Vaccination and religion

Vaccination and religion have interrelations of varying kinds. No major religion prohibits vaccinations, and some consider it an obligation because of the potential to save lives.[1] However, some people cite religious adherence[2] as a basis for opting to forego vaccinating themselves or their children.[3] Many such objections are pretextual: in Australia, anti-vaccinationists founded the Church of Conscious Living, a "fake church",[4] leading to religious exemptions being removed in that country, and one US pastor was reported to offer vaccine exemptions in exchange for online membership of his church.[5]

## Contents

* 1 Historical
* 2 Current
* 2.1 Political opposition to vaccination by religious groups
* 3 Exemptions
* 4 References

## Historical[edit | edit source]

The influential Massachusetts preacher Cotton Mather was the first known person to attempt smallpox inoculation on a large scale, inoculating himself and more than two hundred members of his congregation with the help of a local doctor. While his view later became standard, there was a strong negative reaction against him at the time.[6]

Rowland Hill (1744–1833) was a popular English preacher acquainted with Edward Jenner, the pioneer of smallpox vaccination, and he encouraged the vaccination of the congregations he visited or preached to.[7] He published a tract on the subject in 1806,[8] at a time when many medical men refused to sanction it. Later he became a member of the Royal Jennererian Society, which was established when vaccination was accepted in Britain, India, the US, and elsewhere. John C. Lettsom, an eminent Quaker physician of the day wrote to Rowland Hill commenting:

> You have done more good than you imagine; and for everyone you may have saved by your actual operation, you have saved ten by your example; and perhaps, next to Jenner, have been the means of saving more lives than any other individual.[9]

Several Boston clergymen and devout physicians formed a society that opposed vaccination in 1798.[10] Others complained that the practice was dangerous, going so far as to demand that doctors who carried out these procedures be tried for attempted murder.[11]

In 1816 Iceland made the clergy responsible for smallpox vaccination and gave them the responsibility of keeping vaccination records for their parishes; Sweden also had similar practices.[12]

When vaccination was introduced into UK public policy, and adoption followed overseas, there was opposition from trade unionists and others, including sectarian ministers and those interested in self-help and alternative medicines like homeopathy.[13]

Anti-vaccinationists were most common in Protestant countries. Those who were religious often came from minority religious movements outside of mainstream Protestantism, including Quakers in England and Baptists in Sweden.[14]

Catholic and Anglican missionaries vaccinated Northwest Coast Native Americans during an 1862 smallpox epidemic.[15]

In the UK, a number of Vaccination Acts were introduced to control vaccination and inoculation, starting in 1840, when smallpox inoculation was banned. The 1853 Act introduced compulsory free infant vaccination enforced by local authorities. By 1871, infant vaccination was compulsory and parents refusing to have their child vaccinated were fined and imprisoned if the fines were not paid. Resistance to compulsion grew, and in 1889, after riots in Leicester, a Royal Commission was appointed and issued six reports between 1892 and 1896. It recommended the abolition of cumulative penalties. This was done in an 1898 Act, which also introduced a conscience clause that exempted parents who did not believe vaccination was efficacious or safe. This extended the concept of the "conscientious objector" in English law. A further Act in 1907 made it easier to obtain exemption.[citation needed]

Jehovah's Witnesses condemned the practice of vaccination in 1931 as "a direct violation of the everlasting covenant that God made with Noah after the flood",[16] but reversed that policy in 1952. The decision of whether to vaccinate themselves or their family is left to individuals. Some more recent Jehovah's Witness publications have mentioned the success of vaccination programs.[17]

## Current[edit | edit source]

See also: Vaccine hesitancy § Religion

Some conservative Christian groups in the United States oppose mandatory vaccination for diseases typically spread via sexual contact, arguing that the possibility of disease deters risky sexual contact[citation needed]. For example, the Family Research Council opposes mandatory vaccination against HPV, a virus that causes [18][19] various cancers: "Our primary concern is with the message that would be delivered to nine- to twelve-year-olds with the administration of the vaccines. Care must be taken not to communicate that such an intervention makes all sex 'safe'."[20][21][22] Studies have shown that HPV vaccination does not result in increased sexual activity.[23] Other Christians have supported vaccinations and mask wearing in the wake of COVID-19 to stop the spread of the disease, even using scripture to support the position.[24][25]

Islam and Judaism, religions with dietary prohibitions that regard particular animals as unclean, make exceptions for medical treatments derived from those animals.[26][27] However, this may not be universally accepted due to a lack of central authority in these religions. For example, in Aceh Province, an autonomous province of Indonesia with its own Islamic Sharia Law, eighty percent of people refuse all vaccinations due to concerns about pig, or its derivatives, being used to make some vaccines (eating pig is considered haram).[28]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has made vaccination an official initiative in its humanitarian relief program.[29][30] The Church has also called on its members to see that their own children are properly vaccinated.[31] In March 2021, the Church added encouragement to vaccinate to its General Handbook of Instructions, noting that "Vaccinations administered by competent medical professionals protect health and preserve life. ... Members of the Church are encouraged to safeguard themselves, their children, and their communities through vaccination."[32] In August 2021, the Church again encouraged vaccination, specifically against COVID-19, in a public statement from the First Presidency: "We know that protection from [Covid and its variants] can only be achieved by immunizing a very high percentage of the population.... To provide personal protection from such severe infections, we urge individuals to be vaccinated."[33]

Although the Church of Christ, Scientist encourages reliance on prayer, it does not forbid vaccination or any other medical practice,[34][35][36][37] and in recent years it did not renew its application for religious exemption for vaccinations in Australia because it deemed the exemption "no longer current or necessary".[38]

The Congregation of Universal Wisdom, a religion based on belief in chiropractic spinal adjustments and Universal Intelligence, forbids vaccinations.[39][40] The New York Times covered the Congregation of Universal Wisdom and noted that many families have used these religious memberships to avoid vaccination requirements.[41] In a court case citing the Congregation of Universal Wisdom, Turner v. Liverpool Cent. School, the United States District Court in New York affirmed the permissibility of claiming religious exemption from vaccination on the basis of such membership.[42]

The use of fetal tissue in the development of vaccines has also provoked some controversy among religions opposed to abortion. The cell culture media of some viral vaccines, and the virus of the rubella vaccine, are derived from tissues taken from aborted fetuses, leading to moral questions. For example, the principle of double effect, originated by Thomas Aquinas, holds that actions with both good and bad consequences are morally acceptable in specific circumstances, and the question is how this principle applies to vaccination.[43] The Vatican Curia has expressed concern about the rubella vaccine's embryonic cell origin, saying Catholics have "... a grave responsibility to use alternative vaccines and to make a conscientious objection with regard to those which have moral problems".[44] The Vatican concluded that until an alternative becomes available it is acceptable for Catholics to use the existing vaccine, writing, "This is an unjust alternative choice, which must be eliminated as soon as possible."[44]

### Political opposition to vaccination by religious groups[edit | edit source]

The majority of Orthodox Rabbis view vaccination as a religious obligation.[45] A magazine called P.E.A.C.H. that presented an anti-immunization message to Orthodox Jews was distributed in Brooklyn, New York in early 2014. This is not a widespread phenomenon though. 96% of students at Yeshivas (who are essentially all Orthodox Jewish) in New York City were immunized according to information obtained in 2014, although this is a lower than average rate.[46]

In 2003 imams in northern Nigeria advised their followers not to have their children vaccinated with oral polio vaccine, perceived to be a plot by Westerners to decrease Muslim fertility.[47] The boycott caused the number of polio cases to rise not only in Nigeria but also in neighboring countries. The followers were also wary of other vaccinations, and Nigeria reported more than twenty thousand measles cases and nearly six hundred deaths from measles from January through March 2005.[48] In 2006 Nigeria accounted for more than half of all new polio cases worldwide.[49] Outbreaks continued thereafter; for example, at least 200 children died in a late-2007 measles outbreak in Borno State.[50] In 2013, nine health workers administering polio vaccine were targeted and killed by gunmen on motorcycles in Kano, but this was an isolated incident.[51][52] Local traditional and religious leaders and polio survivors worked to support the vaccination campaign,[53] and Nigeria has not had a polio case since July 24, 2014; in 2016, Nigeria was declared polio-free.[54]

In the 2000s, in Pakistan and Afghanistan, some Taliban issued fatwas opposing vaccination as an American plot to sterilize Muslims, and kidnapped, beat, and assassinated vaccination officials; the head of Pakistan's vaccination campaign in Bajaur Agency was assassinated in 2007, on his way back from a meeting with a religious leader.[55][56] In 2011, a CIA spy ran a fake hepatitis vaccination campaign to search for Osama bin Laden; such actions were strongly condemned by US[57] and international health NGOs,[55] the doctor involved was jailed[58] and the CIA promised not to use vaccination as a cover again.[59] A genuine polio vaccinator had previously vaccinated Osama bin Laden's children and grandchildren in his compound in Abbottabad.[60] Both major sides of the Afghan civil war now support polio vaccination,[61] and polio rates are declining rapidly in Afghanistan, with only five cases in January–July 2015.[53] In Pakistan there were 28 cases in the same period.[53]

In 2015, leaders of the Nation of Islam spoke out against a California Bill that removed philosophical exemptions to school vaccination requirements,[62] alleging a link between MMR vaccine and autism. They also said that government mandated vaccines were another Tuskegee Syphilis Study.[63]

According to a March 2021 poll conducted by The Associated Press/NORC, vaccine skepticism is more widespread among white evangelicals than most other blocs of Americans. 40% of white evangelical Protestants stated they weren't likely to get vaccinated against COVID-19.[64]

## Exemptions[edit | edit source]

In the U.S., all states except Mississippi, California, West Virginia, Maine and New York allow parents to exempt their children from otherwise-required vaccinations for religious reasons.[65] The number of religious exemptions rose greatly in the late 1990s and early 2000s; for example, in Massachusetts, the rate of those seeking exemptions rose from 0.24% in 1996 to 0.60% in 2006.[66] Some parents falsely claim religious beliefs to get exemptions.[67] The American Medical Association opposes such exemptions, saying that they endanger health not only for the unvaccinated individual but also for neighbors and the community at large.[68]

On January 1, 2016, Australia introduced legislation that removed eligibility for childcare and welfare benefits if parents refuse to vaccinate their children, removing religious exemptions at the same time as the only religion to apply for an exemption (Church of Christ, Scientist) deemed their exemption to no longer be relevant.[38]

## References[edit | edit source]

1. ↑ Jr, Donald G. McNeil (26 April 2019). "Religious Objections to the Measles Vaccine? Get the Shots, Faith Leaders Say". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
2. ↑ "Parents Fake Religion To Avoid Vaccines". CBS News / AP. October 17, 2007. Archived from the original on July 16, 2021. Retrieved July 13, 2022.
3. ↑ Medew, Julia (2015-01-28). "Anti-vaccination group encourages parents to join church". Sydney morning Herald. Archived from the original on 2017-09-12. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
4. ↑ "Anti-vaccination group encourages parents to join fake church". Sydney Morning Herald. 2015-01-28. Archived from the original on 2015-01-31. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
5. ↑ Pastor offers to sign vaccine exemptions in exchange for becoming online member of his church Archived 2021-11-02 at the Wayback Machine, The Hill
6. ↑ Blake, John B. "The Inoculation Controversy in Boston: 1721-1722." 'New England quartely', vol. 25, no. 4, New England Quarterly, Inc., 1952, pp. 489–506, https://doi.org/10.2307/362582 Archived 2022-08-16 at the Wayback Machine.
7. ↑ H. Bazin (19 January 2000). The eradication of smallpox: Edward Jenner and the first and only eradication of a human infectious disease. Academic Press. pp. 75–. ISBN 978-0-12-083475-4. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
8. ↑ Ian Glynn; Jenifer Glynn (30 August 2004). The Life and Death of Smallpox. Cambridge University Press. pp. 112–. ISBN 978-0-521-84542-7.
9. ↑ John Rhodes (24 September 2013). The End of Plagues: The Global Battle Against Infectious Disease. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 50–. ISBN 978-1-137-38131-6.
10. ↑ David P. Mindell, The Evolving World: Evolution in Everyday Life (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007 [2006]), p. 10
11. ↑ Andrew Dickson White (1896). "Theological opposition to inoculation, vaccination, and the use of anæsthetics". A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. Appleton. Archived from the original on 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
12. ↑ Pétursson P (1983). Church and Social Change: A Study of the Secularization Process in Iceland, 1830–1930. Studies in religious experience and behaviour, nr. 4. Helsingborg, Sweden: Plus Ultra. pp. 70, 79. ISBN 91-970355-9-9.
13. ↑ Durbach, Nadja. 2005. Bodily matters: the anti-vaccination movement in England, 1853–1907. Radical perspectives. Durham: Duke University Press. pp 40–45.
14. ↑ Bourdelais, Patrice. 2006. Epidemics laid low: a history of what happened in rich countries. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 25–26.
15. ↑ Boyd RW (1999). "A final disaster: the 1862 smallpox epidemic in coastal British Columbia". The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced Infectious Diseases and Population Decline Among Northwest Coast Indians, 1774–1874. Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp. 172–201. ISBN 0-295-97837-6.
16. ↑ Dorit Rubinstein Reiss, "Thou Shalt Not Take the Name of the Lord Thy God in Vain: Use and Abuse of Religious Exemptions from School Immunization Requirements", Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 65, Iss. 6 (2013), p. 1583.
17. ↑ About the Jehovah's Witnesses Christian denomination - Past opposition to vaccinations Archived 2016-10-08 at the Wayback Machine, religioustolerance.org
18. ↑ "Human papillomavirus (HPV) and cervical cancer". WHO. June 2016. Archived from the original on 5 August 2016.
19. ↑ "The Link Between HPV and Cancer". CDC. September 30, 2015. Archived from the original on 9 November 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2016.
20. ↑ "Pinkbook – HPV – Epidemiology of Vaccine Preventable Diseases – CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-09-25. Archived from the original on 2014-02-03. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
21. ↑ Danny Fortson (2006-06-11). "Moral majority take on GSK and Merck over cancer drugs". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 2009-02-18. Retrieved 2006-11-02.
22. ↑ Sprigg P (2006-07-15). "Pro-family, pro-vaccine – but keep it voluntary". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2012-11-05. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
23. ↑ "HPV Vaccination Does Not Lead to Increased Sexual Activity". www.aap.org. Archived from the original on 2020-04-17. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
24. ↑ White, Lesli. "Should Christians Get the COVID 19 Vaccine?". beliefnet.com. Archived from the original on 2022-07-13. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
25. ↑ Wildes, Kevin. "Christian Morality and the COVID-19 Vaccine". berkleycenter.georgetown.edu. Berkley. Archived from the original on 2022-07-27. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
26. ↑ Mynors G, Ghalamkari H, Beaumont S, Powell S, McGee P (2004). "Drugs of porcine origin and their clinical alternatives: an introductory guide" (PDF). National Prescribing Centre. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-09-11. Retrieved 2009-05-12.
27. ↑ Gezairy HA (2001-07-17). "(Form letter EDB.7/3 P6/61/3)" (PDF). World Health Organization, Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2009-05-12.
28. ↑ Hasanudin Aco (April 3, 2015). "80 Percent of Acehnese Consider Immunization Haram, This is the Reason". Archived from the original on April 17, 2021. Retrieved July 13, 2022.
29. ↑ "Senior Church leaders receive COVID-19 vaccine, encourage members to safeguard themselves, others 'through immunization'". Church News. 2021-01-19. Archived from the original on 2021-03-02. Retrieved 2021-03-05.
30. ↑ The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. "Church Makes Immunizations an Official Initiative, Provides Social Mobilization". Archived from the original on 16 August 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
31. ↑ "Immunize Children, Leaders Urge" Archived 2015-01-20 at the Wayback Machine, Liahona, July 1978 (accessed 2 August 2012).
32. ↑ "See the March 2021 Update to the General Handbook". Newsroom. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 31 March 2021. Archived from the original on 16 July 2021. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
33. ↑ "The Church Urges More Action to Limit the Spread of COVID-19". newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org. 2021-08-12. Archived from the original on 2021-08-27. Retrieved 2021-08-27.
34. ↑ Schoepflin, Rennie B. (2003). Christian Science on Trial: Religious Healing in America. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 192–193
35. ↑ Trammell, Mary M. (March 26, 2010). "Letter; What the Christian Science Church Teaches" Archived 2022-08-07 at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times.
36. ↑ Livio, Susan K (2014-11-19). "Nearly 9,000 N.J. school children skipped vaccinations on religious grounds last year". Archived from the original on 2018-01-15. Retrieved 2015-03-11.
37. ↑ "Outbreak of Measles Among Christian Science Students – Missouri and Illinois, 1994". Archived from the original on 2017-07-07. Retrieved 2015-03-11.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 "religious exemption removed". Archived from the original on 2021-09-28. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
39. ↑ Congregation of Universal Wisdom, Congregation of Universal Wisdom, archived from the original on January 31, 2019, retrieved April 11, 2015
40. ↑ Kellner, Mark (February 7, 2015), 'Religious' objections to vaccinations? There really aren't any, Deseret News, archived from the original on October 3, 2016, retrieved April 11, 2015
41. ↑ McNeil, Jr., Donald (January 14, 2003), "Worship Optional: Joining a Church To Avoid Vaccines", New York Times, archived from the original on October 27, 2019, retrieved April 11, 2015
42. ↑ Turner v. Liverpool Cent. School, 186 F. Supp.2d 187 (N.D.N.Y. 2002) Archived 2017-10-24 at the Wayback Machine
43. ↑ Grabenstein JD (1999). "Moral considerations with certain viral vaccines" (PDF). Christ Pharm. 2 (2): 3–6. ISSN 1094-9534. Retrieved 2009-05-11.[dead link]
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Pontifical Academy for Life (2005). "Moral reflections on vaccines prepared from cells derived from aborted human foetuses". Medicina e Morale. Center for Bioethics, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart. Archived from the original on 2006-05-07. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
45. ↑ "Statement on Vaccinations from the OU and Rabbinical Council of America". Orthodox Union. 2015-02-10. Archived from the original on 2017-03-15. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
46. ↑ Nathan-Kazis, Josh (2014-09-17). "Are Ultra-Orthodox Turning Away From Vaccination?". Forward. Archived from the original on 2015-04-11. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
47. ↑ "Muslim Clerics Finally Embrace Polio Campaign". 2009-03-22. Archived from the original on 2015-03-25. Retrieved 2015-03-11.
48. ↑ Clements CJ, Greenough P, Shull D (2006). "How vaccine safety can become political – the example of polio in Nigeria" (PDF). Curr Drug Saf. 1 (1): 117–19. doi:10.2174/157488606775252575. PMID 18690921. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
49. ↑ "Wild poliovirus 2000–2008" (PDF). Global Polio Eradication Initiative. 2008-02-05. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
50. ↑ "'Hundreds' dead in measles outbreak". IRIN. 2007-12-14. Archived from the original on 2012-02-08. Retrieved 2008-02-10.
51. ↑ "Polio vaccinators killed in Nigeria". BBC News. 8 February 2013. Archived from the original on 28 December 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
52. ↑ "Nigeria marks one year without recorded polio case". BBC News. 2015-07-24. Archived from the original on 2015-07-24. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 "Nigeria marks polio-free year, raising global eradication hopes". Reuters. 2015-07-23. Archived from the original on 2015-11-19. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
54. ↑ "Polio-Free Countries". Global Polio Eradication Initiative. Archived from the original on 2022-04-20. Retrieved 2022-03-27.
55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Brumfiel, Geoff (2011-07-14). "Fake vaccination campaign raises real fears". Nature News. doi:10.1038/news.2011.418. Archived from the original on 2017-03-15. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
56. ↑ Warraich HJ (2009). "Religious opposition to polio vaccination". Emerg Infect Dis. 15 (6): 978–78. doi:10.3201/eid1506.090087. PMC 2727330. PMID 19523311. Archived from the original on 2021-07-16. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
57. ↑ Shah, Saeed (2012-03-02). "CIA tactics to trap Bin Laden linked with polio crisis, say aid groups". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2013-09-11. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
58. ↑ Boone, Jon (2012-05-23). "Doctor who helped US in search for Osama Bin Laden jailed for 33 years". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2017-03-15. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
59. ↑ Carroll, James (2014-10-27). "Mistrust and polio in Pakistan". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 2017-03-15. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
60. ↑ Shah, Saeed (2011-07-11). "CIA organised fake vaccination drive to get Osama bin Laden's family DNA". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2013-08-30. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
61. ↑ "Afghanistan polio: First case in Kabul since 2001". BBC News. 2014-02-11. Archived from the original on 2015-04-09. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
62. ↑ "Nation Of Islam Leader Voices Opposition To Mandatory Vaccine Bill". CBS Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2021-05-13. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
63. ↑ Times, Los Angeles. "Nation of Islam opposes California vaccine mandate bill". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 2021-07-18. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
64. ↑ "Vaccine skepticism runs deep among white evangelicals in US". The Associated Press. 2021-04-05. Archived from the original on 2021-09-13. Retrieved 2021-04-07.
65. ↑ "New York Ends Religious Exemptions for School Vaccinations" Archived 2021-07-16 at the Wayback Machine. The Wall Street Journal.
66. ↑ Lee, Michael S.W.; Male, Mike (2011). "Against medical advice: the anti-consumption of vaccines". Journal of Consumer Marketing. The University of Auckland Business School, Auckland, New Zealand. 28 (7): 484–490. doi:10.1108/07363761111181464.
67. ↑ LeBlanc S (2007-10-17). "Parents use religion to avoid vaccines". USA Today. AP. Archived from the original on 2011-10-23. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
68. ↑ American Medical Association (2009). "Health and Ethics Policies of the AMA House of Delegates" (PDF). pp. 460–61. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-03-20. Retrieved 2009-05-13. "H-440.970 Religious Exemptions from Immunizations"

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Artificial induction of immunity / Immunization: Vaccines, Vaccination, Infection, Inoculation (J07)

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* Flu
* CoV
* Thiomersal
* Vaccines and SIDS
* Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services
* Alternative vaccination schedule

Related|

* Epidemiology
* Eradication of infectious diseases
* Every Child by Two
* List of vaccine topics

* #WHO-EM
* ‡Withdrawn from market
* Clinical trials:
* †Phase III
* §Never to phase III

* v
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* e

Vaccine safety

Vaccine hesitancy|

* Chemophobia
* Blood-injection-injury type phobia
* MMR vaccine and autism
* Oral polio vaccine AIDS hypothesis
* Thiomersal and vaccines
* Vaccines and autism
* Vaccines and SIDS

Disease resurgence|

Before 2019

* 1990–1991 Philadelphia measles outbreak
* 2013 Swansea measles epidemic
* 2018 Madagascar measles outbreak

2019

* v
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* e

2019–2020 measles outbreaks

>10,000 confirmed cases|

* Democratic Republic of the Congo (380,766, 7,018 deaths)
* Philippines (31,056, 415 deaths)

1,000 to 10,000 confirmed cases|

* Samoa (5,700, 83 deaths)
* New Zealand (2,194, 2 deaths)

<1,000 confirmed cases|

* Tonga (612)
* New York (423)
* Pacific Northwest (73)
* Kuala Koh (43, 15 deaths) (113 suspected)
* Freewinds (1)

Related: Measles resurgence in the United States

Others

* Mumps outbreaks in the 21st century

Legal|

* Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services
* Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2008
* National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program
* Countermeasures Injury Compensation Program (CICP)
* Vaccine Damage Payment
* Vaccination policy
* National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act
* Biodefense and Pandemic Vaccine and Drug Development Act of 2005
* Operation Warp Speed

Vaccine safety procedures|

* Vaccine vial monitor
* Cold chain
* Vaccine trial
* Vaccine Safety Datalink
* Vaccine Information Statement

Anti-vaxxer media|

* "Deadly Immunity"
* The Greater Good
* Hear the Silence
* Melanie's Marvelous Measles
* Natural News
* Plandemic
* Vaxxed

Controversies|

* Pandemrix
* Dengvaxia controversy
* Lancet MMR autism fraud

Organizations|

* National Immunization Technical Advisory Group
* Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices
* Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation
* Patient safety organization
* Brighton Collaboration
* Strategic Advisory Group of Experts
* Immunization Alliance
* Northern Rivers Vaccination Supporters

Scientists|

* Paul Offit
* Neal Halsey
* Riko Muranaka
* Frank DeStefano
* David Baskin
* Jeffrey Brent
* Richard Deth
* Mark Geier
* H. Vasken Aposhian
* Boyd Haley
* Mady Hornig
* Michael Pichichero

Anti-vaxxer personalities|

* Taylor Winterstein
* Jeanette Wilson
* Robert F. Kennedy Jr.
* Joseph Mercola
* Andrew Wakefield
* Jenny McCarthy
* Ethan Lindenberger

Anti-vaxxer organizations|

United States of America

* Learn The Risk
* Children's Medical Safety Research Institute
* New Jersey Coalition for Vaccination Choice
* Informed Consent Action Network
* Anti-Vaccination Society of America
* Association of American Physicians and Surgeons
* Children's Health Defense
* Children's Medical Safety Research Institute
* National Vaccine Information Center
* New Jersey Coalition for Vaccination Choice
* Palmetto Family Council
* The Autism Community in Action
* Texans for Vaccine Choice
* World Chiropractic Alliance

United Kingdom

* National Anti-Vaccination League
* Homeopathy Plus!
* Humanitarian League
* Pioneer Club (women's club)

Australia

* Australian Vaccination-risks Network
* Church of Conscious Living
* Informed Medical Options Party

France

* National League for Liberty in Vaccination

Others

* Stop Mandatory Vaccination
* Vaccine Choice Canada
* Warnings About Vaccination Expectations NZ

Epidemiology and surveillance|

* Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System
* Number needed to vaccinate
* STEP Study
* Yellow Card Scheme
* Immunization registry

Others|

* Vaccine efficacy
* Vaccine shedding
* Vaccination and religion
* Marker vaccine
* Vaccine-induced seropositivity
* 2000 Simpsonwood CDC conference
* Vaccine adverse event
* Vaccine-associated sarcoma
* Alternative vaccination schedule
* Anti-vaccinationism in chiropractic
* CEASE therapy
* Shoulder injury related to vaccine administration
* Turbo cancer

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