Canonization of Islamic scripture

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Canonized Islamic scripture are texts which Muslims believe were revealed by God through various prophets throughout humanity's history—specifically the Quran and Hadith. Muslims believe the Quran to be the final revelation of God to mankind, and a completion and confirmation of previous scriptures, revealed to Muhammad between 610 and 632 CE, and canonized around 650 by the Rashidun leader Uthman.[1] Different readings of the Quran (Ahruf), criticized and dismissed as human works by various groups early, were sanctified and legitimized a few centuries later, accompanied by narratives pointing to the divine source of these readings.[2]

Hadith (the record of the words, actions, and the silent approval of Muhammad)[3] are also considered by many to be divine revelation, directing Muslims on a broader number of rules than the Quran, including the rules of Sharia (Islamic law).[4] The major compilations, especially that of the Six Books, primarily took place in the ninth century, with their canonization occurring later. The two most important compilations, (the Sahihayn), are Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. These were canonized by Shafi'i's in the 10th century CE, by the Malikis and Hanbali school of fiqh in the 12th CE century, and by Hanafi's in the 14th century.[5] Different collections of hadith would come to differentiate the different branches of the Islamic faith.[6]

## Contents

* 1 Traditional story on canonization of Islamic scripture
* 1.1 Quran
* 1.1.1 Uthmanic canonization
* 1.1.2 The seven aḥruf
* 1.1.3 Shia belief
* 1.1.3.1 Differences with the Uthmanid codex
* 1.2 Hadith
* 2 See also
* 3 Notes
* 4 References
* 4.1 Citations
* 4.2 Sources

## Traditional story on canonization of Islamic scripture

### Quran

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#### Uthmanic canonization

Prior to the death of Muhammad, many Muslims had the Quran completely memorized, so there was no need or urgency to put the manuscripts together to form an official copy.[7] The Quran was canonized only after Muhammad's death in 632 CE. According to Islamic tradition the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 23/644–35 AH/655 CE) established the canonical Qur'an, reportedly starting the process in 644 CE,[8] and completing the work around 650 CE (the exact date was not recorded by early Arab annalists).[9] It is generally accepted that the Uthmanic text comprises all 114 surahs (chapters of the Quran) in the order known today.[10]

The Qur'anic canon is the form of the Quran as recited and written in which it is religiously binding for the Muslim community. This canonical corpus is closed and fixed in the sense that nothing in the Quran can be changed or modified.[10]

According to the traditional Islamic narrative, by the time of Uthman's caliphate, there was a perceived need for clarification of Qur'an reading. The holy book had often been spread to others orally by Muslims who had memorized the Quran in its entirety (huffaz), but now "sharp divergence" had appeared in recitation of the book among Muslims.[9] It is believed the general Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman reported this problem to the caliph and asked him to establish a unified text. According to the history of al-Tabari, during the expedition to conquer Armenia and Azerbaijan there were 10,000 Kufan Muslim warriors, 6,000 in Azerbaijan and 4,000 at Rayy,[11] and a large number of these soldiers disagreed about the correct way of reciting the Quran.[12]

What was more, many of the huffaz were dying. 70 had been killed in the Battle of Yamama.[13] The Islamic empire had also grown considerably, expanding into Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and Iran, bringing into Islam's fold many new converts from various cultures with varying degrees of isolation.[14] These converts spoke a variety of languages but were not well learned in Arabic, and so Uthman felt it was important to standardize the written text of the Quran on one specific Arabic dialect.

Uthman obtained written "sheets" or parts of the Quran from Ḥafṣa, one of the widows of Muhammad. Other parts collected from Companions had been "written down on parchment, stone, palm leaves and the shoulder blades of camels".[15] He appointed a commission consisting of a scribe of Muhammad, Zayd ibn Thabit and three prominent Meccans, and instructed them to copy the sheets into several volumes based on the dialect of the Quraysh — the tribe of Muhammad and the main tribe of Mecca.[16]

Uthman's reaction in 653 is recorded in the following hadith from Sahih al-Bukhari, 6:61:510:

> "So Uthman sent a message to Hafsa saying, "Send us the manuscripts of the Quran so that we may compile the Quranic materials in perfect copies and return the manuscripts to you." Hafsa sent it to Uthman. Uthman then ordered Zaid bin Thabit, Abdullah bin Az Zubair, Said bin Al-As and Abdur Rahman bin Harith bin Hisham to rewrite the manuscripts in perfect copies. Uthman said to the three Quraishi men, "In case you disagree with Zaid bin Thabit on any point in the Quran, then write it in the dialect of Quraish, the Quran was revealed in their tongue." They did so, and when they had written many copies, 'Uthman returned the original manuscripts to Hafsa. 'Uthman sent to every Muslim province one copy of what they had copied and ordered that all the other Quranic materials, whether written in fragmentary manuscripts or whole copies, be burnt. Zayd bin Thabit added, "A Verse from Surat Ahzab was missed by me when we copied the Quran and I used to hear Allah's Apostle reciting it. So we searched for it and found it with Khuzaima bin Thabit Al-Ansari. [That verse was]: 'Among the Believers are men who have been true in their covenant with Allah.'"

When the task was finished Uthman kept one copy in Medina and sent others to Kufa, Baṣra, Damascus, and, according to some accounts, Mecca, and ordered that all other variant copies of the Quran be destroyed. Some non-Uthmanic Qurans are thought to have survived in Kufa, where Abdullah ibn Masud and his followers reportedly refused.[16]

This is one of the most contested issues and an area where many non-Muslim and Muslim scholars often clash.[10]

#### The seven aḥruf

According to Islamic tradition the Quran was revealed to Muhammad in seven ahruf (translated variously as "styles", "forms", or "modes",[17] singular harf). However, Uthman canonized only one of the harf (according to tradition).[18] According to Islamic tradition, the other ahruf were destroyed because after Muhammad's death a rivalry began to develop among some of the Arab tribes over the alleged superiority of their ahruf. In addition, some new converts to Islam began mixing the various forms of recitation out of ignorance.[18][19] Consequently, as part of the canonization of the Quran, caliph Uthman ordered the rest of the ahruf to be destroyed.

The issue of ahruf (lit means letters), whose origin and legality are disputed,[20] is considered problematic to discuss today within the orthodoxy of the Quran's divine origin and preservation.[21][22] According to some accounts, when Uthman created his official codex, ordered the collection and destruction of other codices collected from different regions -and so expected to be having native different dialects-;[23] other accounts suggest that the writing process was based on the Quraysh dialect, and according to scholars who assumed the 'Ahruf' were dialects in themselves, these dialects were abolished through the work of Uthman's committee. According to some researchers like John Wansbroughand Yehuda D. Nevo,[24] later known as the Revisionist school of Islamic studies, the canonization of the Quran, through the unification of "various previous texts" into a single, unchanging standard text and the elimination of others, took place over a period of approximately 200 years. They argued that a common method within Islamic tradition was to legitimize a practice by attributing it to a past authority that enjoyed high popular acceptance. This suggests that the accounts of Uthman's cancellation and burning of the codices may actually refer to a single issue encompassing different codices.[25] While variant readings were initially scorned and criticized as human creations, five centuries later these readings were sanctified by being linked to a divine source.[2]

Today, the terminology that delves deeply into the various readings the Quran, encompassing diverse narrations and schools, is Qira'at, and it is said to be distinct from "ahruf”, that also go back to Muhammad according to the Hadith.[18]

This does not mean that only one "reading" of the Quran is canonized. The single harf canonized by Uthman did not include vowels or diacritical marks for some consonants, which allowed for variant readings. Seven readings—known as Qira'at—were noted by scholar Abu Bakr Ibn Mujāhid and canonized in the 8th century CE.[26] Later scholars, such as Ibn al-Jazari, added three other reciters (Abu Ja’far from Madinah, Ya’qub from Basrah, and Khalaf from Kufa) to form the canonical list of ten Qira'at.[27][28]

Of the ten, the one qira'at has become so popular that (according to one source) "for all practical purposes", it is the one Quranic version in "general use" in the Muslim world today[29][Note 1] \-- Hafs ‘an ‘Asim, specifically the standard Egyptian edition of the Qur’an first published on July 10, 1924 in Cairo. Mass-produced printing press mus'haf (written copies of the Quran) have been credited with narrowing the diversity of qira'at.[32]

#### Shia belief

Main article: Religion:Mushaf of Ali

Template:AliAli, the fourth Rashidun caliph (r. 656–661) and the first Shia Imam, is widely believed to have compiled his own transcript of the Quran.[33][34] In particular, there are reports that Ali and some other companions of Muhammad collected the verses of the Quran during the lifetime of the prophet,[35] while other reports emphasize that Ali prepared his codex immediately after the death of Muhammad in 632 CE.[36][37] This latter group of reports may have been fabricated to imply consensus about the caliphate of Abu Bakr, that is, the preoccupation of Ali with his codex in these reports is intended to justify his widely rumored absence in the Saqifa meeting where Abu Bakr was elected caliph after Muhammad died.[36]

In his codex, Ali may have arranged the verses in the order by which they were revealed to Muhammad,[38][39] though this claim has been challenged.[39] The codex of Ali may have also included additional information on the abrogated verses of the Quran.[39] By some Shia accounts, Ali offered his codex for official use after the death of Muhammad but was turned down by some of the companions.[39] Alternatively, Ali may have offered his codex for official use to Uthman during his caliphate but the caliph rejected it in favor of other variants available to him.[40] As for its fate, it is believed in Twelver Shia that the codex of Ali has been handed down from every Imam to his successor, as part of the esoteric knowledge available to the Twelve Imams.[41][42][43] In Twelver belief, the codex is now in the possession of their last Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi,[44] who is hidden from the public by divine will since 874, until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil.[45]

##### Differences with the Uthmanid codex

Some Sunni reports allege that the official Uthmanid codex of the Quran is incomplete,[46] as detailed in Fada'il al-Qur'an by the Sunni exegete Abu Ubaid al-Qasim bin Salam (d. 838), among others.[47] Supporting Ali's right to the caliphate after Muhammad, Shia polemists readily cited such reports to charge that explicit references to Ali had been removed by senior companions for political reasons.[48] Yet the accusation that some words and verses were altered or omitted in the Uthmanid codex also appears in the Shia tradition.[49][42][50] Among others, such reports can be found in Kitab al-Qira'at by the ninth-century Shia exegete Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Sayyari,[46][51] though he has been widely accused of connections to the Ghulat (lit. exaggerators – lit. extremists).[52][53] As the faithful recension of the Quran, the codex of Ali is thus said to have been longer than the official one, with explicit references to Ali.[42] This view was apparently popular among Shia scholars before the Buyid dynasty (r. 934–1062).[54] By contrast, any difference between the two codices is rejected by Sunnis because Ali did not impose his recension during his caliphate, while the Shia counterargument is that Ali deliberately remained silent about this divisive matter.[55] Fearing persecution for themselves and their followers, later Twelver Imams may have also adopted religious dissimulation (taqiya) about this issue.[56]

Alternatively, the recension of Ali may have matched the Uthmanic codex, save for the ordering of its content,[44] but it was rejected for political reasons as it also included the partisan commentary of Ali,[57] who is often counted among the foremost exegetes of the Quran.[58] The implication that the Uthmanid codex is faithful has been the prevalent Shia view ever since the Buyids period.[59] Some Shia scholars have thus questioned the authenticity of those traditions that allege textual differences with the Uthmanid codex, tracing them to the Ghulat,[60][61] or to early Sunni traditions,[61] while Sunnis have in turn blamed Shias for originating the falsification claims and accused them of espousing such views, often indiscriminately.[61][62] Other Shia scholars have reinterpreted the traditions that may suggest the alteration of the Quran.[63] For instance, a tradition ascribed to Ali suggests that a fourth of the Quran is about the House of Muhammad, or the Ahl al-Bayt, while another fourth is about their enemies. The Uthmanic codex certainly does not meet this description but the inconsistency can be explained by another Shia tradition, which states that the verses of the Quran about the virtuous are primarily directed at the Ahl al-Bayt, while those verses about the evildoers are directed first at their enemies.[64]

### Hadith

See also: Hadith studies

Template:Hadith

Second only to the Quran in authority as a source for religious law and moral guidance in Islam,[3] are Hadith—the record of what Muslims believe to be the words, actions, and the silent approval of Muhammad. While the number of verses pertaining to law in the Quran is relatively few, hadith give direction on everything from details of religious obligations (such as Ghusl or Wudu, ablutions[65] for salat prayer), to the correct forms of salutations[66] and the importance of benevolence to slaves.[67] Thus the "great bulk" of the rules of Sharia (Islamic law) are derived from hadith, rather than the Quran.)[4] Scriptural authority for hadith comes from the Quran which enjoins Muslims to emulate Muhammad and obey his judgments (in verses such as 24:54, 33:21).

Because there were a large number of false hadith, a great deal of effort was expended by scholars in a field known as hadith studies to sift through and grade hadith on a scale of authenticity. In Sunni Islam there are six major authentic hadith collections known as the Kutub al-Sittah (six books)[68] or al-Sihah al-Sittah (the authentic six). The two "most famous" 'Authentic' (Sahih) ḥadīth collections are those of Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim — known as the sahihayn (two sahih). These works came out over two centuries after the Uthmanic codex, (the hadith collections do not have original publishing dates but the authors' death dates range from 870 to 915 CE).

Calligraphic arrangement of eight hadiths dated 1205 AH (1790-91 AD)

Because the Kutub al-Sittah hadith collections used by Sunni Muslims were based on narrators and transmitters that Shia Islam believed treated Ali unfairly and so were not trustworthy, Shia follow different hadith collections. The most famous being "The Four Books", which were compiled by three authors who are known as the 'Three Muhammads'.[69] The Four Books are: Kitab al-Kafi by Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni al-Razi (329 AH), Man la yahduruhu al-Faqih by Muhammad ibn Babuya and Al-Tahdhib and Al-Istibsar both by Shaykh Muhammad Tusi. Shi'a clerics also make use of extensive collections and commentaries by later authors.

Not only were the hadith collections compiled centuries after the Quran, but their canonization also came much later. Scholar Jonathan A. C. Brown has studied the process of canonization of the two "most famous" collections of hadith -- sahihayn of al-Bukhari and Muslim—which went from "controversial to indispensable" over the centuries.[5]

> From their very creation, they were subject to withering criticism and rejection: Muslim was forced to argue that his book was merely meant as a 'private collection' (94) and al-Bukhari was accused of plagiarism (95). The 4th/10th and 5th/11th centuries were no kinder, for while the Shafi'is [school of fiqh law] championed the Sahihayn, Malikis were initially enamored of their own texts and 'tangential to the Sahihayn network" (37), while the Hanbalis were openly critical. Not until the mid-5th/11th century did these schools come to a tacit agreement on the status of 'the Sahihayn canon as a measure of authenticity in polemics and exposition of their schools' doctrines' (222); it would be three more centuries before the Hanafis would join them in this assessment.[Note 2][70]

Brown writes that the books achieved iconic status in the Sunni Muslim community such that public readings of them were made in Cairo in 790 AH/1388 CE to ward off plague and the Moroccan statesman Mawlay Isma'il (d.1727) "dubbed his special troops the 'slaves of al-Bukhari'".[71]

## See also

* List of Islamic texts
* List of Shia books
* Prophets and messengers in Islam
* Quranic studies
* Sunnah
* Timeline of the history of Islam (7th century)

## Notes

1. ↑ Some other versions with minor divergences, namely those of Warsh (d.197/812) ....circulate in the northwestern regions of African.[30][31]
2. ↑ quotation comes from review by Jonathan Brockopp, not from book author Jonathan Brown

## References

### Citations

1. ↑ Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, Cyril Glasse, Holy Books
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Nasser writes, "This position changed drastically in the later periods, especially after the 5th/11th century where the canonical Readings started to be treated as divine revelation, i.e. every single variant reading in the seven and ten eponymous Readings was revealed by God to Muhammad."Nasser, The Transmission of the Variant Readings of the Qurʾān, 2012: p.77
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Hadith". https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hadith.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Forte, David F. (1978). "Islamic Law; the impact of Joseph Schacht". Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review 1: 2. http://www.soerenkern.com/pdfs/islam/IslamicLawTheImpactofJosephSchacht.pdf. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim". https://brill.com/flyer/title/12924?print=pdf&pdfGenerator=headless_chrome.
6. ↑ J.A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, 2014: p.8
7. ↑ Azam Malik, Muhammad Farooq (November 2012). English Translation of the Meaning of Al-Quran (Tenth ed.). Houston, Texas, USA: The Institute of Islamic Knowledge. p. 908. ISBN 0-911119-80-9.
8. ↑ Shoemaker, Thomas. "The Development of the Canonical Qur'an". http://www.mesacc.edu/~thoqh49081/handouts/quran-canon.html.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.119
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Leaman, Oliver (2006). "Canon". The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 136–139. ISBN 0-415-32639-7. https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/136.
11. ↑ Al-Tabari (1990). The History of al-Tabari: The Crisis of the Early Caliphate. Stephen Humphreys (trans.). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-7914-0154-5.
12. ↑ al-Tabari (1990). The History of al-Tabari: The Crisis of the Early Caliphate. R. Humphreys (trans.). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. p. 42. ISBN 0-7914-0154-5.
13. ↑ EKINCI, EKREM BUĞRA (2 June 2017). "History of the compilation of Quran". https://www.dailysabah.com/feature/2017/06/02/history-of-the-compilation-of-quran.
14. ↑ Al-Tabari (1989). The History of al-Tabari: The Conquest of Iraq, Southwestern Persia, and Egypt. Gautier H. A. Juynboll (trans.). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. pp. 2–6. ISBN 0-88706-876-6.
15. ↑ CALAMUR, KRISHNADEV (22 July 2015). "University In U.K. Finds Muhammad-Era Quran Pages Among Its Possessions". NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/07/22/425360894/u-k-university-finds-muhammad-era-quran-among-its-possessions.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Pearson, J. D.; Paret, R.; Welch, A. T. (2012). "al-Kur'an". in Bearman, P.. Encyclopedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/al-kuran-COM_0543.
17. ↑ Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips, Tafseer Soorah Al-Hujuraat, 1990, Tawheed Publications, Riyadh, pp. 29–30.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips, Tafseer Soorah Al-Hujuraat, 1990, Tawheed Publications, Riyadh, p. 28-29
19. ↑ "Versions Of The Qur'an?". 15 January 2002. https://www.islamic-awareness.org/quran/text/qiraat/hafs.
20. ↑ Examining the hadith of Umar's surprise in finding out "this Quran has been revealed in seven Ahruf", Suyuti, a noted 15th-century Islamic theologian, concludes the "best opinion" of this hadith is that it is "mutashabihat", i.e. its meaning "cannot be understood." Suyuti, Tanwir al-Hawalik, 2nd ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Jayl, 1993), p. 199.
21. ↑ Islamic scholar Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi stated in a 2020 interview that "every single student of knowledge ... who studies ulm of Quran" knows "that the most difficult topics are ahruf and qira’at", so vexing that even "the most advanced of our scholars, they are not quite fully certain how to solve all of it and answer questions in there",In the Hot Seat: Muḥammad Hijāb Interviews Dr. Yasir Qadhi. YouTube, Yasir Qadhi, 8 June 2020, video at 1h24m17s
22. ↑ Ibn Warraq (February 2008). "Which Koran?". New English Review. https://www.newenglishreview.org/custpage.cfm/frm/15565/sec_id/15565. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
23. ↑ The Islamic Caliph Uthman compiled the Quran using one of the aḥruf during the 7th century, and the other aḥruf fell out of use.Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips, Tafseer Soorah Al-Hujuraat, 1990, Tawheed Publications, Riyadh, pp. 28-29.
24. ↑ "Crystallization of the Quran: an analysis of John Wansbrough’s theory". https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1e7f/2895c7374fcfa2d0c38da2d374cfefc28d40.pdf.
25. ↑ The majority of explanations identify the seven aḥruf with Arabic dialects, although a minority identifies them as categories of Quranic material.Dutton 2012, p. 26.
26. ↑ Shady Hekmat Nasser, Ibn Mujahid and the Canonization of the Seven Readings, p. 129. Taken from The Transmission of the Variant Readings of the Qur'an: The Problem of Tawaatur and the Emergence of Shawaadhdh. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2012. ISBN 9789004240810
27. ↑ Ajaja, Abdurrazzak. "القراءات : The readings". https://scientificsentence.net/newArabic/tajweed/index.php?key=yes&Integer=the_10_readings.
28. ↑ Khan, Nazir; Khatib, Ammar. "The Origins of the Variant Readings of the Qur'an". https://yaqeeninstitute.org/nazir-khan/the-origins-of-the-variant-readings-of-the-quran/#ftnt2.
29. ↑ Böwering, "Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran", 2008: p.74
30. ↑ QA. Welch, Kuran, EI2 5, 409
31. ↑ Böwering, "Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran", 2008: p.84
32. ↑ Mattson, Ingrid (2013). The Story of the Qur'an: Its History and Place in Muslim Life. John Wiley & Sons.. p. 129. ISBN 9780470673492. https://books.google.com/books?id=_-eUnDh_OWgC&dq=recitation+of+Hafs+now+became+dominant&pg=PA129. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
33. ↑ Lalani 2006, pp. 30–31.
34. ↑ Esack 2005, p. 89.
35. ↑ Modarressi 1993, p. 16–17.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Modarressi 1993, pp. 17–18.
37. ↑ Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 14.
38. ↑ Lalani 2006, p. 30.
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 Modarressi 2003, p. 2.
40. ↑ Modarressi 1993, p. 14.
41. ↑ Momen 1985, p. 150.
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 24.
43. ↑ Amir-Moezzi 2009, pp. 29–30.
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Amir-Moezzi 1994, p. 89.
45. ↑ Amir-Moezzi 1998.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Modarressi 1993, pp. 22, 25–26.
47. ↑ Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 16.
48. ↑ Modarressi 1993, p. 23.
49. ↑ Bar-Asher.
50. ↑ Momen 1985, pp. 172–173.
51. ↑ Kohlberg 2009, pp. 31–32.
52. ↑ Kohlberg 2009, pp. 32–33.
53. ↑ Modarressi 1993, p. 32.
54. ↑ Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 26.
55. ↑ Esack 2005, p. 90.
56. ↑ Amir-Moezzi 1994, pp. 88–89, 204n455.
57. ↑ Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 25.
58. ↑ Lalani 2006, p. 29.
59. ↑ Momen 1985, pp. 77, 81.
60. ↑ Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 28.
61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 Modarressi 1993, pp. 36–39.
62. ↑ Momen 1985, p. 74.
63. ↑ Ayoub 1988, p. 191.
64. ↑ Modarressi 1993, p. 29.
65. ↑ An-Nawawi, Riyadh As-Salihin, 1975: p.203
66. ↑ An-Nawawi, Riyadh As-Salihin, 1975: p.168
67. ↑ An-Nawawi, Riyadh As-Salihin, 1975: p.229
68. ↑ "Sahih Muslim (7 Vol. Set)". Dar-us-Salam Islamic Bookstore. http://store.dar-us-salam.com/eng_hadith/H17.html.
69. ↑ Momen, Moojan, Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Yale University Press, 1985, p.174.
70. ↑ Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2010). "Reviewed Work: The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim. The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon by Jonathan A. C. Brown". Islamic Law and Society 17 (2): 280. doi:10.1163/092893810X502968. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25704011. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
71. ↑ Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2010). "Reviewed Work: The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim. The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon by Jonathan A. C. Brown". Islamic Law and Society 17 (2): 281. doi:10.1163/092893810X502968. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25704011. Retrieved 31 July 2020.

### Sources

* Böwering, Gerhard (2007). "Recent Research on the Construction of the Qur'an". in Reynolds, Gabriel (in en). The Qur'an in its Historical Context. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203939604. ISBN 978-1-134-10945-6. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134109456.
* Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Sayyari (2009). Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali. eds. "Revelation and Falsification: The Kitab al-qira'at of Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Sayyari: Critical Edition with an Introduction and Notes by Etan Kohlberg and Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi". Texts and Studies on the Qurʼān (BRILL) 4: vii. ISSN 1567-2808. https://archive.org/details/KitabAlQiratOfAhmadB.MuhammadAlSayyari.
* Muhyi ad-Din Abu Zakariyya Yahya bin Sharaf an-Nawawi (1975). Riyadh as-Salihin. Mauhammad Zafulla Khan, translator. New York: Olive Branch Press. https://archive.org/stream/GardensOfTheRighteous/Gardens of the Righteous_djvu.txt. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
* Leaman, Oliver, ed (2006). "'Ali ibn Abi Talib". The Qur'an: An encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 28–32. ISBN 9780415326391. https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/30/mode/2up.
* Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali, eds (2009). "Information, Doubts and Contradictions in Islamic Sources". Revelation and Falsification. Brill. pp. 12–23. ISBN 9789004167827. https://archive.org/details/KohlbergMoezziREVELATIONANDFALSIFICATIONTheKitabAlQiratOfAhmadB.MuhammadAlSayyariLeiden2009./mode/2up.
* Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780853982005.
* Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali, eds (2009). "Life and Works of al-Sayyārī". Revelation and Falsification. Brill. pp. 30–37. ISBN 9789004167827. https://archive.org/details/KohlbergMoezziREVELATIONANDFALSIFICATIONTheKitabAlQiratOfAhmadB.MuhammadAlSayyariLeiden2009./mode/2up.
* The Divine Guide In Early Shi'ism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam. State University of New York Press. 1994. ISBN 0791421228. https://archive.org/details/thedivineguideinearlyshiism1/mode/1up.
* Rippin, Andrew, ed (1988). "The Speaking Qur'an and the silent Qur'an: A Study of the Principles and Development of Imāmī Shī'ī tafsīr". Approaches to the History of the Interpretation Of The Qur'ān. Clarendon Press. pp. 177–198. ISBN 0198265468. https://archive.org/details/241186042rippinapproachestothehistoryoftheinterpretationofthequranpdf/page/n93/mode/1up.
* Modarressi, Hossein (2003). Tradition and Survival: A Bibliographical Survey of Early Shi'ite Literature. 1. Oneworld. pp. 2. ISBN 9781851683314.
* Bar-Asher, Meir M.. "Shīʿism and the Qurʾān". in McAuliffe, Jane Dammen. Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Brill Reference Online. https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-the-quran/shiism-and-the-quran-EQCOM_00181.
* "Eschatology iii. Imami Shiʿism". Encyclopaedia Iranica. VIII/6. 1998. pp. 575–581. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eschatology-iii.
* Modarressi, Hossein (1993). "Early Debates on the Integrity of the Qur'ān: A Brief Survey". Studia Islamica (JSTOR) 77: 5–39. doi:10.2307/1595789. https://doi.org/10.2307/1595789.
* The Qur'an: A User's Guide. Oneworld. 2005. ISBN 9781851683543. https://archive.org/details/quranusersguideg0000esac/mode/2up.

* v
* t
* e

People and things in the Quran

Characters

Non-humans|

* Allāh ("The God")
* Names of Allah found in the Quran, such as Karīm (Generous)
* Beings in Paradise

| Animals|

| Related|

* The baqarah (cow) of Israelites
* The dhiʾb (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph
* The fīl (elephant) of the Abyssinians
* Ḥimār (Domesticated donkey)
* The hud-hud (hoopoe) of Solomon
* The kalb (dog) of the sleepers of the cave
* The namlah (female ant) of Solomon
* The nūn (fish or whale) of Jonah
* The nāqat (she-camel) of Saleh

|

Non-related|

* ʿAnkabūt (Female spider)
* Dābbat al-Arḍ (Beast of the Earth)
* Ḥimār (Wild ass)
* Naḥl (Honey bee)
* Qaswarah ("Lion", "beast of prey" or "hunter")

Angels|

* Angels of Hell
* Mālik
* Zabāniyah
* Angel of the Trumpet (Isrāfīl or Raphael)
* Jibrīl (Gabriel)
* Ar-Rūḥ ("The Spirit")
* Ar-Rūḥ al-Amīn ("The Trustworthy Spirit")
* Ar-Rūḥ al-Qudus ("The Holy Spirit")
* Mīkāil (Michael)
* Angel of Death (Azrael)
* Bearers of the Throne
* Riḍwān
* Munkar and Nakir
* Harut and Marut
* Kirāman Kātibīn (Honourable Scribes)
* Raqib
* Atid

Others|

* Jinn
* Jann
* ʿIfrīt
* Mārid ("Rebellious one")
* Shayāṭīn (Demons)
* Iblīs the (Chief) Al-Shayṭān
* Qarīn
* Ghilmān or Wildān
* Ḥūr

Prophets|

| Mentioned|

* Ādam (Adam)
* Al-Yasaʿ (Elisha)
* Ayyūb (Job)
* Dāwūd (David)
* Dhūl-Kifl (Ezekiel?)
* Hārūn (Aaron)
* Hūd (Eber?)
* Idrīs (Enoch?)
* Ilyās (Elijah)
* ʿImrān (Joachim the father of Maryam)
* Isḥāq (Isaac)
* Ismāʿīl (Ishmael)
* Dhabih Ullah
* Lūṭ (Lot)
* Ṣāliḥ
* Shuʿayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?)
* Sulaymān ibn Dāwūd (Solomon son of David)
* ʿUzair (Ezra?)
* Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyā (John the Baptist the son of Zechariah)
* Yaʿqūb (Jacob)
* Isrāʾīl (Israel)
* Yūnus (Jonah)
* Dhūn-Nūn ("He of the Fish (or Whale)" or "Owner of the Fish (or Whale)")
* Ṣāḥib al-Ḥūt ("Companion of the Whale")
* Yūsuf ibn Ya‘qūb (Joseph son of Jacob)
* Zakariyyā (Zechariah)

| Ulul-ʿAzm|

* Muḥammad
* Aḥmad
* Other names and titles of Muhammad
* ʿĪsā (Jesus)
* Al-Masīḥ (The Messiah)
* Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary)
* Mūsā Kalīmullāh (Moses He who spoke to God)
* Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh (Abraham Friend of God)
* Nūḥ (Noah)

|

Debatable ones|

* Dhūl-Qarnain
* Luqmān
* Maryam (Mary)
* Ṭālūt (Saul or Gideon?)

Implied|

* Irmiyā (Jeremiah)
* Isma'il Ṣādiq al-Waʿd (Fulfiller of the Promise)?
* Ṣamūʾīl (Samuel)
* Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses)

People of Prophets|

| Good ones|

* Adam's immediate relatives
* Martyred son
* Wife
* Believer of Ya-Sin
* Family of Noah
* Father Lamech
* Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos
* Luqman's son
* People of Aaron and Moses
* Egyptians
* Believer (Hizbil or Hizqil ibn Sabura)
* Imraʾat Firʿawn (Arabic: امْرَأَت فِرْعَوْن, Āsiyá bint Muzāḥim (Arabic: آسِيَا بِنْت مُزَاحِم) or Wife of Pharaoh, who adopted Moses)
* Magicians of the Pharaoh
* Wise, pious man
* Moses' wife
* Moses' sister-in-law
* Mother
* Sister
* People of Abraham
* Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo
* Ishmael's mother
* Isaac's mother
* People of Jesus
* Disciples (including Peter)
* Mary's mother
* Zechariah's wife
* People of Joseph
* Brothers (including Binyāmin (Benjamin) and Simeon)
* Egyptians
* ʿAzīz (Potiphar, Qatafir or Qittin)
* Malik (King Ar-Rayyān ibn Al-Walīd))
* Wife of ʿAzīz (Zulaykhah)
* Mother
* People of Solomon
* Mother
* Queen of Sheba
* Vizier
* Zayd (Muhammad's adopted son)

|

Evil ones|

* Āzar (possibly Terah)
* Firʿawn (Pharaoh of Moses' time)
* Hāmān
* Jālūt (Goliath)
* Qārūn (Korah, cousin of Moses)
* As-Sāmirī
* Abū Lahab
* Slayers of Saleh's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr)

Implied or
not specified|

* Abrahah[clarification needed]
* Bal'am/Balaam
* Barsisa
* Caleb or Kaleb the companion of Joshua
* Luqman's son
* Nebuchadnezzar II
* Nimrod
* Rahmah the wife of Ayyub
* Shaddad

Groups|

| Mentioned|

* Aṣḥāb al-Jannah
* People of Paradise
* People of the Burnt Garden
* Aṣḥāb as-Sabt (Companions of the Sabbath)
* Christian apostles
* Ḥawāriyyūn (Disciples of Jesus)
* Companions of Noah's Ark
* Aṣḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim?
* Companions of the Elephant
* People of al-Ukhdūd
* People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin
* People of Yathrib or Medina
* Qawm Lūṭ (People of Sodom and Gomorrah)
* Nation of Noah

| Tribes, ethnicities
or families|

* Aʿrāb (Arabs or Bedouins)
* ʿĀd (people of Hud)
* Companions of the Rass
* Qawm Tubbaʿ (People of Tubba)
* People of Sabaʾ or Sheba
* Quraysh
* Thamūd (people of Saleh)
* Aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr ("Companions of the Stoneland")
* ‘Ajam
* Ar-Rūm (literally "The Romans")
* Banī Isrāʾīl (Children of Israel)
* Muʾtafikāt (The overthrown cities of Sodom and Gomorrah)
* People of Ibrahim
* People of Ilyas
* People of Nuh
* People of Shuaib
* Ahl Madyan People of Madyan)
* Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ("Companions of the Wood")
* Qawm Yūnus (People of Jonah)
* Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog
* Ahl al-Bayt ("People of the Household")
* Household of Abraham
* Brothers of Yūsuf
* Lot's daughters
* Progeny of Imran
* Household of Moses
* Household of Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim
* Daughters of Muhammad
* Muhammad's wives
* Household of Salih
* People of Fir'aun
* Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad)
* Aṣḥāb Muḥammad (Companions of Muhammad)
* Anṣār (Muslims of Medina who helped Muhammad and his Meccan followers, literally 'Helpers')
* Muhajirun (Emigrants from Mecca to Medina)
* People of Mecca
* Wife of Abu Lahab
* Children of Ayyub
* Sons of Adam
* Wife of Nuh
* Wife of Lut
* Yaʾjūj wa Maʾjūj (Gog and Magog)
* Son of Nuh

|

Implicitly
mentioned|

* Amalek
* Ahl as-Suffa (People of the Verandah)
* Banu Nadir
* Banu Qaynuqa
* Banu Qurayza
* Iranian people
* Umayyad Dynasty
* Aus and Khazraj
* People of Quba

Religious groups|

* Ahl al-Dhimmah
* Kāfirūn (Disbelievers)
* Zoroastrians
* Munafiqun (Hypocrites)
* Muslims
* Believers
* Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book)
* Naṣārā (Christian(s) or People of the Injil)
* Ruhban (Christian monks)
* Qissis (Christian priest)
* Yahūd (Jews)
* Ahbār (Jewish scholars)
* Rabbani/Rabbi
* Sabians
* Polytheists
* Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad
* Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot

Locations|

| Mentioned|

* Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ("The Holy Land")
* 'Blessed' Land
* In the Arabian Peninsula (excluding Madyan)
* Al-Aḥqāf ("The Sandy Plains," or "the Wind-curved Sand-hills")
* Iram dhāt al-ʿImād (Iram of the Pillars)
* Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib)
* ʿArafāt
* Al-Ḥijr (Hegra)
* Badr
* Ḥunayn
* Makkah (Mecca)
* Bakkah
* Ḥaraman Āminan ("Sanctuary (which is) Secure")
* Kaʿbah (Kaaba)
* Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham)
* Safa and Marwa
* Sabaʾ (Sheba)
* ʿArim Sabaʾ (Dam of Sheba)
* Rass
* Al-Jannah (Paradise, literally "The Garden")
* Jahannam (Hell)
* In Mesopotamia:
* Al-Jūdiyy
* Munzalanm-Mubārakan ("Place-of-Landing Blessed")
* Bābil (Babylon)
* Qaryat Yūnus ("Township of Jonah," that is Nineveh)
* Door of Hittah
* Madyan (Midian)
* Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn
* Miṣr (Mainland Egypt)
* Salsabīl (A river in Paradise)
* Sinai Region or Tīh Desert
* Al-Wād Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa)
* Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai)
* Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah ("The Blessed Place")
* Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor

| Religious locations|

* Bay'a (Church)
* Miḥrāb
* Monastery
* Masjid (Mosque, literally "Place of Prostration")
* Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām ("The Sacred Grove")
* Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa Mosque, literally "The Farthest Place-of-Prostration")
* Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca)
* Masjid al-Dirar
* A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly:
* Masjid Qubāʾ (Quba Mosque)
* The Prophet's Mosque
* Salat (Synagogue)

|

Implied|

* Antioch
* Antakya
* Arabia
* Al-Ḥijāz (literally "The Barrier")
* Black Stone (Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il
* Cave of Hira
* Ghār ath-Thawr (Cave of the Bull)
* Hudaybiyyah
* Ta'if
* Ayla
* Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn
* Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha
* Bilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia)
* Canaan
* Cave of Seven Sleepers
* Dār an-Nadwa
* Jordan River
* Nile River
* Palestine River
* Paradise of Shaddad

Plant matter|

* Baṣal (Onion)
* Fūm (Garlic or wheat)
* Shaṭʾ (Shoot)
* Sūq (Plant stem)
* Zarʿ (Seed)

| Fruits|

* ʿAdas (Lentil)
* Baql (Herb)
* Ḥabb dhul-ʿaṣf (Corn of the husk)
* Qith-thāʾ (Cucumber)
* Rummān (Pomegranate)
* Tīn (Fig)
* Ukul khamṭ (Bitter fruit or food of Sheba)
* Zaytūn (Olive)
* In Paradise
* Forbidden fruit of Adam

|

Bushes, trees
or plants|

* Plants of Sheba
* Athl (Tamarisk)
* Sidr (Lote-tree)
* Līnah (Tender Palm tree)
* Nakhl (Date palm)
* Rayḥān (Scented plant)
* Sidrat al-Muntahā
* Zaqqūm

Holy books|

* Al-Injīl (The Gospel of Jesus)
* Al-Qurʾān (The Book of Muhammad)
* Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrāhīm (Scroll(s) of Abraham)
* At-Tawrāt (The Torah)
* Ṣuḥuf-i-Mūsā (Scroll(s) of Moses)
* Tablets of Stone
* Az-Zabūr (The Psalms of David)
* Umm al-Kitāb ("Mother of the Book(s)")

Objects of people
or beings|

* Heavenly Food of Christian Apostles
* Noah's Ark
* Staff of Musa
* Tābūt as-Sakīnah (Casket of Shekhinah)
* Throne of Bilqis
* Trumpet of Israfil

| Mentioned idols
(cult images)|

* 'Ansāb
* Idols of Israelites:
* Baʿal
* The ʿijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites
* Idols of Noah's people:
* Nasr
* Suwāʿ
* Wadd
* Yaghūth
* Yaʿūq
* Idols of Quraysh:
* Al-Lāt
* Al-ʿUzzā
* Manāt
* Jibt and Ṭāghūt

|

Celestial bodies|

Maṣābīḥ (literally 'lamps'):

* Al-Qamar (The Moon)
* Kawākib (Planets)
* Al-Arḍ (The Earth)
* Nujūm (Stars)
* Ash-Shams (The Sun)

Liquids|

* Māʾ (Water or fluid)

* Nahr (River)
* Yamm (River or sea)

* Sharāb (Drink)

Events, incidents,
occasions or times|

* Incident of Ifk
* Laylat al-Qadr
* Event of Mubahala
* Sayl al-ʿArim (Flood of the Great Dam of Marib in Sheba)
* The Farewell Pilgrimage
* Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

| Battles or
military expeditions|

* Battle of al-Aḥzāb ("the Confederates")
* Battle of Badr
* Battle of Hunayn
* Battle of Khaybar
* Battle of Tabouk
* Battle of Uhud
* Conquest of Mecca

|

Days|

* Al-Jumuʿah (The Friday)
* As-Sabt (The Sabbath or Saturday)
* Days of battles
* Days of Hajj
* Doomsday

|

Months of the
Islamic calendar|

12 months:

* Four holy months
* Ash-Shahr Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred or Forbidden Month)
* Ramaḍān

|

Pilgrimages|

* Al-Ḥajj (literally "The Pilgrimage", the Greater Pilgrimage)
* Al-ʿUmrah (The Lesser Pilgrimage)

|

Times for Prayer
or Remembrance|

Times for Duʿāʾ ('Invocation'), Ṣalāh and Dhikr ('Remembrance', including Taḥmīd ('Praising'), Takbīr and Tasbīḥ):

* Al-ʿAshiyy (The Afternoon or the Night)
* Al-Ghuduww ("The Mornings")
* Al-Bukrah ("The Morning")
* Aṣ-Ṣabāḥ ("The Morning")
* Al-Layl ("The Night")
* Al-ʿIshāʾ ("The Late-Night")
* Aẓ-Ẓuhr ("The Noon")
* Dulūk ash-Shams ("Decline of the Sun")
* Al-Masāʾ ("The Evening")
* Qabl al-Ghurūb ("Before the Setting (of the Sun)")
* Al-Aṣīl ("The Afternoon")
* Al-ʿAṣr ("The Afternoon")
* Qabl ṭulūʿ ash-Shams ("Before the rising of the Sun")
* Al-Fajr ("The Dawn")

|

Implied|

* Event of Ghadir Khumm
* Laylat al-Mabit
* The first pilgrimage

|

Note: The names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship)

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