Hereditary politicians

Short description: Persons having inherited political office

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Hereditary politicians refer to politicians (especially modern politicians) whose political position can be seen as being conferred by or based on inheritance from a parent or grandparent in some sense.

It should not be confused with political dynasty, though these two concepts are not mutually exclusive. [original research?] A political dynasty or political family simply means that several members of the same family (whether related by blood or marriage) are involved in politics, regardless of the type of office. Thus, a hereditary politician can be said to be a more specific subset of political dynasty as it refers to the next generation/s gaining the same political office as their parent or grandparent.

## Contents

* 1 Factors enabling a political office to be passed down
* 1.1 Name recognition
* 1.2 Existing political network
* 1.3 Authoritarian personalized regime
* 2 Notable families
* 2.1 France
* 2.2 India
* 2.3 Indonesia
* 2.4 Iran
* 2.5 Japan
* 2.6 North Korea
* 2.7 Philippines
* 2.8 Singapore
* 2.9 South Korea
* 2.10 Taiwan
* 3 Criticisms
* 4 Difference from a political dynasty
* 5 See also
* 6 References

## Factors enabling a political office to be passed down

### Name recognition

According to Oscar Wilde, "There is only one thing in the world worse than being talked about, and that is not being talked about."[1] This might be especially true for politicians. When the name of a politician is already familiar to the public, then they tend to choose him over someone relatively unknown. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as the Mere-exposure effect in social psychology. This could also be something as superficial as choosing the most familiar-sounding name on the ballot, either because of indecision or ignorance of the candidates' campaign platforms.

In a study done by Vanderbilt University professors, they found that name recognition affects candidate support as they are exposed to subliminal cues. They found evidence that mere exposure to the name of their hypothetical candidate improved perceived viability of the candidate and, in turn, increased their support.[2]

The voting public could also see the parents' previous accomplishment as something that the children can or will also accomplish. For example, before being elected as the President of the Philippines, Benigno (Noynoy) Aquino III was not very popular among the majority of Filipinos and did not have any major contributions as a senator compared to his contemporaries. However, he was propelled into mainstream public consciousness and became a mainstay in news stories when his mother, the first female president Corazon Aquino, suddenly died. With the country in mourning and in the mood to reminisce about the past, which included his father, the assassinated Benigno (Ninoy) Aquino Jr., Noynoy won the presidential election. It was neither because of his charismatic personality nor his achievements as a senator, but because he is the son of the country's two major political figures.

### Existing political network

Having a politician parent almost guarantees a certain degree of success for an individual, as not only does he inherit the valuable name recognition, but also benefits from the social networks and resources that are already established. The political ties that his parent have cultivated in the past will also be of use to the offspring, particularly when it comes to campaigning, forming political parties and fundraising. In Japan, for example, the patronage system is prevalent, especially in the form of "support groups" or koenkai.[3]

### Authoritarian personalized regime

In an authoritarian regime where the public has no real voice when it comes to choosing the state's leader, in many instances the successor may simply be one of the family heirs.[4] This is the case in North Korea, where its first leader, Kim Il Sung, developed a cult of personality and familism as a means of political control. The highest status in the nation has been ascribed to the Kim dynasty, requiring "proper" respect and devotion from its citizens. Various accomplishments, even if irrelevant, are usually ascribed to the Kim family.

## Notable families

### France

Le Pen Jean-Marie Le Pen

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| (daughter) Marine Le Pen

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|

Member of the European Parliament

(1984–2003; from 2004)

| Member of the European Parliament

(2004–2009; 2009–2017)

Regional Councillor of Île-de-France

(1986–1992)

| Regional Councillor of Île-de-France

(2004–2010)

Known for: Leader of the National Front

(1972–2011)

| Known for: Leader of the National Front

(from 2011)

President of the National Front Jean-Marie Le Pen and Councillor Marine Le Pen, who is daughter of the former, followed by Marion Maréchal-Le Pen, Jean-Marie Le Pen's granddaughter. Also, Le Pen's parent and child have served as the leader of the same party over two generations.

### India

Nehru-Gandhi Jawaharlal Nehru

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| (daughter) Indira Gandhi

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| (grandson) Rajiv Gandhi

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|
|

1st Prime Minister

(1947–1964)

| 3rd Prime Minister

(1966–1977, 1980–1984)

| 6th Prime Minister

(1984–1989)

Known for:

Indian independence movement

The President of the Indian National Congress

Member of the Constituent Assembly of India

Oversaw the partition of India

Liaquat–Nehru Pact

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

Non-Alignment Movement

State Reorganisation Commission

Panchsheel policy

Sino-Indian War

| Known for:

Bangladesh Liberation War

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

Imposing the emergency

Operation Blue Star

| Known for:

Oversaw 1984 anti-Sikh riots

Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War

Reverting the Supreme Court's verdict on Shah Bano case in the Parliament of India

Bofors scam

President of the Indian National Congress Motilal Nehru and the first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, who is the son of the former, followed by Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, Sonia Gandhi, who is the wife of the former and their son Rahul Gandhi, have all served as the leader of the same party over five generations. Hereditary succession of chief ministership in India is quite common across the spectrum, with prominent examples the Yadav family of Samajwadi Party, the Abdullah family of Jammu & Kashmir National Conference, H.D. Deve Gowda’s family in Janata Dal (Secular), the Sangmas of National People's Party and the Karunanidhi family of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam.

### Indonesia

Sukarno Sukarno

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| (daughter) Megawati Sukarnoputri

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|

1st President

(1945–1967)

| 5th President

(2001–2004)

Known for:

Proclamator of Indonesian Independence

Indonesian National Revolution

1959 Presidential Decree

Oversaw Operation Trikora (1961–1962)

Oversaw Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation (1963–1966)

| Known for:

One of the initiators of Reformasi

State-owned enterprise privatizations

Oversaw the 2003–2004 Indonesian offensive in Aceh

### Iran

Khamenei Ali Khamenei
علی خامنه‌ای

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| (son) Mojtaba Khamenei
مجتبی خامنه‌ای

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|

2nd Supreme Leader

(1989–2026)

| 3rd Supreme Leader

(since 2026)

Known for:

His fatwa against nuclear weapons
Multiple protests against his regime, including the 2009 Iranian presidential election protests, 2011–2012 Iranian protests, 2017–2018 Iranian protests, Mahsa Amini protests and especially the 2025–2026 Iranian protests, which led to the 2026 Iran massacres
His assassination

| Known for:

His pro-nuclear weapons policy, opposed to his father's fatwa

### Japan

Hereditary politics is prevalent in Japan because political families hold on to three-bans, jiban, kanban, and kaban (financial support), which are three essential resources for a candidate to win an election. Jiban is the personal support from the people in a district. Kanban literally translates into an advertisement board, which symbolizes fame. Lastly, kaban means "bag" in Japanese and this refers to the financial support to run an election.[5]

A hereditary politician is considered a structural feature of Japanese politics. It is reported that approximately 30 percent of the House of Representatives are Nisei, who are the second generation of the Diet members. The Nisei population takes up to 40 percent of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP).[6] Furthermore, most Japanese Prime Ministers have a strong political background. Famous examples are Junichiro Koizumi, Yasuo Fukuda, and Shinzo Abe.

Kishi-Abe (Maternal grandfather) Nobusuke Kishi[7]

岸 信介

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| (Paternal grandfather) Kan Abe

安倍 寛

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| (grandson) Shinzo Abe

安倍 晋三

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|
|

37th Prime Minister

(1957–1960)

| – | 57th and 63rd Prime Minister

(2006–2007, 2012–2020)

Member of the House of Representatives (1942–1943, 1953–1979) | Member of the House of Representatives

(1937–1946)

| Member of the House of Representatives

(1993–2022)

Known for:

Manchukuo labor scandal

Used Yakuza protection during Sukarno's state visit

1955 System[8]

| Known for:

Attempt to oust Hideki Tojo to end WWII

| Known for:

Push for Revision of Article 9 of Constitutional Abenomics

Veterinary school scandal

Comfort women remark

Initiated Quadrilateral Security Dialogue

Nobusuke Kishi was criticized for the Manchukuo labor scandal which he had exploited Chinese workers in order to channel profits for Japan. His life was described as mirroring the US-JP relationship before and after the war: from enemy to allies. Mr. Nobusuke was condemned as a war criminal by the Americans, but later, he became the main negotiator for a peaceful relationship with the US. Therefore, he was referred to as America's Favorite War Criminal.[9]

Kan Abe served in the House of Representatives (Japan) from 1937 to 1946. He is famous for running the opposing platform to oppose to the militaristic government, which was under Hideki Tojo’s control.

Shinzo continued his grandfather's proposal of amending the current Japanese Constitution, which restricts Japan's use of military forces. Even though this topic is very controversial within society, Shinzo has always been assertive about the revision. He is also famous for his economic reforms known as Abenomics. He had been involved in several scandals, such as the veterinary school scandal, which greatly decreased his approval poll rating. However, his strong attitude towards the North Korea crisis had helped his party win the majority of seats in the 2017 Japanese general election.

Fukuda Takeo Fukuda

福田 赳夫

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| (son) Yasuo Fukuda

福田 康夫

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|

42nd Prime Minister

(1976–1978)

| 58th Prime Minister

(2007–2008)

Known for:

Fukuda Doctrine Response to JAL Flight 472 hijacking

Introduction of primary elections within a political party

| Associated with:

Pension system scandal

Sudden resignation

Diplomacy with China

Fukuda Takeo's response to the terrorist hijacking incident, Japan Airlines Flight 472 (1977), drew international controversies. Unlike how Western countries would refuse hijackers’ demands, Fukuda accepted their demands based on the principle that "human life outweighs the earth."

Fukuda Yasuo, the eldest son of Fukuda Takeo, became the Prime Minister after Shinzo Abe's abrupt resignation. Less than one year in office, Mr. Fukuda had to step down from his position due to ongoing involvement in political scandals such as the missing pension scandal, which caused a steep decrease in his personal popularity.[10]

Hatoyama Ichiro Hatoyama

鳩山 一郎

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| (grandson) Yukio Hatoyama

鳩山 由紀夫

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|

36th Prime Minister

(1954–1956)

| 60th Prime Minister

(2009–2010)

Associated with:

Rebuilt diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union

Assassination plot

First president of the LDP

| Known for:

Campaign donation scandal

American military base in Okinawa issue

Hatoyama Ichirō was elected as the first Liberal Democratic Party (Japan) President during the 1956 party convention. One of his famous diplomatic goal was to restore the relationship with the Soviet Union. As a post war Prime Minister, his central proposal was to strengthen national political and economic independence. Hatoyama gained high popularity and helped the party win 185 seats in the election. This was later referred to as the "Hatoyama boom."[11]

Hatoyama Yukio, like his grandfather, had entered his career as a Prime Minister with high popularity. His public approval rating fell rapidly as he could not fulfil the high expectations his party had promised. One significant example is the broken promise to relocate the American Military base in Okinawa. This incident was the main reason why Mr. Hatoyama resigned from the Prime Minister position within less than a year after he was elected.

### North Korea

Kim Kim Il Sung

김일성/金日成

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| (son) Kim Jong Il

김정일/金正日

100px

| (grandson) Kim Jong Un

김정은/金正恩

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|
|

Chairman of the Workers' Party of Korea

(1949–1966)

| General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea

(1997–2011)

| First Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea

(2012–2016)

General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea

(1966–1994)

|  | Chairman of the Workers' Party of Korea

(2016–2021)

President of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea

(1972–1994)

|  | General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea

(from 2021)

Known for:

Authorized the invasion of South Korea

Created the Juche Policy

| Known for:

Military-first policy

| Known for:

Nuclear weapon testing

North Korea–United States Summit

Byungjin policy

### Philippines

Political families started becoming more apparent in the national political scene after World War II and gradually turned into hereditary politics, especially in the provinces. In 1946, Vicente Sotto became a senator after his brother Filemon Sotto previously held a position in the Senate before the war. The 60s saw more frequent instances of relatives getting elected in the Senate such as the election of the brother of then President Ramon Magsaysay; of Magnolia Antonino as Senator after her husband Senator Gaudencio died; of Sergio Osmeña Jr. who was the son of 4th President Sergio Osmeña Sr.; of Gerardo Roxas who was another son of a previous president; and of Benigno Aquino Jr. who was the son of Benigno Sr. During the martial law years, it only became worse as Marcos named his wife Imelda as the governor of Metro Manila while his son Bongbong became the governor of Ilocos Norte.[12]

In 2014, talks about an anti-political dynasty bill surfaced, but it was not received favorably by the public as it was seen as a watered-down version that would not eliminate the monopoly of the elites on the political scene.[13]

Aquino Benigno Aquino Sr.

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| (son) Benigno Aquino Jr.

100px

| (daughter-in-law) Corazon Aquino

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| (grandson) Benigno Aquino III

100px

|
|
|

Senator

(1928–1934)

| Governor of Tarlac

(1961–1967)

| 11th President

(1986–1992)

| Representative of the 2nd District of Tarlac (1998–2007)
Representative of the 2nd District of Tarlac (1935–1938, 1945–1946)  | Senator

(2007–2010)

Representative of the At-large District of Tarlac (1943–1944)  | Senator

(1967–1972)

| 15th President

(2010–2016)

Known for :

Collaboration with the Japanese during the occupation.

| Known for :

Opposition to Ferdinand Marcos

Died by assassination

| Known for :

11th President of the Philippines Hacienda Luisita

People Power Revolution

1987 Constitution

Agrarian reform

Mendiola Massacre

| Known for :

15th President of the Philippines

Response to Manila hostage crisis

Wang-wang policy

Chief Justice impeachment trial

2015 Lumad massacre

Mamasapano clash

NAIA Bullet planting scandal

Approved the sale of Dengvaxia, the first country in Asia to do so.

Corazon Aquino was the wife of former Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino who was assassinated during Martial Law, sparking the celebrated People Power Revolution. Cory, as she was fondly referred to, was then elected as the first female president of the Philippines and oversaw the creation of the 1987 Constitution. She was named 1987 Woman of the Year by Time Magazine[14] and served for one term in office before being succeeded by Fidel Ramos. In 2008, she was diagnosed with cancer and died one year after. Cory's funeral procession took over 8 hours as thousands of Filipinos took to the streets to pay their last respects, a proof of her popularity among the public.

Coincidentally, the year she died was the year when political parties started floating names for their presidential candidates. Since Cory Aquino's legacy was still fresh in the public's mind, the Liberal Party took advantage of the resurgence of Aquino's popularity[15] and named her son Noynoy Aquino as their presidential candidate in place of Mar Roxas, the previously announced[16] standard-bearer of the party. Noynoy Aquino eventually won the 2010 presidential elections.[17]

Duterte Rodrigo Duterte

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| (daughter) Sara Duterte

100px

| (son) Paolo Duterte

| (son) Sebastian Duterte

|
|
|

Mayor of Davao City

(1988–1998, 2001–2010, 2013–2016)

| Vice Mayor of Davao City

(2007–2010)

| Vice Mayor of Davao City

(2013–2018)

| Vice Mayor of Davao City

(2019–2022)

Vice Mayor of Davao City

(1986–1987, 2010–2013)

| Mayor of Davao City

(2010–2013, 2016–2022)

| Representative of the 1st District of Davao City (2019–present)  | Mayor of Davao City

(2022–present)

Representative of the 1st District of Davao City (1998–2001)
16th President

(2016–2022)

| 15th Vice President

(2022–present)

Known for:

16th President of the Philippines

Dutertism

Davao Death Squad[18]

War on drugs

Ostensible pursuit of an "independent foreign policy" by playing China, Russia and the US against each other through the cultivation of improved ties with the former two[19][20][21][22][23]

2018 Boracay closure and redevelopment

Canada–Philippines waste dispute

Launch of 9-1-1 and 8888

Executive Order No. 26

Build! Build! Build! infrastructure plan

Arrest of Rodrigo Duterte

| Known for:

15th Vice President of the Philippines

Marcos–Duterte rift[24][25][26][27][28][29]

Impeachment case[30][31][32]

| Known for:

Davao Death Squad

Suspicion of ties[33] to Chinese Triad

| Known for:

Rodrigo Duterte started serving as mayor of Davao City in 1988, winning consecutive terms until 1998. He is known for his strict implementation of law and order policies and became well known for his apparent success in lowering the crime rate of Davao. Digong, as he is known by his constituents, issued orders regarding alcohol consumption, prostitution, smoking and firecrackers. However, he has long been suspected of being the mastermind behind the infamous vigilante group Davao Death Squad which arbitrarily kills suspected criminals.[34] As the current president of the Philippines, Rodrigo has been under fire for his war on drugs campaign, which reportedly leads to extrajudicial killings.

During Rodrigo's 2007–2010 term, his daughter Sara Duterte was elected as the vice mayor. In the succeeding term of 2010–2013, they switched offices: Sara was the one who was elected mayor, while her father was elected as the vice mayor. In the next term of 2013–2016, Rodrigo was elected mayor again, but this time, his vice mayor was his son Paolo Duterte.

Estrada Joseph Estrada

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| (son) Jinggoy Estrada

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|

Mayor of San Juan

(1969–1986)

| Mayor of San Juan

(1992–2001)

Senator

(1987–1992)

| Senator

(2004–2016, 2022–present)

9th Vice President

(1992–1998)

13th President

(1998–2001)

Mayor of Manila

(2013–2019)

Known for :

13th President of the Philippines

Film acting

Jueteng scandal

Impeachment trial

People Power II

Incarcerated for plunder

| Known for :

Film acting

Hong Kong airport incident

Incarcerated for plunder

Joseph Estrada, commonly known as "Erap", became famous as a film actor from 1956 to 1989, starring in hundreds of movies and even founding[35] the celebrated annual Metro Manila Film Festival. His popularity as an actor obviously served him well in his venture in politics, starting in 1969 when he was elected mayor of San Juan and eventually rising to the highest office in the nation as the 13th President of the Philippines in 1998. Erap assumed office during the Asian Financial Crisis, and his administration was marred by various controversies. His term in office was consequently cut short when he was accused of graft and corruption and underwent an impeachment trial in 2001. However, before the trial was even concluded, he was ousted from office by the Second People Power Revolution. He was charged with plunder and was found guilty with a sentence of lifetime imprisonment, making him the first Philippine president to be impeached and convicted.[36]

In 2007, after 6 years of being detained, Erap was pardoned by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. He was granted executive clemency in exchange for a commitment that he will no longer seek public office.[37] However, Erap ran again as a presidential candidate[38] during the 2010 election with Jejomar Binay as his vice president, but lost to Noynoy Aquino.

Meanwhile, his son Jinggoy followed in his footsteps as he was elected mayor of San Juan in 1992 when he was 29 years old, which made him the youngest elected mayor in the country. Jinggoy stayed in office until 2001, the year when his father was ousted as president. Then, in 2004, he was elected as a senator and rose to the position of Senate president pro tempore after 3 years. Unfortunately, Jinggoy was also charged with plunder when the PDAF Scam involving Janet Lim-Napoles was exposed in 2013.[39] He was released in September 2017 after posting Php 1.33 million in bail.[40]

Macapagal-Arroyo Diosdado Macapagal

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| (daughter) Gloria Macapagal Arroyo

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|

Representative of the 1st District of Pampanga (1949–1957)  | Senator

(1992–1998)

The 5th Vice President

(1957–1961)

| The 10th Vice President

(1998–2001)

The 9th President

(1961–1965)

| The 14th President

(2001–2010)

Representative of the 2nd District of Pampanga (2010–2019, 2022–present)
Known for :

The 9th President of the Philippines

Changed Independence Day from July 4 to June 12

Anti-corruption campaign

| Known for :

The 15th President of the Philippines People Power II

Hello Garci scandal

Oakwood Mutiny

Impeachment case (graft and corruption)

Diosdado Macapagal was the 9th Philippine President whose administration worked to prevent corruption. His reforms were however, impeded by Congress, which was then led by politicians from the Nacionalista Party, a rival of the Liberal Party, where Diosdado belonged. Diosdado was also known for changing the date for the celebration of Philippine Independence – from July 4 to June 12.[41]

In an interview with Time before Estrada was ousted from office in 2001, Gloria said: "I will follow my father's footsteps in doing what is right, and God will take care of the rest. My father is my role model."[42] Ironically, when Gloria was elected as the 14th Philippine President, her administration was marred by scandals, accusations of corruption and electoral fraud.[43]

Gloria's rise to the presidency came about because of the Second People Power Revolution, where then-President Estrada was ousted. Being the Vice President, Gloria was sworn in as the new president. She then ran during the 2004 presidential election and won with just over 3% margin – the closest in a Philippine presidential election. Her slim margin of victory over a popular actor-candidate, Fernando Poe Jr., gave rise to suspicions of cheating. It came to a head when audio recordings of then Election Commissioner Virgilio Garcillano and Gloria were released in 2005 despite government threats.[44] The audio recording was of a phone call where Gloria allegedly gave Garcillano instructions to rig the elections in her favor. In what became known as the Hello Garci scandal, Gloria gave a televised address where she denied accusations of cheating but admitted that it was her voice on the audio recording, prompting protests and calls for impeachment.[45]

Marcos Ferdinand Marcos

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| (son) Bongbong Marcos

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| (daughter) Imee Marcos

131x131px

|
|

Member of the House of Representatives from Ilocos Norte 2nd District

(1949–1959)

| Governor of Ilocos Norte

(1983–1986, 1998–2007)

| Member of the House of Representatives from Ilocos Norte 2nd District

(1998–2007)

Senator

(1959–1965)

| Member of the House of Representatives from Ilocos Norte 2nd District

(1992–1995, 2007–2010)

Senator

(2010–2016)

| Governor of Ilocos Norte

(2010–2019)

10th President

(1965–1986)

| 17th President

(2022–present)

| Senator

(2019–present)

Known for :

10th President of the Philippines

Martial Law (1972–1985)

Economic reforms

Conjugal dictatorship

Human rights abuses[46]

Corruption[47]

Aquino assassination

People Power Revolution

| Known for :

Clone urban legend[48]

Embezzlement of Public Funds[49]

Non-payment of Taxes[50]

Convicted of failure to file income tax returns (1982 to 1985)[50]

Heir of dictatorship and corruption[51]

Fake News[52]

| Known for :

Inciting the murder of Archimedes Trajano[53]

Ferdinand Marcos was infamous for placing the country under martial law from 1972 to 1981 and suppressing civil liberties during his time in office as the 10th President of the Philippines. However, his rise to power began when he was elected Representative of his hometown, Ilocos Norte, from 1949 to 1959. Shortly thereafter, he moved on to become a Senator from 1959 to 1965. This path was closely followed by his son Bongbong as the latter was also elected, first as Representative of Ilocos Norte for two terms, and then as Senator from 2010 to 2016. Meanwhile, his daughter Imee, who also got elected as Representative of Ilocos Norte from 1998 to 2007, did not go on to become a Senator but was instead elected as the provincial governor in 2010.

Whereas Ferdinand got elected as the President in 1965 – defeating incumbent Diosdado Macapagal – and holding the office for a total of 21 years, his son Bongbong did not run for the presidency. Instead, he ran as a vice-presidential candidate[54] under the Nacionalista Party during the 2016 presidential elections, where he lost by merely 263,473 votes[55] to Leni Robredo.

### Singapore

Lee Lee Kuan Yew

李光耀

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| (son) Lee Hsien Loong

李显龙

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|

1st Prime Minister

(1959–1990)

| 3rd Prime Minister

(2004–2024)

Known for:

Founding father of Singapore[56]

Transforming Singapore from "third world to first world in a single generation"[57]

| Known for:

Oversaw rescue operations of the Singapore Cable Car disaster

Amendments to Singapore citizenship requirements

Lee Kuan Yew's house dispute[58]

Lee Kuan Yew was famous for founding the country of Singapore in 1965 after it was expelled from of Malaysia following racial strife and economic disagreements with other states. He assumed leadership of the newly created government of Singapore after its independence, though he sadly expressed in a speech his desire to have been united with Malaysia.[59] Kuan Yew was credited with the rise of Singapore as a developed country and was deemed a great statesman[60] as he led the country for 31 years. His legacy included reducing the unemployment rate, increasing the GNP and increasing literacy rates. He remained influential even after retirement.[61]

Kuan Yew reportedly did not want[62] a cult of personality to develop in the country, so he willed that his house in 38 Oxley Road be demolished after he died. However, his son Hsien Loong got into a publicised dispute with his siblings regarding their father's house. Accused by his siblings of abusing his powers by preserving their father's house, Hsien Loong decided to deliver a speech to refute them.[63]

### South Korea

Park Park Chung Hee

박정희

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| (daughter) Park Geun-hye

박근혜

100px

|

3rd President

(1963–1979)

| 11th President

(2013–2017)

Known for:

Assassinated by the KCIA director

Significant contribution to South Korea's economic growth: Miracle on the Han River

| Known for:

Corruption scandal

Impeachment trial

Park Chung Hee served as the third president of South Korea from 1963 until he was assassinated in 1979 by the then-director of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA). Park had been a controversial political figure in Korea; During his presidency, he had sustained the rapid economic growth in South Korea, which people often refer to as the Miracle on the Han River. On the other hand, he had been an authoritarian dictator who oppressed opposition parties and civil liberties.

In 2013, Park's daughter, Park Geun-hye, became the first female president of South Korea. Older Koreans who hold nostalgia toward the presidency of Park Geun-hye's father highly contributed to her success in the 2012 presidential election. Unlike her father's 18 years of authoritarian rule, Park Geun-hye ended her term in office in 2017 after a major influence and bribery scandal was exposed.[64]

### Taiwan

During the 2016 legislative election, among 365 candidates, 63 of them came from a political family. Furthermore, among those who came from a political family, 40 of them were children of a former politician. Within the 22 cities and counties in Taiwan, the percentage of politicians a political background is 24.6%.[65]

After the 2014 Sunflower Student Movement, there are rising voices from the people for a political landscape change. This came along with the public favoring younger forces into the political arena. Thus, both the KMT and the Democratic Progressive Party attempt to refresh their party by recruiting new members. However, it is not easy for them to appeal to younger people to join politics; therefore, parties look inwards for the second generation.[65]

Chiang Chiang Kai-shek

蔣中正

133x133px

| (son) Chiang Ching-kuo

蔣經國

133x133px

|

Premier

(1930–1931, 1935–1938, 1939–1945, 1947)

| Premier

(1972–1978)

President

(1948–1949, 1950–1975)

| President

(1978–1988)

Known for:

Martial Law

White Terror

| Known for:

Ten Major Construction Projects

Three Noes

The Chiang family is the most prominent political family in Taiwan. Their historical meaning to Taiwan is very controversial as they helped thrive the Taiwanese economy but at the same time were highly oppressive toward civil liberty. The Martial law in Taiwan was enacted in 1948 and lasted till 1987 when Chiang Ching-kuo finally called an end to it. Taiwan had been under the restriction of Martial law for more than 38 years, making it the world's second-longest Martial law.[66] During this period of time, many innocent people were accused of being spies from the Chinese Communist. Many intellectuals were restricted or even killed. To avoid being mistaken as spies from China, people were careful not to talk about taboo topics such as the White Terror and the February 28 Incident.

Taiwan's economic miracle was highly contributed to Chiang Ching-kuo's (at that time the President of Taiwan) policy, the Ten Major Construction Projects, a government-introduced economic development plan.[67][circular reference] These ten massive building projects improved basic infrastructures and upgraded the Taiwanese industry, which later on played an important role in the Taiwan Miracle).

The Three-noes Policy was the diplomatic relationship with China during President Chiang Ching-kuo. These three noes include: no contact, no compromises and no negotiation with the Chinese Communists.[68]

## Criticisms

One of the biggest harms of hereditary politicians is corruption or bribery, a phenomenon that is especially common in countries like the Philippines, where its political power and economic interests are highly intertwined. The concentration of political power "perpetuates a culture of dependency between an economically/politically dominant patron," which often leads to corruption and bribery.[69]

Moreover, hereditary political families tend to pass down their ideology and previous accomplishments from one generation to the next. This suggests that the new generation is likely to be trapped by their family preoccupations. For instance, the Prime Minister of Japan, Shinzō Abe, has been eagerly pushing the revision of the Constitution of Japan, a policy which he inherited from his grandfather. Many regard Abe's assertive attitude to revise the Constitution as his political weakness. Also, political families tend to have strong dependency on specific interest groups within the society. In order to maintain the relationship, it becomes difficult for politicians to make reforms which may challenge the interests of their support groups.[70]

## Difference from a political dynasty

Hereditary politics is characterized by a son/daughter or grandson/granddaughter gaining an office that was once held by their parent (or grandparent). In comparison, a political dynasty is different from hereditary politicians as the former is characterized by either of the following: 1) Members of the same family (simultaneously) holding the same government positions but in different districts; or 2) Members of the same family (simultaneously or successively) holding various government positions.

Philippines

Ampatuan Andal Ampatuan Sr.  | (son) Andal Ampatuan Jr.  | (son) Zaldy Ampatuan

|
|

Governor of Maguindanao

(2001–2008)

| Mayor of Datu Unsay, Maguindanao

(--)

| 6th Governor of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao

(2005–2009)

An example of political dynasty which might look similar to hereditary politics is the Ampatuan family in the Philippines. A prominent political family[71] in Maguindanao, a former province in the southern Philippines, the Ampatuans exercised great power in the region. Its patriarch, Andal Sr., was elected as governor from 2001 to 2008. During the 2007 general elections, he ran unopposed.[72] Meanwhile, his son Zaldy Ampatuan was in office as governor of the ARMM, an administrative region where Maguindanao belongs, from 2005 to 2009.

Another of Andal's sons, former mayor of Datu Unsay Andal Jr., was supposed to run as governor of Maguindanao during the 2010 general elections. However, the whole Ampatuan family came under fire after their political rival Esmael Mangudadatu was ambushed along with over 50 people that included journalists, lawyers, relatives and civilians who happened to be in the same place. Mangudadatu and his convoy were about to file his certificate of candidacy to run against Ampatuan for the gubernatorial office when they were reportedly attacked by 100 armed men.[72] An estimated 58 individuals were killed during the incident, including 32 journalists.[73] Dubbed as the "single deadliest event for the press" since the CPJ started keeping records,[74] this incident prevented the younger Ampatuan from running for office and resulted in his incarceration.

China

Xi Xi Zhongxun

习仲勋

100px

| (son) Xi Jinping

习近平

100px

|

Head of the CCP Propaganda Department

(1953–1954)

| General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party

(from 2012)

Vice Premier and Secretary-General of the State Council

(1954–1965)

| Chairman of the Central Military Commission

(from 2012)

Vice Chairperson of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress

(1980–1993)

| 7th President of the People's Republic of China

(from 2013)

Known for:

First generation of Chinese leadership

Eight Elders

| Known for:

Xi Jinping Thought

Chinese Dream

Anti-corruption campaign

The current General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, Xi Jinping, is both a member of the Princeling and the second Red Generation. Xi's father, Xi Zhongxun, was considered the first generation of Chinese leadership, for which he served as the vice premier. Xi's rise in political power was said to be supported by the princelings and the second red generation faction. However, unexpectedly, Xi had been reported to distance himself from those factions by expanding "commoners" within his new political team. There are only two people (Xi and Zhang Youxia) who are descendants of the second-generation red among the 25 members of the CCP Politburo.[75]

Former Chinese Premier Li Keqiang was once deemed the most potential successor of former CCP General Secretary Hu Jintao. However, Li did not succeed because he did not have a deeply-rooted political family background. On the other hand, Xi Jinping became the successor of Mr. Hu with the support of a strong political network, which he inherited from his father, Xi Zhongxun, who had been a senior political leader for more than 50 years.

The history of China’s aristocratic class can be traced back to the period when China was under the control of Mao Zedong. Mao's army received a lot of aid from the south; one significant example was the southern general, Ye Jianying. During the conflict between Zhang's Fourth Front Army and Mao's First Front Army, Ye warned Mao in advance that Zhang Guotao was planning to overthrow Mao. Later on, during the Long March, Ye came to aid Mao by assisting Liu Bocheng in directing the crossing of the Yangtze River without losing a man. Mao highly appreciated his contributions to the Chinese Communist Party. In return for Ye's contributions, Mao protected Ye during the Cultural Revolution and gave him a lot of political power. Ye was said to have 'paved the way for the country's move to a more market-oriented economy and created a political dynasty that still plays kingmaker'. Ye was described as having the ability to 'influence national policy and protect its sprawling business empire in southern China.’[76] Ye Jianying's political influence continued even after his death as his children had high influences on Chinese politics. One concrete example was when his children attempted to help block a vocal advocate of economic change from joining the CCP Politburo Standing Committee because it was not attentive to their interests.’

## See also

* Hereditary monarchy
* Political dynasties in the Philippines
* Political family
* Nepotism
* Widow's succession
* Kleptocracy

## References

1. ↑ "Quotes: Thoughts on the Business of Life". https://www.forbes.com/quotes/7199/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
2. ↑ Kam, Cindy D.; Zechmeister, Elizabeth J. (28 April 2011). NAME RECOGNITION AND CANDIDATE SUPPORT. https://www.princeton.edu/csdp/events/Kam04282011/Kam04282011.pdf. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
3. ↑ Sterngold, James (17 July 1993). "Tokyo Journal; Japan's New Generation Of Old Political Names". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/17/world/tokyo-journal-japan-s-new-generation-of-old-political-names.html. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
4. ↑ Brownlee, Jason (2007), "Hereditary Succession in Modern Autocracies", World Politics 59 (4): 595–628, doi:10.1353/wp.2008.0002
5. ↑ "The Three Bans: Three Attributes Essential to Win an Election in Japan | Japanese Perspective". http://japaneseperspective.com/three-bans/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
6. ↑ Diplomat, Cesare M. Scartozzi. "Hereditary Politics in Japan: A Family Business". The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2017/02/hereditary-politics-in-japan-a-family-business/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
7. ↑ "Japanese prime minister's another DNA". http://english.donga.com/List/3/all/26/407222/1. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
8. ↑ Samuels, Richard (December 2001). "Kishi and Corruption: An Anatomy of the 1955 System". Working Paper 83 (83). http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp83.html. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
9. ↑ Schaller, Michael. "JPRI Working Paper No. 11". www.jpri.org (Japan Policy Research Institution). http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp11.html. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
10. ↑ Ryall, Julian (1 September 2008). "Japanese Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda resigns amid political deadlock". https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/2662872/Japanese-Prime-Minister-Yasuo-Fukuda-resigns-amid-political-deadlock.html. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
11. ↑ "Chapter One Period of President Hatoyama's Leadership | Liberal Democratic Party of Japan" (in en). https://www.jimin.jp/english/about-ldp/history/104272.html. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
12. ↑ Fernandez, Erwin (9 July 2014). "The curse called 'Political Dynasty'". Rappler. https://www.rappler.com/move-ph/ispeak/62813-curse-political-dynasty. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
13. ↑ Salaverria, Leila (4 April 2014). "Watered-down antidynasty bill proposed". Philippine Daily Inquirer. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/591682/watered-down-antidynasty-bill-proposed. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
14. ↑ Iyer, Pico (5 January 1987). "Woman of the Year". Time. https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,963185-6,00.html. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
15. ↑ Castañeda, Jing (28 August 2009). "'Noynoy for President' signature drive launched". ABS-CBN News. https://www.abs-cbn.com/nation/08/27/09/noynoy-president-signature-drive-launched.
16. ↑ Dominguez, Madelynne (27 November 2007). "Roxas is new LP President". Manila Bulletin. http://www.mb.com.ph/node/48863. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
17. ↑ Dalangin-Fernandez, Lira (8 June 2010). "Congress final tallies". Philippine Daily Inquirer. http://politics.inquirer.net/politics/view/20100608-274547/Congress-final-tallies. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
18. ↑ Gita, Ruth Abbey; Peralta-Malonzo, Anne; Perez, Ace June Rell (7 March 2017). "Duterte admits DDS exists". Sun Star Philippines. http://www.sunstar.com.ph/manila/local-news/2017/10/13/duterte-admits-dds-exists-529613. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
19. ↑ Fisher, Max (2016-11-04). "Rodrigo Duterte Plays US and China Off Each Other, in Echo of Cold War". https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/04/world/asia/philippines-duterte-us-china-cold-war.html.
20. ↑ Olea, Ronalyn (2017-01-14). ""Duterte's economic policies pro-oligarch, anti-poor" – think-tank". https://www.bulatlat.com/2017/01/14/dutertes-economic-policies-pro-oligarch-anti-poor-think-tank/.
21. ↑ Ranada, Pía (2017-11-11). "Duterte, Putin Eye Stronger PH–Russia Defense Cooperation, Trade". Rappler. https://www.rappler.com/nation/188114-duterte-putin-bilateral-meeting-defense-trade-cooperation. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
22. ↑ Calonzo, Andreo (20 November 2017). "Duterte Invites China to Enter Philippine Mobile-Phone Market". Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-11-20/duterte-invites-china-to-enter-philippine-mobile-phone-market. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
23. ↑ Sison y Canlás, José María (2018-07-28). "The Fate of the People's War". Jacobin (Interview). Interviewed by Denis Rogatyuk.
24. ↑ Balancio, Joyce (March 7, 2024). "VP Sara Duterte slams 'demolition job' against her". ABS-CBN News. https://www.abs-cbn.com/news/2024/3/7/vp-sara-duterte-slams-demolition-job-against-her-2022.
25. ↑ Esguerra, Darryl John (June 19, 2024). "VP Sara resigns as DepEd chief". Philippine News Agency. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1227227.
26. ↑ Servallos, Neil Jayson; Suelto, Diana Lhyd; Porcalla, Delon; Regalado, Edith; Crisostomo, Sheila (July 12, 2024). "Sara to skip SONA, names self 'designated survivor'". The Philippine Star. https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2024/07/12/2369627/sara-skip-sona-names-self-designated-survivor.
27. ↑ Chi, Christina (October 18, 2024). "'Drag me to hell': Sara Duterte gets personal in fiery tell-all vs Marcos". https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2024/10/18/2393508/drag-me-hell-sara-duterte-gets-personal-fiery-tell-all-vs-marcos. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
28. ↑ Untalan, Sheryl (October 18, 2024). "VP Sara: If attacks don't stop, I'll throw Marcos Sr.'s body into West PH Sea". GMA Integrated News. https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/topstories/nation/924189/vp-sara-if-attacks-don-t-stop-i-ll-throw-marcos-sr-s-body-into-west-ph-sea/story/. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
29. ↑ Domingo, Katrina (November 23, 2024). "VP Duterte's claim of tapping hitman for Marcos Jr. an 'active threat': Malacañang". ABS-CBN News (Manila: ABS-CBN Corporation). https://www.abs-cbn.com/news/nation/2024/11/23/vp-duterte-s-claim-of-tapping-hitman-for-marcos-jr-an-active-threat-malaca-ang-1130.
30. ↑ "Impeachment complaint filed against VP Sara Duterte" (in en). 2 December 2024. https://www.rappler.com/philippines/impeachment-complaint-filed-vice-president-sara-duterte-december-2024/.
31. ↑ "VP Sara Duterte faces second impeachment complaint" (in en). https://www.abs-cbn.com/news/nation/2024/12/4/vp-sara-duterte-faces-second-impeachment-complaint-1532.
32. ↑ "Priests, NGO members file 3rd impeachment complaint vs VP Sara Duterte" (in en). https://www.abs-cbn.com/news/nation/2024/12/19/3rd-impeachment-complaint-sara-duterte-1245.
33. ↑ Roxas, Pathricia-Ann (7 September 2017). "Trillanes: 'Dragon-like' tattoo links Paolo Duterte to 'triad'". Philippine Daily Inquirer. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/928588/breaking-news-antonio-trillanes-iv-paolo-duterte-triad-bureau-of-customs-shabu-drugs-davao-group. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
34. ↑ Neistat, Anna (April 2009). ""You Can Die Any Time": Death Squad Killings in Mindanao". Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/philippines0409webwcover_0.pdf. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
35. ↑ Calderon, Nora (8 December 2016). "Erap, ama ng MMFF". Balita. http://balita.net.ph/2016/12/08/erap-ama-ng-mmff/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
36. ↑ Legaspi, Amita; Valderama, Tita; Jimenez, Fidel (12 September 2007). "Erap guilty of plunder, sentenced to reclusion perpetua". GMA News. http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/60117/erap-guilty-of-plunder-sentenced-to-reclusion-perpetua/story/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
37. ↑ "Arroyo frees Erap as Senate pries into her role in ZTE deal". GMA News. 25 October 2007. http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/65884/arroyo-frees-erap-as-senate-pries-into-her-role-in-zte-deal/story/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
38. ↑ "TINATANGGAP KO ANG HAMON". http://erap.ph/409/about-erap/speeches/tinatanggap-ko-ang-hamon/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
39. ↑ Arquiza, Yasmin (31 December 2013). "Janet Napoles and the unraveling of the pork barrel scandal". GMA News. http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/specialreports/341906/janet-napoles-and-the-unraveling-of-the-pork-barrel-scandal/story/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
40. ↑ ABS—CBN News (16 September 2017). "Jinggoy Estrada leaves detention". ABS-CBN News. https://www.abs-cbn.com/news/09/16/17/jinggoy-estrada-leaves-detention.
41. ↑ Macapagal, Diosdado (1965). Fullness of freedom : speeches and statements of President Diosdado Macapagal. Manila: Bureau of Printing. http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1962/06/12/address-of-president-macapagal-on-independence-day/.
42. ↑ Sindayen, Nelly (8 November 2000). "'I Will Follow My Father's Footsteps: I Am Prepared'". Time. http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2054578,00.html. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
43. ↑ GMA News (25 January 2008). "Pulse: Most Mindanaoans say Arroyo cheated in 2004 polls". GMA News. http://www.gmanews.tv/story/77997/Most-Mindanaoans-believe-Arroyo-cheated-in-04-polls
Pulse. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
44. ↑ "IFJ: Anti-wiretapping law gags RP journalists". ABS-CBN News. 16 June 2005. http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/storypage.aspx?StoryId=8072. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
45. ↑ "Congress debates Arroyo's fate". BBC. 23 August 2005. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4175632.stm.
46. ↑ Amnesty International (September 1976). Report of an Amnesty International Mission to The Republic of the Philippines 22 November – 5 December 1975. Great Britain: Amnesty International Publications. ISBN 0-900058-36-6. https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/204000/asa350191977en.pdf.
47. ↑ UN Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention (November 2002). Global Programme Against Corruption. 1. p. 274. http://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/toolkit/f1tof7.pdf. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
48. ↑ Geronimo, Jee Y. (29 February 2016). "9 things to know about Bongbong Marcos". Rappler. https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/108932-fast-facts-things-know-bongbong-marcos. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
49. ↑ "Pork barrel ghost haunts candidate Marcos" (in en-US). 2022-01-24. https://www.rappler.com/plus-membership-program/exclusive-content/pork-barrel-ghost-haunts-candidate-ferdinand-bongbong-marcos-jr/.
50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "Point by point: Cases vs Bongbong Marcos' candidacy and his answers so far" (in en-US). 2021-12-23. https://www.rappler.com/nation/elections/explanation-cases-versus-bongbong-marcos-candidacy-answers/.
51. ↑ "Hall of infamy: Bongbong Marcos" (in en). 2023-01-16. https://newint.org/features/2022/12/05/hall-infamy-bongbong-marcos.
52. ↑ Beltran, Michael. "How a 'tsunami of disinformation' helped Marcos Jr win back power" (in en). https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/6/29/disinformation-reigns-in-philippines-as-marcos-jr-takes-top-job.
53. ↑ "How Imee Marcos got away from paying $4M in damages for Trajano death" (in en-US). 2018-09-21. https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/212521-how-supreme-court-allowed-avoid-paying-damages-archimedes-trajano-death/.
54. ↑ Lozada, Aaron (6 October 2015). "Bongbong to run for VP". ABS-CBN News. https://www.abs-cbn.com/nation/10/05/15/bongbong-run-vp.
55. ↑ Pasion, Patty (28 May 2016). "Duterte, Robredo to be proclaimed next week". Rappler. https://www.rappler.com/nation/politics/elections/2016/134488-duterte-robredo-proclamation. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
56. ↑ Allison, Graham (28 March 2015). "Lee Kuan Yew: Lessons for leaders from Asia's 'Grand Master'". CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2015/03/28/opinions/singapore-lee-kuan-yew-graham-allison/.
57. ↑ Weatherbee, Donald (23 April 2008). Historical Dictionary of United States-Southeast Asia Relations. Scarecrow Press. p. 213. ISBN 9780810864054. https://books.google.com/books?id=-boaAAAAQBAJ.
58. ↑ Seow, Joanna (3 July 2017). "Oxley Road: PM Lee addresses allegations of abuse of power through Ministerial Committee". The Straits Times. http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/oxley-road-pm-lee-addresses-allegations-of-abuse-of-power-through-ministerial-committee. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
59. ↑ Lee, Kuan Yew. "TRANSCRIPT OF A PRESS CONFERENCE GIVEN BY THE PRIME MINISTER OF SINGAPORE, MR. LEE KUAN YEW, AT BROADCASTING HOUSE, SINGAPORE, AT 1200 HOURS ON MONDAY 9TH AUGUST, 1965". Government of Singapore. http://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/data/pdfdoc/lky19650809b.pdf. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
60. ↑ Blackwill, Robert D.; Allison, Graham (13 February 2013). "Opinion: Seek the wisdom of Lee Kuan Yew". Politico. https://www.politico.com/story/2013/02/seek-the-wisdomof-lee-kuan-yew-087620. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
61. ↑ AsiaOne (7 November 2011). "I've still got two legs, I will make a contribution". Asia One News. https://www.asiaone.com/News/AsiaOne+News/Singapore/Story/A1Story20111107-309055.html. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
62. ↑ Cochrane, Joe; Fuller, Thomas (24 March 2015). "Singapore, the Nation That Lee Kuan Yew Built, Questions Its Direction". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/25/world/asia/singapore-the-nation-that-lee-built-questions-its-direction.html?mcubz=1. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
63. ↑ Hussain, Zakir (4 July 2017). "Lee Hsien Loong refutes siblings' charges of abuse of power over Oxley house". The Straits Times. http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/pm-refutes-siblings-charges-of-abuse-of-power-over-oxley-house. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
64. ↑ Steger, Isabella. "A tragic life: Park Geun-hye's descent from South Korea's "first lady" to impeached president". Quartz. https://qz.com/929497/a-tragic-life-park-geun-hyes-descent-from-first-lady-to-impeached-president/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Lee, Cheng and, Yu, Ming-hsien, Jenny, and Pei-hua (3 January 2016). "A Second-generation Wave｜Politics & Society｜2016-01-03｜CommonWealth Magazine" (in zh-TW). CommonWealth Magazine 588. https://english.cw.com.tw/article/article.action?id=142. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
66. ↑ "Martial Law". 16 July 2017. https://outreachfortaiwan.org/taiwan-101/history/martial-law/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
67. ↑ :zh:十大建設
68. ↑ "晚年蒋经国 三不政策(1) – 三五中文网 李松林 其他类型". https://www.555zw.com/book/1/1749/74559.html.
69. ↑ Curato, Nicole. "What is wrong with political dynasties?". GMA News Online. http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/opinion/content/276345/what-is-wrong-with-political-dynasties/story/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
70. ↑ "To the district born". The Economist. https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21635073-political-families-are-rise-district-born. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
71. ↑ Jimeno, Jaileen. "Amid the fighting, the clan rules in Maguindanao". http://pcij.org/stories/amid-the-fighting-the-clan-rules-in-maguindanao/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 Zonio, Aquiles (24 November 2009). "Inquirer man recounts harrowing tales of survival". http://technology.inquirer.net/infotech/infotech/view/20091124-238100/Inquirer-man-recounts-harrowing-tales-of-survival. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
73. ↑ Gutierrez, Jason (23 November 2010). "Philippines mourns massacre victims". Philippine Daily Inquirer. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view/20101123-304817/Philippines-mourns-massacre-victims. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
74. ↑ Papa, Alcuin (26 November 2009). "Maguindanao massacre worst-ever for journalists". http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view/20091126-238554/Maguindanao-massacre-worst-ever-for-journalists. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
75. ↑ Nakazawa, Katsuji (27 November 2017). "China up close: Xi Jinping bids adieu to his fellow princelings – Nikkei Asian Review" (in en). Nikkei Asian Review (Nikkei Asian Review). https://asia.nikkei.com/Features/China-up-close/Xi-Jinping-bids-adieu-to-his-fellow-princelings. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
76. ↑ Ian, Johnson (15 November 2012). "中国太子党的崛起" (in zh). 纽约时报中文网 (New York Times). https://cn.nytimes.com/china/20121114/c14princeling/dual/. Retrieved 19 January 2018.

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