/commonwealth-lifts-gabons-partial-suspension-following-april-presidential-vote/.
64. ↑ Harris, Rob (11 March 2025). "Rubio says Ukraine may need to do 'difficult things' to get peace deal". https://www.smh.com.au/world/europe/peacekeeper-nations-including-australia-to-meet-on-ukraine-20250311-p5lij4.html?ref=rss. "British Prime Minister Sir Keir Starmer will host what he has called “a coalition of the willing” – a group of mainly European and Commonwealth countries."
65. ↑ Wong, Vicky (2 March 2025). "Starmer: Coalition of willing to guarantee Ukraine peace". https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c9vygkzkkrvo.
66. ↑ Liboreiro, Jorge (2025-04-02). "Everything we know about the 'Coalition of the Willing' for Ukraine". https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2025/04/02/everything-we-know-so-far-about-the-coalition-of-the-willing-for-ukraine.
67. ↑ "Prime Minister confirms he will join world leaders in 'coalition of the willing' phone call". 14 March 2025. https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/political/544860/prime-minister-confirms-he-will-join-world-leaders-in-coalition-of-the-willing-phone-call.
68. ↑ Tasker, John Paul. "Canada races to revive Commonwealth ties with its U.S. relationship on shaky ground". CBC. https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-commonwealth-canzuk-1.7468363.
69. ↑ "Donald Trump suggests US could join British Commonwealth". 21 March 2025. https://www.newsweek.com/donald-trump-suggests-us-could-join-british-commonwealth-2048679.
70. ↑ Robertson, Geoffrey (2025-04-18). "Trump has declared war on the world order, so nations like Australia must step up". https://www.smh.com.au/world/north-america/trump-has-declared-war-on-the-world-order-so-nations-like-australia-must-step-up-20250418-p5lsql.html?dicbo=v2-t66SDOG.
71. ↑ Julian, Hana Levi (2025-06-11). "British Commonwealth, Norway Impose Sanctions on 2 Israeli Government Ministers". https://www.jewishpress.com/news/global/uk/british-commonwealth-norway-impose-sanctions-on-2-israeli-government-ministers/2025/06/11/.
72. ↑ Browne, Gaston (9 March 2026). "The Commonwealth can be the basis for Mark Carney’s alliance of middle powers". The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2026/03/09/commonwealth-basis-mark-carneys-alliance-middle-power/.
73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 73.2 Patterson, Percival (24 October 2007). "Report of the Committee on Commonwealth Membership". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/shared_asp_files/GFSR.asp?NodeID=174532.
74. ↑ "Head of the Commonwealth". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/150757/head_of_the_commonwealth.
75. ↑ Walker, Peter (20 April 2018). "Prince Charles to be next head of Commonwealth". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/apr/20/prince-charles-next-head-commonwealth-queen.
76. ↑ "How we are run". Commonwealth Secretariat. 22 August 2013. https://thecommonwealth.org/about-us/how-we-are-run.
77. ↑ "The Commonwealth" (in en). Commonwealth Secretariat. https://thecommonwealth.org/.
78. ↑ Cook and Paxton, Commonwealth Political Facts (1978) part 3.
79. ↑ "Commonwealth appoints two Deputy Secretaries-General to advance strategic priorities and delivery" (in en). Commonwealth Secretariat. https://thecommonwealth.org/news/commonwealth-appoints-two-deputy-secretaries-general-advance-strategic-priorities-and-delivery.
80. ↑ Belton, Kristy A. (2 January 2019). "Muddy waters: citizenship and the right to vote in the Commonwealth Caribbean migratory context" (in en). Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 57 (1): 93–122. doi:10.1080/14662043.2019.1545526. ISSN 1466-2043. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14662043.2019.1545526.
81. ↑ "Prove you have right of abode in the UK" (in en). https://www.gov.uk/right-of-abode/commonwealth-citizens.
82. ↑ "Immigration". https://dgip.gov.pk/immigration/citizenship.php.
83. ↑ Manby, Bronwyn (2015). "Naturalisation" (in English). Citizenship Law in Africa: 3rd Edition (3rd ed.). African Books Collective. pp. 91–92. ISBN 9781928331124. OCLC 945563529. https://muse.jhu.edu/book/44960.
84. ↑ Dale, William (July 1982). "Is the Commonwealth an International Organisation?". International and Comparative Law Quarterly 31 (3): 451–73. doi:10.1093/iclqaj/31.3.451.
85. ↑ Clute, Robert E.; Wilson, Robert R. (July 1958). "Commonwealth and Favored-Nation Usage". American Journal of International Law 52 (3): 455–468. doi:10.2307/2195461.
86. ↑ Hedley, Bull (July 1959). "What is the Commonwealth?". World Politics 11 (4): 577–87. doi:10.2307/2009593.
87. ↑ Sue v Hill [1999] HCA 30, (1999) 199 CLR 462.
88. ↑ Nolan v Minister for Immigration & Ethnic Affairs [1988] HCA 45
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90. ↑ "The new UK Emergency Passport". United Kingdom: Foreign and Commonwealth Office. http://centralcontent.fco.gov.uk/resources/en/pdf/central-content-pdfs/5619320/etd-leaflet.pdf.
91. ↑ "Travel related documents". Australia: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. https://www.passports.gov.au/travel-related-documents.
92. ↑ Lloyd, Lorna (2007) (in en). Diplomacy with a Difference: The Commonwealth Office of High Commissioner, 1880–2006. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 119–120. ISBN 978-90-04-15497-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=4z5Qj-7HZ68C. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
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94. ↑ Dziedzic, Anna (4 April 2022). "When judging meets development: foreign judges on Pacific courts" (in en-AU). Australian National University. https://devpolicy.org/when-judging-meets-development-foreign-judges-on-pacific-courts-20220404/.
95. ↑ Bell, Andrew Scott (October 2023). "The Role of Foreign Judges in the Pacific: Past, Present and Future". Supreme Court of New South Wales. https://supremecourt.nsw.gov.au/documents/Publications/Speeches/2023-Speeches/Chief-Justice/CJ_20231007_Foreign_Judges_Pacific_.pdf.
96. ↑ "High Court Act to be amended", Fiji Times, 4 July 2007
97. ↑ "High Court promulgation 2007" , Fiji government press release, 17 July 2007
98. ↑ "Nationality and Commonwealth". British Army. https://jobs.army.mod.uk/how-to-join/can-i-apply/nationality/.
99. ↑ "Visa fees scrapped for Non-UK Service Personnel" (in en). https://www.gov.uk/government/news/visa-fees-scrapped-for-non-uk-service-personnel.
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102. ↑ Ethirajan, Anbarasan (27 August 2023). "Agnipath scheme: The pain of Nepal's Gurkhas over Indian army's new hiring plan" (in en-GB). BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-66603133.
103. ↑ "The Gurkha Regiments Explained" (in en). 18 October 2022. https://www.gwt.org.uk/news/the-gurkha-regiments-explained/.
104. ↑ de Smith, S.A. (July 1949). "The London Declaration of the Commonwealth Prime Ministers, 28 April 1949". The Modern Law Review 12 (3): 351–354. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2230.1949.tb00131.x.
105. ↑ 105.0 105.1 "Lusaka Declaration on Racism and Racial Prejudice". Commonwealth Secretariat. 7 August 1979. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/document/34293/35468/35776/lusaka.htm.
106. ↑ Williams, Paul D. (July 2005). "Blair's Britain and the Commonwealth". The Round Table 94 (380): 381–391. doi:10.1080/00358530500174960.
107. ↑ "Harare Commonwealth Declaration". Commonwealth Secretariat. 20 October 1991. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Templates/Internal.asp?NodeID=34457.
108. ↑ "Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/38125/cmag.
109. ↑ 109.0 109.1 te Velde-Ashworth, Victoria (10 October 2005). "The future of the modern Commonwealth: Widening vs. deepening?". Commonwealth Policy Studies Unit. http://www.cpsu.org.uk/downloads/future_aide.pdf.
110. ↑ "Commonwealth membership in focus at London meeting". Commonwealth Secretariat. 6 December 2006. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/news/157526/commonwealth_membership_in_focus_at_london_meeting.htm.
111. ↑ Osike, Felix (24 November 2007). "Rwanda membership delayed". New Vision. http://www.sundayvision.co.ug/detail.php?mainNewsCategoryId=7&newsCategoryId=123&newsId=598876.
112. ↑ "Conference on Rwanda's Commonwealth bid to be held". The New Times. 3 August 2008. http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2008-08-03/40316/.
113. ↑ 113.0 113.1 "Rwanda's application for membership, Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative". https://www.humanrightsinitiative.org/download/Rwanda application for membership.pdf.
114. ↑ Three Commonwealth countries also have long-standing claims to sovereignty in Antarctica, although these claims are not widely recognised. The claims, which each include permanent research stations and together cover most of the continent, are the Australian Antarctic Territory, the British Antarctic Territory and the Ross Dependency (New Zealand).
115. ↑ 115.0 115.1 "Fast Facts: The Commonwealth". Commonwealth Secretariat. January 2023. https://production-new-commonwealth-files.s3.eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-01/Fast Facts on the Commonwealth.pdf?VersionId=R8Y.eVKtTbPlfEUqxgT.10RhnXamTNvs.
116. ↑ Brandis, George (20 October 2024). "The King loves Australia but his next stop's the big one (and China will be watching)" (in en). https://www.smh.com.au/world/oceania/the-king-loves-australia-but-his-next-stop-s-the-big-one-and-china-will-be-watching-20241017-p5kj8q.html.
117. ↑ McIntyre, W. David (April 2008). "The Expansion of the Commonwealth and the Criteria for Membership". Round Table 97 (395): 273–85. doi:10.1080/00358530801962089.
118. ↑ "Nauru back as full Commonwealth member". Radio New Zealand International. 26 June 2011. http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=61413.
119. ↑ "Nauru Accedes to Full Membership of the Commonwealth". Commonwealth Secretariat. 12 April 1999. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/press/31555/34582/34786/nauru_accedes_to_full_membership_of_the_commonweal.htm.
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121. ↑ "New Criteria for Commonwealth Membership". thecommonwealth.org. 23 August 2013. http://thecommonwealth.org/history-of-the-commonwealth/new-criteria-commonwealth-membership.
122. ↑ "South Sudan Launches Bid to Join Commonwealth". gurtong.net. http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/5418/South-Sudan-Launches-Bid-to-Join-Commonwealth.aspx.
123. ↑ 123.0 123.1 Alderson, Andrew (17 December 2006). "Israelis and Palestinians could join Commonwealth". The Daily Telegraph (London). https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1537176/Israelis-and-Palestinians-could-join-Commonwealth.html.
124. ↑ 124.0 124.1 "Statement by Commonwealth Secretary-General Kamalesh Sharma on The Gambia". The Commonwealth. 4 October 2013. http://thecommonwealth.org/media/news/statement-commonwealth-secretary-general-kamalesh-sharma-gambia.
125. ↑ 125.0 125.1 "The Gambia rejoins the Commonwealth". Commonwealth Secretariat. 8 February 2018. http://thecommonwealth.org/media/news/gambia-rejoins-commonwealth.
126. ↑ "States and Territories". http://www.15ccem.com/15CCEM/CCEM_MainContent.jsp;jsessionid=367113CBDAC84B7DEAC85D1F77B477D0?pContentID=830&p_applic=CCC&pElementID=443&pMenuID=171&p_service=Content.show&.
127. ↑ Baldacchino, Godfrey (September 2006). "Exploring sub-national island jurisdictions: An editorial introduction". The Round Table 95 (386): 487–502. doi:10.1080/00358530600929735. https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar//handle/123456789/13927.
128. ↑ 128.0 128.1 "Office of Parliamentary Counsel – CALC – Constitution & Membership". 11 March 2011. http://www.opc.gov.au/calc/constit.htm.
129. ↑ 129.0 129.1 "Legislative drafting offices in which there are CALC members". http://www.opc.gov.au/calc/docs/LDOs.pdf.
130. ↑ "Written evidence from States of Jersey". Chief Minister of Jersey. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmfaff/114/114we22.htm.
131. ↑ "The role and future of the Commonwealth". House of Commons. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmfaff/114/11410.htm.
132. ↑ "Written evidence from the States of Guernsey". Policy Council of Guernsey. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmfaff/114/114we18.htm.
133. ↑ "Isle of Man welcomes report on Commonwealth future". Isle of Man Government. 23 November 2012. http://www.gov.im/lib/news/cso/isleofmanwelcome5.xml.
134. ↑ Colvile, Robert (July 2004). "A Place to Stand: the Problems and Potential of the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group". The Round Table 93 (375): 343–53. doi:10.1080/0035853042000249942.
135. ↑ Ingram, Derek (October 1999). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 88 (352): 547–567. doi:10.1080/003585399107758.
136. ↑ Ingram, Derek (October 2007). "Twenty Commonwealth steps from Singapore to Kampala". The Round Table 96 (392): 555–563. doi:10.1080/00358530701625877.
137. ↑ Ingram, Derek (January 2000). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 89 (353): 45–57. doi:10.1080/750459452.
138. ↑ Ingram, Derek (July 2004). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 93 (375): 311–42. doi:10.1080/0035853042000249933.
139. ↑ Gruenbaum, Oren (February 2008). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 97 (394): 3–17. doi:10.1080/00358530701864963.
140. ↑ 140.0 140.1 Ingram, Derek (April 2002). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 91 (364): 131–59. doi:10.1080/00358530220144148.
141. ↑ "Editorial: CHOGM 2003, Abuja, Nigeria". The Round Table 93 (373): 3–6. January 2004. doi:10.1080/0035853042000188139.
142. ↑ "Zimbabwe applies to rejoin Commonwealth". 22 May 2018. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/05/zimbabwe-applies-rejoin-commonwealth-180522062016470.html.
143. ↑ British Nationality Act 1981: Schedule 3, The National Archives, 1981 c. 61 (sch. 3), http://legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1981/61/schedule/3/enacted
144. ↑ 144.0 144.1 144.2 144.3 "Fiji Suspended from the Commonwealth". Commonwealth Secretariat. 1 September 2009. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/news/34580/213088/010909fijisuspended.htm.
145. ↑ "Fiji Rejoins the Commonwealth". Commonwealth Secretariat. 30 September 1997. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Templates/Internal.asp?NodeID=140761.
146. ↑ Ingram, Derek (July 2000). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 89 (355): 311–55. doi:10.1080/00358530050083406.
147. ↑ 147.0 147.1 "Fiji suspended from Commonwealth". BBC News. 8 December 2006. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6161587.stm.
148. ↑ "Foreign & Commonwealth Office Minister welcomes Commonwealth statement on Fiji". https://www.gov.uk/government/news/foreign-commonwealth-office-minister-welcomes-commonwealth-statement-on-fiji.
149. ↑ "Fiji rejoins Commonwealth as a full member". The Commonwealth. 26 September 2014. http://thecommonwealth.org/media/press-release/fiji-rejoins-commonwealth-full-member.
150. ↑ "We're back". Fiji Times. 28 September 2014. http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=281480.
151. ↑ "Britain must stand up for human rights in Sri Lanka". The Guardian. 11 March 2013. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/mar/11/britain-human-rights-sri-lanka.
152. ↑ "Harper rebukes Sri Lanka over jurist's dismissal as talk of summit boycott heats up". The Globe and Mail. 14 January 2013. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/harper-rebukes-sri-lanka-over-jurists-dismissal-as-talk-of-summit-boycott-heats-up/article7341673.
153. ↑ "Sirisena sworn in as Sri Lanka's new president". 9 January 2015. https://www.rappler.com/world/south-central-asia/80301-sirisena-sri-lanka-new-president/.
154. ↑ "Commonwealth website confirms Zimbabwe "terminated" its membership with effect from 7 December 2003". http://www.thecommonwealth.org/press/31555/34582/35505/zimbabwes_withdrawal_from_the_commonwealth.htm.
155. ↑ "The Commonwealth Secretariat". 13 October 2016. http://thecommonwealth.org/media/news/secretary-general-statement-maldives-decision-leave-commonwealth.
156. ↑ 156.0 156.1 "The Maldives decides to leave the Commonwealth; commits to continue with its international engagement". Maldivian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 13 October 2016. http://www.foreign.gov.mv/v2/en/media-center/news/article/1999.
157. ↑ "Maldives to rejoin Commonwealth of former British colonies" (in en). The National. 20 November 2018. https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/asia/maldives-to-rejoin-commonwealth-of-former-british-colonies-1.793718.
158. ↑ Srinivasan, Meera (February 2020). "Maldives rejoins Commonwealth after over three years". The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/maldives-rejoins-commonwealth-as-united-kingdom-leaves-european-union/article30712478.ece.
159. ↑ "Withdrawals and Suspension" (in en-US). https://www.commonwealthofnations.org/commonwealth/commonwealth-membership/withdrawals-and-suspension/.
160. ↑ "South Africa withdraws from the Commonwealth". https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/south-africa-withdraws-commonwealth.
161. ↑ Commonwealth Observer Group (1999). The National and Provincial Elections in South Africa, 2 June 1999. Commonwealth Secretariat. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-85092-626-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=vOVHuLGt-YwC&pg=PA7. Retrieved 10 February 2018.
162. ↑ "Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles 1971". thecommonwealth.org. Commonwealth Secretariat. 22 January 1971. http://thecommonwealth.org/sites/default/files/history-items/documents/Singapore Declaration.pdf.
163. ↑ "Langkawi Declaration on the Environment". USM Regional Center of Expertise in Education for Sustainable Development. 21 October 1989. http://www.greenpages.net.my/node/4.
164. ↑ Patel, Hasu (2000), "Southern Africa and democracy, in the light of the Harare declaration." The Round Table 89.357: 585–592.
165. ↑ "Our Work". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/150952/our_work.
166. ↑ "Aso Rock Commonwealth Declaration". Commonwealth Secretariat. 8 December 2003. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/shared_asp_files/uploadedfiles/{E7A2A23D-FD9F-418B-B2D4-CC39FFD2FEF2}_Aso Rock Declaration.pdf.
167. ↑ Borger, Julian (8 October 2010). "Commonwealth has abandoned human rights commitment – leaked memo". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/law/2010/oct/08/commonwealth-human-rights-leaked-document.
168. ↑ 168.0 168.1 Cheadle, Bruce (30 October 2011). "Commonwealth leaders agree to develop charter of values and little else". Toronto Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/1078397--commonwealth-leaders-agree-to-develop-charter-of-values-and-little-else?bn=1.
169. ↑ Cheadle, Bruce (29 October 2011). "Commonwealth leaders still haggling over human rights reforms". Toronto Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/politics/article/1078175--commonwealth-leaders-still-haggling-over-human-rights-reforms?bn=1.
170. ↑ 170.0 170.1 Watt, Nicholas (29 October 2011). "Commonwealth leaders under fire for refusing to publish human rights report". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/oct/29/commonwealth-meeting-human-rights-disgrace.
171. ↑ "Queen to sign new charter backing equal rights for gay people across Commonwealth". Standard.co.uk. 11 March 2013. https://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/queen-to-sign-new-charter-backing-equal-rights-for-gay-people-across-commonwealth-8528587.html.
172. ↑ Sinha, Kounteya (11 March 2013). "Commonwealth charter to focus on gay rights". The Times of India. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-11/uk/37622297_1_gay-rights-equal-rights-commonwealth-secretary-general-kamalesh-sharma.
173. ↑ ""World Population prospects – Population division"". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. https://population.un.org/wpp/.
174. ↑ ""Overall total population" – World Population Prospects: The 2019 Revision" (xslx). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators (Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_Population/WPP2019_POP_F01_1_TOTAL_POPULATION_BOTH_SEXES.xlsx.
175. ↑ "Gross domestic product 2012". World Bank. 1 July 2013. http://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/GDP.pdf.
176. ↑ "GDP per capita (current US$)". World Bank. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD.
177. ↑ "Gross domestic product 2012, PPP". World Bank. 1 July 2013. http://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/GDP_PPP.pdf.
178. ↑ "GDP per capita, PPP (current international $)". World Bank. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD.
179. ↑ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects" (in en). https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April/weo-report.
180. ↑ Catherine R. Schenk, "Britain in the world economy." in Paul Addison and Harriet Jones, eds., A Companion to Contemporary Britain: 1939–2000 (2005): 436–481, esp. 469-71.
181. ↑ Alan S. Milward, The rise and fall of a national strategy, 1945–1963 (2002).
182. ↑ The Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth II. Wiley. 1998. p. 416. ISBN 978-0-471-28330-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=VkhSn5Fi7c4C.
183. ↑ Six Moments of Crisis: Inside British Foreign Policy. OUP Oxford. 2013. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-19-164163-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=m1_EUTmXbDwC&pg=PP87. Retrieved 10 February 2018.
184. ↑ Gregory A. Johnson, "The Last Gasp of Empire: The 1964 Flag Debate Revisited", in Phillip Buckner, ed., Canada and the End of Empire (University of British Columbia Press, 2005), p. 6.
185. ↑ Andrea Benvenuti, "'Layin' Low and Sayin' Nuffin': Australia's Policy towards Britain's Second Bid to Join the European Economic Community (1966–67)" Australian Economic History Review 46#2 (2006): 155–175.
186. ↑ Brown, Bruce (1977). New Zealand in World Affairs: 1972–1990. Victoria UP. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-86473-372-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=-pRHIw8R0-kC&pg=PA23. Retrieved 10 February 2018.
187. ↑ Russell Ward, A Nation for a Continent: the history of Australia, 1901–1975 (1977) p 343
188. ↑ "Trading Places: The "Commonwealth effect" revisited, p. 9.". https://thercs.org/assets/Uploads/Trading-Places-the-Commonwealth-effect-revisited.pdf.
189. ↑ Henderson, Andrew (2026-03-02). "The Commonwealth: a ceremonial relic that could be a supply-chain backstop" (in en-AU). https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/the-commonwealth-a-ceremonial-relic-that-could-be-a-supply-chain-backstop/.
190. ↑ "Commonwealth Secretariat – Valletta Statement on Multilateral Trade". Thecommonwealth.org. 26 November 2005. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/news/190628/163075/147476/valletta_statement_on_multilateral_trade.htm.
191. ↑ Shirley Botchwey, Commonwealth Secretary General interview with the BBC. Interview by BBC News. Commonwealth Secretariat. 2025-06-26. Retrieved 2025-07-01 - via YouTube.`{{cite AV media}}`: CS1 maint: others in cite AV media (notes) (link)
192. ↑ "The role and future of the Commonwealth". House of Commons. 15 November 2012. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmfaff/114/114.pdf.
193. ↑ Milne, Ian (2011). Time to say no: alternatives to EU membership. London: Civitas. ISBN 978-1-906837-32-7. OCLC 760992166.
194. ↑ Brown, Thomas (2 July 2021). "Renewing the UK's trading relationship with Commonwealth countries". https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/renewing-the-uks-trading-relationship-with-commonwealth-countries/.
195. ↑ "To the Commonwealth, "Global Britain" sounds like nostalgia for something else". New Statesman 28th February 2017. 25 February 2017. http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/staggers/2017/02/commonwealth-global-britain-sounds-nostalgia-something-else.
196. ↑ "UK and Australia in first post-Brexit trade deal". BBC News. 15 June 2021. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-57478412.
197. ↑ "Australia trade deal will not hit UK farmers, says Liz Truss" (in en-GB). BBC News. 15 June 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-57478412.
198. ↑ "Australia signs UK free trade deal, scrapping import tariffs and opening British jobs market". ABC News Australia. 23 July 2022. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-12-17/australia-signs-free-trade-agreement-united-kingdom/100706992.
199. ↑ Ward, Matthew (13 December 2024). "Statistics on UK trade with the Commonwealth". House of Commons Library. pp. 10, 12. https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8282/CBP-8282.pdf.
200. ↑ "Canada's unilateral tariff preference programs for imports from developing countries". Government of Canada. 12 July 2024. https://www.canada.ca/en/department-finance/programs/international-trade-finance-policy/canadas-unilateral-tariff-preference-programs-for-imports-from-developing-countries.html.
201. ↑ "Commonwealth Family". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/151814/commonwealth_family/.
202. ↑ "Directory of accredited organisations". Commonwealth Secretariat. https://thecommonwealth.org/organisations-directory.
203. ↑ 203.0 203.1 "Commonwealth Foundation – About Us". 5 January 2006. http://www.commonwealthfoundation.com/about/index.cfm.
204. ↑ 204.0 204.1 McKinnon, Don (February 2008). "A Commonwealth of Values: a Commonwealth of incomparable value". The Round Table 97 (394): 19–28. doi:10.1080/00358530801890561.
205. ↑ 205.0 205.1 "Commonwealth Games and Art Festival". The Round Table 91 (365): 293–296. July 2002. doi:10.1080/0035853022000010308.
206. ↑ McDougall, Derek (July 2005). "Australia and the Commonwealth". The Round Table 94 (380): 339–349. doi:10.1080/00358530500175033.
207. ↑ Muda, Muhammad (April 1998). "The significance of the Commonwealth Games in Malaysia's foreign policy". The Round Table 87 (346): 211–226. doi:10.1080/00358539808454416.
208. ↑ 208.0 208.1 Dare, Annie (15 October 2000). "Ten Key Things About War Graves". The Observer: p. 29.
209. ↑ 209.0 209.1 209.2 Binyon, Michael (22 January 1999). "Millions trace war dead on Internet". The Times: p. 3.
210. ↑ Geurst, Jeroen (2010). Cemeteries of the Great War By Sir Edwin Lutyens. 010 Publishers. ISBN 978-90-6450-715-1.
211. ↑ "About the Commonwealth of Learning". https://www.col.org/about/.
212. ↑ "Commonwealth Local Government Forum (CLGF) | The Commonwealth" (in en). 31 July 2013. http://thecommonwealth.org/organisation/commonwealth-local-government-forum-clgf.
213. ↑ "Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments". http://www.gtf2016.org/about-us.
214. ↑ "The Commonwealth" (in en-NZ). https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/peace-rights-and-security/the-commonwealth/.
215. ↑ "UK Representation in the Commonwealth" (in en). https://www.gov.uk/world/organisations/uk-representation-in-the-commonwealth.
216. ↑ "Remembrance" (in en). https://www.cwgc.org/our-work/outreach/remembrance/.
217. ↑ "Remembrance Day vs ANZAC Day explained" (in en). https://remembertoremember.com.au/blog/remembrance-day-vs-anzac-day-explained?dicbo=v4-9816lox-1076708621.
218. ↑ Slater, Jack (29 October 2022). "Do any other countries celebrate Bonfire Night?" (in en). https://metro.co.uk/2022/10/29/is-bonfire-night-only-in-the-uk-17662141/.
219. ↑ Mazrui, Ali Al Amin; Taylor, D.; Bradley, Kenneth (1967). Anglo-African Commonwealth. Pergamon. pp. 40–41. ISBN 978-0-08-012253-3.
220. ↑ Miller, J. D. B. (1974). Survey of Commonwealth affairs: problems of expansion 1953-1969. London New York Toronto: Oxford university press. pp. 434. ISBN 978-0-19-214999-2.
221. ↑ Perkin, Harold (September 1989). "Teaching the nations how to play: sport and society in the British Empire and Commonwealth". International Journal of the History of Sport 6 (2): 145–155. doi:10.1080/09523368908713685.
222. ↑ Dawson, Michael (February 2006). "Acting global, thinking local: 'Liquid imperialism' and the multiple meanings of the 1954 British Empire & Commonwealth Games". International Journal of the History of Sport 23 (1): 3–27. doi:10.1080/09523360500386419.
223. ↑ Clayton, Jonathan (20 November 2007). "Schoolboy cricketers bat their way to a place in the Commonwealth". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article2903598.ece.
224. ↑ Pflanz, Mike (24 July 2007). "Rwanda in drive to join Commonwealth". The Daily Telegraph (London). https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1558285/Rwanda-in-drive-to-join-Commonwealth.html.
225. ↑ Duncan, Isabelle (2013). Skirting the Boundary: A History of Women's Cricket. London: Robson Press. ISBN 9781849545464.
226. ↑ Hill, Douglas (1 October 1988). "A report on stories from the outposts of Commonwealth literature". The Globe and Mail: p. 21.
227. ↑ McCrum, Robert (13 October 2003). "English Is a World Language – and That's to Be Prized". Los Angeles Times: p. B15.
228. ↑ Tunca, Daria (27 September 2018). "ACLALS: Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies". http://www.aclals.ulg.ac.be/.
229. ↑ Iyer, Pico (12 February 1993). "The Empire Writes Back". The Straits Times: p. 1.
230. ↑ "Meet the Man Booker Prize 2014 Judges". 12 December 2013. http://manbookerprize.com/news/2013/12/12/meet-man-booker-prize-2014-judges.
231. ↑ "Commonwealth Short Story Prize" (in en-GB). https://commonwealthfoundation.com/short-story-prize/.
232. ↑ Drabble, Margaret, ed (1996). The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
233. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 2007". https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2007/index.html.
234. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 2001". Literature. Nobel Prize Outreach AB. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2001/.
235. ↑ Man Booker official site: J. G. Farrell ; Hilary Mantel: J. M. Coetzee .
236. ↑ "Commonwealth of Nations" (in en). UK Parliament. https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/parliament-and-empire/contemporary-context/.
237. ↑ The Statesman's Yearbook 2017: The Politics, Cultures and Economies of the World. Palgrave Macmillan UK. 2017. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-349-68398-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=PBs9DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
238. ↑ Gruenbaum, Oren (8 September 2023). "Why was a country as corrupt as Ali Bongo's Gabon ever admitted to the Commonwealth?" (in en-GB). https://www.commonwealthroundtable.co.uk/general/eye-on-the-commonwealth/why-was-a-country-as-corrupt-as-ali-bongos-gabon-ever-admitted-to-the-commonwealth/#.
239. ↑ "Legal" (in en-UK). https://www.commonwealthofnations.org/?sectors=business/legal.
240. ↑ "Commonwealth Latimer House Principles on the Three Branches of Government". Commonwealth Parliamentary Association. September 2023. https://www.cpahq.org/media/kafl4zuf/commonwealth_principles_cpa_sept_2023-v2_single.pdf.
241. ↑ Corder, Hugh (11 March 2016). "How Commonwealth countries have forged a new way to appoint judges" (in en-US). https://theconversation.com/how-commonwealth-countries-have-forged-a-new-way-to-appoint-judges-56090.
242. ↑ Flags of All Nations: Flags of the British Commonwealth of Nations (Brown, Son & Ferguson, 1952)
243. ↑ "A Celebration of Her Majesty's Sapphire Jubilee". 2016. http://www.commonwealth-music-council.net/sapphire-jubilee-celebration-cd.html.
244. ↑ "Commonwealth Anthem (with introductory narrative)". Commonwealth Youth Orchestra. 13 September 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bp4PCicIJl4.
245. ↑ Sriskandarajah, Dhananjayan (21 July 2009). "Canada, Commonwealth and the key to relevance". The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/commentary/canada-commonwealth-and-the-key-to-relevance/article4279734/.
246. ↑ Renzetti, Elizabeth (20 July 2009). "Commonwealth: quaint historical relic or meaningful bloc?". The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/commonwealth-quaint-historical-relic-or-meaningful-bloc/article4279618/.
247. ↑ "Queen marks Commonwealth launch". BBC News. 9 March 2009. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7931706.stm.

## Further reading

* Ashton, Sarah R. "British government perspectives on the Commonwealth, 1964–71: An asset or a liability?". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 35.1 (2007): 73–94.
* Bloomfield, Valerie. Commonwealth Elections 1945–1970 (1976).
* Cook, Chris and John Paxton. Commonwealth Political Facts (Macmillan, 1978).
* Hall, H. Duncan. "The genesis of the Balfour declaration of 1926". Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 1.3 (1962): 169–193.
* Holland, Robert F. Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance, 1918–39 (Springer, 1981).
* Jebb, Richard (1905). "Imperial Organization". The Empire and the century. London: John Murray. pp. 332–348.
* Lloyd, Lorna. Diplomacy with a difference: the Commonwealth Office of High Commissioner, 1880–2006 (Brill, 2007).
* McIntyre, W. David. "The strange death of dominion status". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 27.2 (1999): 193–212.
* McIntyre, W. David. The commonwealth of nations: Origins and impact, 1869–1971 (University of Minnesota Press, 1977); Comprehensive coverage giving London's perspective on political and constitutional relations with each possession.
* McIntyre, W. David. A Guide to the Contemporary Commonwealth, Palgrave, 2001. ISBN 978-0-333-96310-4.
* McIntyre, W. David. "The Unofficial Commonwealth Relations Conferences, 1933–59: Precursors of the Tri-sector Commonwealth." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 36.4 (2008): 591–614.
* Madden, Frederick and John Darwin, eds. The Dependent Empire, 1900–1948: Colonies, Protectorates, and the Mandates (1994), 908 pp. online
* Maitland, Donald. ed. Britain, the Commonwealth and Europe (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2001) online
* Mansergh, Nicholas The Commonwealth in the World, University of Toronto Press, 1982. ISBN 978-0-8020-2492-3.
* Moore, R.J. Making the New Commonwealth, Clarendon Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0-19-820112-0.
* Murphy, Philip. Monarchy and the End of Empire: The House of Windsor, the British Government, and the Postwar Commonwealth (Oxford UP 2013) doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199214235.001.0001
* Perkin, Harold. "Teaching the nations how to play: sport and society in the British empire and Commonwealth". International Journal of the History of Sport 6.2 (1989): 145–155.
* Shaw, Timothy M. Commonwealth: Inter- and Non-State Contributions to Global Governance, Routledge, 2008. ISBN 978-0-415-35120-1
* Srinivasan, Krishnan. The rise, decline and future of the British Commonwealth (Springer, 2005).
* Wheare, K. C. The Constitutional Structure of the Commonwealth, Clarendon Press, 1960. ISBN 978-0-313-23624-2.
* Williams, Paul D. "Blair's Britain and the Commonwealth". The Round Table 94.380 (2005): 381–391.
* Winks, Robin, ed. The Historiography of the British Empire-Commonwealth: Trends, Interpretations and Resources (1966) online

### Primary sources

* Madden, Frederick, ed. The End of Empire: Dependencies since 1948: Select Documents on the Constitutional History of the British Empire and Commonwealth: The West Indies, British Honduras, Hong Kong, Fiji, Cyprus, Gibraltar, and the Falklands (2000) online 596pp
* Madden, Frederick, and John Darwin, ed. The Dependent Empire: 1900–1948: Colonies, Protectorates, and Mandates (1963), 908pp online
* Mansergh, Nicholas, ed. Documents and Speeches on Commonwealth Affairs, 1952–1962 (1963), 804pp online

## External links

* Commonwealth of Nations travel guide from Wikivoyage
* Commonwealth Secretariat
* Commonwealth Foundation

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Europe

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* 1708–1757, 1763–1782 and 1798–1802 Minorca
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* v
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North America

| 17th century and before| 18th century| 19th and 20th century

|
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* 1579 New Albion
* 16th c.–1880 British Arctic Territories
* 1583–1907 Newfoundland
* 1605–1979 *Saint Lucia
* 1607–1776 Virginia
* Since 1619 Bermuda
* 1620–1691 Plymouth
* 1623–1883 Saint Kitts
* 1624–1966 *Barbados
* 1625–1650 Saint Croix
* 1627–1979 *Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
* 1628–1883 Nevis
* 1629–1691 Massachusetts-Bay
* 1632–1776 Maryland
* since 1632 Montserrat
* 1632–1860 Antigua
* 1635–1644 Saybrook
* 1636–1776 Connecticut
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* 1637–1662 New Haven

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* Since 1666 Virgin Islands
* Since 1670 Cayman Islands
* 1670–1973 *Bahamas
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* 1763–1783 West Florida
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* 1871–1964 Honduras
* 1882–1983 *Saint Kitts and Nevis
* 1889–1962 Trinidad and Tobago
* 1907–1949 Newfoundland3
* 1958–1962 West Indies Federation
* 1967–1983 West Indies Associated States

* 1. Occupied jointly with the United States.
* 2. In 1931, Canada and other British dominions obtained self-government through the Statute of Westminster. See Name of Canada.
* 3. Gave up self-rule in 1934, but remained a de jure Dominion until it joined Canada in 1949.

South America

* 1631–1641 Providence Island
* 1651–1667 Willoughbyland
* 1670–1688 Saint Andrew and Providence Islands4
* 1831–1966 Guiana
* Since 1833 Falkland Islands5
* Since 1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands5

* 4. Now a department of Colombia.
* 5. Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April–June 1982.

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Africa

| 17th and 18th centuries| 19th century| 20th century

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* Since 1658 Saint Helena14
* 1792–1961 Sierra Leone
* 1795–1803 Cape Colony

* Since 1815 Ascension Island14
* Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14
* 1806–1910 Cape of Good Hope
* 1807–1808 Madeira
* 1810–1968 Mauritius
* 1816–1965 The Gambia
* 1856–1910 Natal
* 1862–1906 Lagos
* 1868–1966 Basutoland
* 1874–1957 Gold Coast
* 1882–1922 Egypt

* 1884–1900 Niger Coast
* 1884–1966 Bechuanaland
* 1884–1960 Somaliland
* 1887–1897 Zululand
* 1890–1962 Uganda
* 1890–1963 Zanzibar
* 1891–1964 Nyasaland
* 1891–1907 Central Africa
* 1893–1968 Swaziland
* 1895–1920 East Africa
* 1899–1956 Sudan

* 1900–1914 Northern Nigeria
* 1900–1914 Southern Nigeria
* 1900–1910 Orange River
* 1900–1910 Transvaal
* 1903–1976 Seychelles
* 1910–1931 South Africa
* 1914–1960 Nigeria
* 1915–1931 South-West Africa
* 1919–1961 Cameroons6
* 1920–1963 Kenya
* 1922–1961 Tanganyika6
* 1923–1965 and 1979–1980 Southern Rhodesia7
* 1924–1964 Northern Rhodesia

* 6. League of Nations mandate.
* 7. Self-governing Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence in 1965 (as Rhodesia) and continued as an unrecognised state until the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement. After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.

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Asia

| 17th and 18th century| 19th century| 20th century

|
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* 1685–1824 Bencoolen
* 1702–1705 Pulo Condore
* 1757–1947 Bengal
* 1762–1764 Manila and Cavite
* 1781–1784 and 1795–1819 Padang
* 1786–1946 Penang
* 1795–1948 Ceylon
* 1796–1965 Maldives

* 1811–1816 Java
* 1812–1824 Banka and Billiton
* 1819–1826 Malaya
* 1824–1948 Burma
* 1826–1946 Straits Settlements
* 1839–1967 Aden
* 1839–1842 Afghanistan
* 1841–1997 Hong Kong
* 1841–1946 Sarawak
* 1848–1946 Labuan
* 1858–1947 India
* 1874–1963 Borneo

* 1879–1919 Afghanistan (protectorate)
* 1882–1963 North Borneo
* 1885–1946 Unfederated Malay States
* 1888–1984 Brunei
* 1891–1971 Muscat and Oman
* 1892–1971 Trucial States
* 1895–1946 Federated Malay States
* 1898–1930 Weihai
* 1878–1960 Cyprus

* 1907–1949 Bhutan (protectorate)
* 1918–1961 Kuwait
* 1920–1932 Mesopotamia8
* 1921–1946 Transjordan8
* 1923–1948 Palestine8
* 1945–1946 South Vietnam
* 1946–1963 North Borneo
* 1946–1963 Sarawak
* 1946–1963 Singapore
* 1946–1948 Malayan Union
* 1948–1957 Federation of Malaya
* Since 1960 Akrotiri and Dhekelia (before as part of Cyprus)
* Since 1965 British Indian Ocean Territory (before as part of Mauritius and the Seychelles)

8 League of Nations mandate. Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty

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Oceania

| 18th and 19th centuries| 20th century

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* 1788–1901 New South Wales
* 1803–1901 Van Diemen's Land/Tasmania
* 1807–1863 Auckland Islands9
* 1824–1980 New Hebrides
* 1824–1901 Queensland
* 1829–1901 Swan River/Western Australia
* 1836–1901 South Australia
* since 1838 Pitcairn Islands

* 1841–1907 New Zealand
* 1846-1847 North Australia
* 1851–1901 Victoria
* 1874–1970 Fiji
* 1877–1976 Western Pacific Territories
* 1884–1949 Papua
* 1888–1901 Rarotonga/Cook Islands9
* 1889–1948 Union Islands9
* 1892–1979 Gilbert and Ellice Islands11
* 1893–1978 Solomon Islands12

* 1900–1970 Tonga
* 1900–1974 Niue9
* 1901–1942 *Australia
* 1907–1947 *New Zealand
* 1914–1962 Samoa
* 1919–1942 and 1945–1968 Nauru
* 1919–1949 New Guinea
* 1949–1975 Papua and New Guinea13

* 9. Now part of the *Realm of New Zealand.
* 10. Suspended member.
* 11. Now Kiribati and *Tuvalu.
* 12. Now the *Solomon Islands.
* 13. Now *Papua New Guinea.

Antarctica and South Atlantic

* Since 1658 Saint Helena14
* Since 1815 Ascension Island14
* Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14
* Since 1833 Falkland Islands
* 1841–1933 Australian Antarctic Territory (transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia)
* 1841–1947 Ross Dependency (transferred to the Realm of New Zealand)
* Since 1908 British Antarctic Territory15
* Since 1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands15

* 14. Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena.
* 15. Both claimed in 1908; territories formed in 1962 (British Antarctic Territory) and 1985 (South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands).

* Historical flags of the British Empire

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