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## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Nuclear energy production
* 2.1 Uranium and mining
* 3 License renewals
* 4 Safety and security
* 5 Radioactive waste
* 5.1 Low-level waste
* 5.2 High-level waste
* 6 Nuclear power issues
* 6.1 Waste management
* 6.2 Aging nuclear fleet
* 7 Regulatory agencies
* 8 Ballot initiatives in the United States
* 8.1 List of ballot measures
* 9 See also
* 10 External links
* 11 Footnotes

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Nuclear power is a way of generating energy by using heat that escapes during the fission process. Fission occurs when the isotopes of some elements can be split to release part of their energy as heat. Uranium-235 (U-235) is an isotope that fissions easier than others. With enough U-235 packaged in rods, the fission process produces heat that can be used to generate electricity in power plants. As of December 2016, there were 99 nuclear power reactors operating in the United States. In 2015, nuclear power plants accounted for 19.5 percent of U.S. electricity.[1]
Nuclear power plants generate energy the same way as other steam-electric power plants. Water is heated with nuclear generated energy until it becomes steam; this steam then turns a turbine and generates electricity. The only difference between steam-electric and nuclear power plants is how the water is heated. Steam-electric power plants use coal, oil, or natural gas to heat the water.[1]
Nuclear power plants generate energy similar to other steam-electric power plants. The fission process produces enough heat to turn water into steam. The steam then powers a turbine to generate electricity. Whereas nuclear power plants use the fission process to heat water, steam-electric power plants use coal, oil, or natural gas to heat water.[1]

Proponents of nuclear power argue that Americans should continue investing in nuclear power because it is an energy-dense supply of affordable, reliable electricity. Further, nuclear power does not produce carbon dioxide emissions and, once a nuclear plant is built, energy is produced for less cost per kilowatt hour than other traditional resources like oil or coal or renewable energy resources like solar and wind. Power plants also use far less land to generate energy than is used for solar or wind farms.

Opponents argue that the upfront costs of constructing nuclear power plants are too high and that maintaining older plants is costly and potentially dangerous. Although nuclear power plants do not produce carbon dioxide emissions, opponents argue that other potential environmental impacts can occur during uranium mining and that nuclear reactors require too much water for keeping reactors cool. Additionally, opponents argue that radioactive waste is difficult to store safely and effectively, and thus policies should be enacted to shift from nuclear to solar and wind energy.[1]

## History[edit]

Fission, the process central to nuclear power generation, was discovered by Enrico Fermi in 1934 in Rome. By 1942, the first nuclear reactor was built at the University of Chicago beneath the school's athletic stadium. Using this reactor, Fermi and other scientists created the first self-sustaining reactor on December 2, 1942. Following this discovery, much of the work done in nuclear energy centered on the Manhattan Project, a project for creating weapons for use during World War II. After the World War II, the U.S. government created the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) with the dual mission to regulate and advance peaceful commercial uses of nuclear power. In 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower (R) proposed the "Atoms for Peace" program, which reorganized U.S. research toward electricity generation and thus civil nuclear energy development and use in the United States. The AEC oversaw the first electricity generated from nuclear power in Idaho on December 20, 1951. Utility companies increased the use of nuclear energy in the 1960s, but demand for nuclear energy declined over the next two decades primarily due to safety, waste, and other environmental concerns, particularly in the wake of the accident at Three Mile Island, though no one was harmed by the incident.[1][2] In June 1970, there were 15 operating electric power nuclear reactors, 54 were being built and there were plans for 32 more.[3]

As of April 26, 2016, nine applications for 15 new nuclear reactor units were under review by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.[4][5]

The map above shows the license renewal status of nuclear power plants (as of October 2014).

## Nuclear energy production[edit]

The United States produces 30 percent of the world's nuclear energy, making it the largest producer in the world. In 2015, 19.5 percent of the electricity generated in the United States came from nuclear energy.[4][6] As of November 2016, there were 99 nuclear power reactors at 61 nuclear power plants in 30 states as seen in the map below. As of November 2016, there were 23 nuclear plant operators in the United States. These power plants have consistently achieved over 90 percent efficiency since 2001, more than any other resource.[4][6][7]

### Uranium and mining[edit]

Uranium is a heavy metal that fuels nuclear reactors. It is the main source of heat under the earth and fuels convection and continental drift. Uranium was first discovered in 1789 and is found mostly in rocks, though uranium can also be recovered from oceans. As with most elements, uranium occurs in several different forms known as isotopes, which differ in the number of uncharged particles (neutrons) in the nucleus. The two most common isotopes of natural uranium found in the earth's crust are uranium-238 (U-238), which accounts for 99.3 percent, and uranium-235 (U-235), which accounts for about 0.7 percent.[8]

Uranium mined in the United States, 1996-2013

Uranium ore is mined underground and then grounded and treated with acid until the uranium can be accessed. Once the uranium has been extracted, it is enriched to increase the concentration of U-235. Enriching uranium converts the uranium into a gas (uranium hexafluoride). This gas is then turned into uranium dioxide and formed into pellets, which go into metal tubes and become the reactor core.[8] Uranium is mined in Australia, Kazakhstan, Canada, Russia, South Africa, Namibia, Brazil, Niger, the United States, China, Jordan Uzbekistan, Ukraine, and India. Uranium can only be sold to countries that have signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[8] The graph below shows quarterly uranium production data for the U.S. from 1996 to 2013.[9]

## License renewals[edit]

On October 20, 2014, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), which regulates the nuclear energy industry in the United States, resumed issuing license renewals.[10]

Licenses were granted to the Limerick Generating Station (for Units 1 and 2), which is located northwest of Philadelphia. As of this action, the NRC had granted 20-year extensions to 74 of the 99 nuclear reactors in the United States. As of October 29, 2014, an additional 14 permits were under review for possible renewal. If all these permits were granted, 95 of the 99 nuclear reactors in the United States will have received 20-year extensions.[11]

## Safety and security[edit]

Nuclear energy produces radiation and thus is a potential hazard. Nuclear reactors are built to keep fuel cool to prevent meltdowns, control reactivity, and contain radioactive substances. Radiation leaks are mainly caused by poor design or construction, human error, or insufficient monitoring. To prevent hazards, nuclear power companies perform the following activities, known as a "defense-in-depth" approach, to ensure the safety and security of a nuclear plant:[12][13]

* Ensure high-quality design and construction of a plant
* Adopt equipment that prevents operational disruptions or human errors from creating problems
* Conduct comprehensive monitoring and regular testing of equipment and operators
* Implement repetitious and varied systems to control any damage to the fuel and prevent any serious radioactive releases
* Confine the effects of any severe fuel damage or other problems to the plant itself

Additionally, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission imposes rules and orders that nuclear power companies must meet to obtain or retain their license to operate a nuclear plant. These rules mainly cover the transportation and use of nuclear materials. The agency also publishes guidance and other documents for operators; some of these documents require operators to take certain actions or provide information about safety issues involving a reactor.[14]

One potential scenario that many concerned about nuclear power point to is a reactor meltdown. If a reactor is not properly cooled, it can lead to a meltdown, and thus create a public hazard, which can lead to fatalities. According to the World Nuclear Association, in the equivalent of 14,500 cumulative reactors years, there have been just three incidents. These incidents include Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima.[12]

* On March 28, 1979, a meltdown occurred at a nuclear power plant at Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania. The concern was that the meltdown would release harmful radiation; however, there was no widespread radiation contamination and no deaths occurred. The event prompted the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to emphasize how to limit human error in the face of small mechanical failures.[15]
* In Chernobyl, Ukraine, in 1986, a steam explosion destroyed a nuclear reactor, killing 56 people. The explosion was caused primarily by human error and poor reactor design. The main negative health impact was an increase in thyroid cancer among children. Around 4,000 to 5,000 children were diagnosed with the cancer from 1992 and 2002, and 15 children died. Proponents of nuclear energy argue that this incident is an outlier because of the Chernobyl reactor's poor design and lack of proper oversight by the former Soviet Union.
* Following a large tsunami in Fukushima, Japan in 2011, three nuclear reactors experienced a meltdown from a loss of power to maintain cooling. No deaths from radiation exposure have been attributed to the accident in Japan, according to studies published by the United Nations and the World Health Organization. Proponents of nuclear energy argue that the Fukushima incident demonstrates that a nuclear reactor could melt down without causing serious public harm and fatalities.

Other accidents involving experimental reactors have occurred worldwide, but excluding Chernobyl no nuclear plant workers or members of the public have died from commercial nuclear accidents.[12]

## Radioactive waste[edit]

Radioactive waste is the by-product of using radioactive materials. The NRC classifies two main types of radioactive waste generated from nuclear power plants: low-level waste and high-level waste.

### Low-level waste[edit]

Map of low-level waste processing centers

Low-level waste items are contaminated by radiation during the power generating process. These items include protective clothing, filters, tools, rags, etc. There are four low-level waste disposal facilities in the United States as seen in the map to the right.[16][17]

### High-level waste[edit]

High-level waste is spent or irradiated nuclear fuel from nuclear power generation and defense-related activities (such as the use of nuclear powered submarines). This waste comes in two forms: spent nuclear fuel and waste materials from spent fuel reprocessing. Spent fuel results when the self-sustaining fission chain reactions that generate heat for electricity begin to slow, making electricity generation inefficient. Even though the process has slowed, the remaining U-235 is still a hot, strongly radioactive material that must be disposed of properly to ensure no harm to human health or the surrounding environment. This waste can be reprocessed to be used again as fuel, though reprocessing did not occur in the United States as of December 2016. High-level waste must be stored for hundreds of thousands of years before the radioactivity levels decrease enough to become harmless.[17][18]

## Nuclear power issues[edit]

### Waste management[edit]

Yucca Mountain was declared an appropriate site for long-term nuclear waste storage by Congress.

The debate over nuclear waste management has focused on the long-term storage of nuclear waste. In 1987, Congress amended the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 to study Yucca Mountain in Nevada as a nuclear waste storage site. Though Yucca Mountain was declared an appropriate storage site for nuclear waste, the Obama administration cancelled work at Yucca Mountain in 2010, and some Nevada legislators, particularly Sen. Harry Reid (D), strongly oppose using Yucca Mountain for waste storage. As of 2010, work at Yucca Mountain cost the federal government $12 billion, which excludes costs to the nuclear power industry. Without more permanent waste storage sites, nuclear power plants have continued storing their waste on an interim basis, and plant operators must use reserved funds to cover the costs of long-term storage.[19][20]

According to some proponents of nuclear power, the lack of a long-term plan allowing for permanent waste disposal prevents investors from financing the industry to spur its growth. Some proponents argue that the nuclear power industry should be able to manage its fuel without government approval while adhering to specific health and safety guidelines. According to these proponents, the nuclear industry would then have an incentive to spend money on new technologies that make it easier to manage waste, potentially leading to lower prices for utilities.[21][22]

Opponents of nuclear power argue that enough nuclear waste has been produced that it cannot be effectively and safely stored over the long term. Some opponents argue against establishing any new nuclear power plants given the problem of long-term disposal. Other opponents support keeping nuclear waste in dry cask storage where casks in bunkers store waste over the short-term; these opponents say that this plan is preferable to attempts to store the wastes in areas like Yucca Mountain. Further, opponents argue that unsuccessful waste disposal planning has cost the federal government billions of dollars and produced no viable long-term plan.[23][24]

### Aging nuclear fleet[edit]

The Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station was the oldest operating nuclear power plant in the United States as of December 2016. It began operations in 1969.

One debate over nuclear power focuses on what to do with aging nuclear power plants. Nuclear power plants in the United States are licensed to operate for 40 years, and licensees can apply for extensions for up to 20 years. According to the Nuclear Energy Institute, by 2040 half of U.S. nuclear plants will have been operating for 60 years. The institute found that by 2030 the United States may experience electricity shortages if many nuclear plants are retired. One solution offered is to allow nuclear power companies to apply for another operating license for an additional 20 years. According to the Nuclear Energy Institute, no technical issues exist that would hinder well-functioning power plants from safely operating for an additional 20 years.[25]

Proponents of nuclear power argue that changing the nuclear plant permitting process would allow for more nuclear plant construction. Some of these proponents argue that the four-year permitting process should change to a two-year process for nuclear company applicants that have more experience with the process and that meet certain requirements. Some proponents have proposed changing federal licensing for advanced nuclear reactors and to allow nuclear industry representatives to cooperate more with federal regulators in order to make the process more efficient. Other proponents argue that authorizing long-term waste disposal sites like Yucca Mountain will provide an incentive for plant construction once a viable plan exists to dispose of nuclear waste permanently. Additionally, some proponents argue in favor of more U.S. nuclear technology exports to spur global competition for more efficient and less costly nuclear technologies.[26][27]

Opponents of nuclear power argue that aging nuclear plants should be phased out but not replaced with new plants. These opponents argue that maintaining aging plants is too costly and that the aging technology creates the risk of dangerous events that could harm plant workers and surrounding areas. Other opponents argue that new nuclear plants have significantly high capital costs and that advanced nuclear technology is developed enough that nuclear power cannot produce cheaper energy prices compared to more low-cost forms of energy. Further, some opponents argue that potential investments in new nuclear power plants should instead go toward wind and solar energy, which most opponents of nuclear power view as a safer form of renewable energy because it does not produce nuclear waste.[24][28]

## Regulatory agencies[edit]

* The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was established by Congress under the Atomic Energy Act in 1946 to manage the use of nuclear energy in military and civilian operations. In 1954, Congress passed an amended version of the Atomic Energy Act, making it possible for the development of nuclear power for commercial uses. Under the amended act, the AEC was responsible for overseeing programs that protected public health and safety.[15][29]
* The U.S. Department of Energy took control of the AEC’s mission to advance nuclear power and manage defense cleanup. It manages several research and development programs and loan guarantee programs for advanced nuclear technology. It is also responsible for nuclear waste management and Yucca Mountain under the Nuclear Waste Policy Act.
* The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) was created in 1974 under the Energy Reorganization Act. The NRC took over the operations of the AEC. The NRC is the main body regulating nuclear energy production. The NRC oversees radiation protection, reactor safety and licensing and the oversight of spent nuclear fuels. The commission is made up of the following offices:[15]
* The Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards (NMSS) implements NRC regulations and policies regarding spent fuel disposal.[17]
* The Office of Federal and State Materials and Environmental Management Programs (FSME) develops guidelines for compliance with environmental protections and oversees the decommissioning of uranium mining sites and other contaminated areas.[17]

Voting on
Nuclear issues

Ballot Measures
By state
By year
Not on ballot

## Ballot initiatives in the United States[edit]

See also: Nuclear issues on the ballot

### List of ballot measures[edit]

* Montana Remove Prohibition on Disposal of Radioactive Waste, LR-89 (1982)
* Montana Disposal of Radioactive Waste, I-84 (1980)
* Montana Empowering Voters to Approve Proposed Nuclear Facilities, I-80 (1978)
* Montana Legislative Approval for Nuclear Facilities, I-71 (1976)
* Maine Direct Democracy on Nuclear Waste Disposal and Storage, Low Level Radioactive Waste Siting Issue 1 (1985)
* Idaho Radioactive Waste Agreement Initiative, Initiative 3 (1996)
* California Proposition 9, Prohibition of Utility Taxes, Bond Payments, or Surcharges for Nuclear Power Assets Initiative (1998)

## See also[edit]

* Coal

* Crude oil

* Fracking

* Glossary of energy terms

## External links[edit]

* The Nuclear Regulatory Commission
* U.S. Energy Information Administration, Nuclear Energy

## Footnotes[edit]

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Department of Energy, "The History of Nuclear Energy," accessed March 13, 2014
2. ↑ World Nuclear Association, "Outline History of Nuclear Energy," March 2014
3. ↑ Office of Assistant General Manager for Reactors, "Nuclear Reactors Built, Being Built, or Planned in the United States as of June 30, 1970," accessed March 14, 2014
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 World Nuclear Association, "Nuclear Power in the USA," accessed March 13, 2014
5. ↑ U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "Location of Projected New Nuclear Power Reactors," April 26, 2016
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Nuclear Energy Institute, "US Nuclear Power Plants," accessed December 2, 2016
7. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "How many nuclear power plants are in the United States, and where are they located?" November 8, 2016
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 World Nuclear Association, "What is Uranium? How Does it Work?" December 2012, accessed March 17, 2014 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; name "WNA Uranium" defined multiple times with different content
9. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Energy in Brief," December 14, 2012, accessed March 13, 2014
10. ↑ The commission resumed issuing license after a two-year hiatus, which was a result of a lawsuit challenging the availability and safety of nuclear waste on-site storage. In September 2014, the commission determined that dry cask storage was safe indefinitely and restarted licensing activities.
11. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Nuclear Regulatory Commission resumes license renewals for nuclear power plants," October 29, 2014
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 "World Nuclear Association," "Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors," October 2013, accessed March 14, 2014
13. ↑ World Nuclear Association, "Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors," May 2016
14. ↑ Union of Concerned Scientists, "The Nuclear Regulatory Commission," accessed December 2, 2016
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "History," accessed March 13, 2014
16. ↑ Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "Locations of Low-Level Waste Disposal Facilities," March 25, 2013, accessed March 13, 2014
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "Radioactive Waste," January 13, 2014, accessed March 13, 2014
18. ↑ Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "High-Level Waste," April 6, 2012, accessed March 13, 2014
19. ↑ Slate, "America’s Nuclear Dumpsters," January 30, 2013
20. ↑ PolitiFact, "Blue-ribbon panel points the way, but little concrete action yet," November 21, 2012
21. ↑ The Daily Signal, "Nuclear Industry, Not Government, Should Handle Nuclear Waste Issue," August 16, 2015
22. ↑ The Hill, "The politics of nuclear waste disposal," December 8, 2015
23. ↑ Sierra Club, "High Level Waste," accessed December 2, 2016
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Sierra Club, "Sierra Club Nuclear Free Campaign," accessed December 2, 2016
25. ↑ Nuclear Energy Institute, "Second License Renewal for Nuclear Plants," accessed December 1, 2016
26. ↑ The Heritage Foundation, "Nuclear Power is True 'Green' Energy," January 30, 2009
27. ↑ American Energy Alliance, "House Bill Signals New Life for Nuclear Energy," accessed December 2, 2016
28. ↑ Center for American Progress, "10 Reasons Not to Invest in Nuclear Energy," July 8, 2008
29. ↑ National Energy Commission, "Atomic Energy Commission," December 11, 2013, accessed March 14, 2014

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