Post-Keynesian economics

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Post-Keynesian economics is a school of economic thought with its origins in The General Theory of John Maynard Keynes, with subsequent development influenced to a large degree by Michał Kalecki, Joan Robinson, Nicholas Kaldor, Sidney Weintraub, Paul Davidson, Piero Sraffa, Jan Kregel, Basil J Moore, Marc Lavoie, and Tracy Mott. Historian Robert Skidelsky argues that the post-Keynesian school has remained closest to the spirit of Keynes' original work.[1][2] It is a heterodox approach to economics[3][4] based on a non-equilibrium approach.[5]

## Contents

* 1 Introduction
* 2 Main features
* 3 Strands
* 4 Current work
* 4.1 Journals
* 4.2 United Kingdom
* 4.3 United States
* 4.4 Netherlands
* 4.5 France
* 4.6 Canada
* 4.7 Germany
* 4.8 Australia
* 4.8.1 University of Newcastle
* 5 Major post-Keynesian economists
* 6 See also
* 7 Notes
* 8 References
* 9 Further reading
* 10 External links

## Introduction

The term "post-Keynesian" was first used to refer to a distinct school of economic thought by Eichner and Kregel (1975)[6] and by the establishment of the Journal of Post Keynesian Economics in 1978. Prior to 1975, and occasionally in more recent work, post-Keynesian could simply mean economics carried out after 1936, the date of Keynes's General Theory.[7]

Post-Keynesian economists are united in maintaining that Keynes' theory is seriously misrepresented by the two other principal Keynesian schools: neo-Keynesian economics, which was orthodox in the 1950s and 60s, and new Keynesian economics, which together with various strands of neoclassical economics has been dominant in mainstream macroeconomics since the 1980s. Post-Keynesian economics can be seen as an attempt to rebuild economic theory in the light of Keynes' ideas and insights. However, even in the early years, post-Keynesians such as Joan Robinson sought to distance themselves from Keynes, and much current post-Keynesian thought cannot be found in Keynes. Some post-Keynesians took a more progressive view than Keynes himself, with greater emphases on worker-friendly policies and redistribution. Robinson, Paul Davidson and Hyman Minsky emphasized the effects on the economy of practical differences between different types of investments, in contrast to Keynes' more abstract treatment.[8]

The theoretical foundation of post-Keynesian economics is the principle of effective demand that demand matters in the long as well as the short run, so that a competitive market economy has no natural or automatic tendency towards full employment.[9] Contrary to the views of new Keynesian economists working in the neoclassical tradition, post-Keynesians do not accept that the theoretical basis of the market's failure to provide full employment is rigid or sticky prices or wages. Post-Keynesians typically reject the IS–LM model of John Hicks, which is very influential in neo-Keynesian economics, because they argue endogenous bank lending to be more significant than central banks' money supply for the interest rate.[10]

The contribution of post-Keynesian economics[11] has extended beyond the theory of aggregate employment to theories of income distribution, growth, trade and development in which money demand plays a key role, whereas in neoclassical economics these are determined by the forces of technology, preferences and endowment. In the field of monetary theory, post-Keynesian economists were among the first to emphasise that money supply responds to the demand for bank credit,[12] so that a central bank cannot control the quantity of money, but only manage the interest rate by managing the quantity of monetary reserves.

This view has largely been incorporated into mainstream economics and monetary policy, which now targets the interest rate as an instrument, rather than attempting to accurately control the quantity of money.[13] In the field of finance, Hyman Minsky put forward a theory of financial crisis based on financial fragility, which has received renewed attention.[14][15]

## Main features

In 2009 Marc Lavoie listed the main features of post-Keynesian economics:[16]

* Effective demand
* Historical and dynamic time

He also lists 5 auxiliary features:

* The possible negative impact of flexible prices
* The monetary production of the economy
* Fundamental uncertainty
* Relevant and contemporary microeconomics
* Pluralism of theories and methods

## Strands

There are a number of strands to post-Keynesian theory with different emphases. Joan Robinson regarded Michał Kalecki's theory of effective demand to be superior to Keynes' theories. Kalecki's theory is based on a class division between workers and capitalists and imperfect competition.[17] Robinson also led the critique of the use of aggregate production functions based on homogeneous capital – the Cambridge capital controversy – winning the argument but not the battle.[18] The writings of Piero Sraffa were a significant influence on the post-Keynesian position in this debate, though Sraffa and his neo-Ricardian followers drew more inspiration from David Ricardo than Keynes. Much of Nicholas Kaldor's work was based on the ideas of increasing returns to scale, path dependence, and the key differences between the primary and industrial sectors.[19]

Paul Davidson[20] follows Keynes closely in placing time and uncertainty at the centre of theory, from which flow the nature of money and of a monetary economy. Monetary circuit theory, originally developed in continental Europe, places particular emphasis on the distinctive role of money as means of payment. Each of these strands continues to see further development by later generations of economists. An important method is stock-flow consistent models, which enable a consistent description of receivables and liabilities as well as cash flows.[21][22][23][24]

Horizontalism is an approach to money creation theory pioneered by Basil J Moore which states that private bank reserves are not managed by central banks. Instead reserves will be provided on demand at the bank rate set by the central bank. This inverts the mainstream textbook money multiplier relationship between deposits and loans since loans are said to cause deposits which in turn cause reserves. Basil J Moore is best known for his book, Horizontalists and Verticalists: The Macroeconomics of Credit Money (Cambridge UP, 1988), as well as a great many other writings on endogenous money. Ulrich Bindseil, of the European Central Bank, claimed the book ‘has impressively stood the test of time. … Central bankers have by now largely buried “Verticalism”, at least when it comes to monetary policy implementation’ (U Bindseil and J Konig, ‘Basil J Moore’s Horizonalists and Verticalists: an appraisal 25 years later’, in Review of Keynesian Economics, 1(4), 2013, pp. 383–385).[25]

Modern Monetary Theory is a relatively recent offshoot independently pioneered by Warren Mosler that models the currency itself as a public monopoly as the micro foundation of macro economics, thereby augmenting the theory of effective demand, recognizing that coercive taxation drives the currency (the tax credit) and that the price level is necessarily a function of prices paid by the state. Subsequent MMT associated academics have used macroeconomic modelling of Wynne Godley and incorporated some of Hyman Minsky's ideas on the labour market, as well as chartalism and functional finance.

Recent[when?] work in post-Keynesian economics has attempted to provide micro-foundations for capacity underutilization as a coordination failure, justifying government intervention in the form of aggregate demand stimulus.[26][27]

## Current work

### Journals

Much post-Keynesian research is published in the Review of Keynesian Economics (ROKE), the Journal of Post Keynesian Economics (founded by Sidney Weintraub and Paul Davidson), the Cambridge Journal of Economics, the Review of Political Economy, and the Journal of Economic Issues (JEI).

### United Kingdom

There is a United Kingdom academic association, the Post-Keynesian Economics Society (PKES). It was founded by Philip Arestis and Victoria Chick in 1988 as the Post-Keynesian Economics Study Group (PKSG)[28] and changed its name in 2018. In the UK, post-Keynesian economists can be found in:

* SOAS University of London
* University of Greenwich
* University of Leeds
* Kingston University
* King's College London, International Political Economy
* Goldsmiths, University of London
* University of the West of England, Bristol
* University of Hertfordshire
* Cambridge University, Land Economy
* Birmingham City University
* University College London, Institute for Innovation and Public Purpose
* Open University
* University of Winchester

Working on post-Keynesian economic foundations, the UK-based global economics consultancy, Cambridge Econometrics,[29] developed a computer-based Energy-Environment-Economy Model for Europe (E3ME)[30] economic model. It is used by European Commission to analyse medium and long-term effects of its environmental and economic policies.[31]

### United States

* The New School, New York City
* The University of Massachusetts Amherst
* The University of Utah, Salt Lake City
* Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania
* Denison University, Granville, Ohio
* Levy Economics Institute at Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York
* University of Missouri–Kansas City
* University of Denver
* Colorado State University, Fort Collins
* The University of Massachusetts Boston
* John Jay College of Criminal Justice at City University of New York, New York City

### Netherlands

* Erasmus University, Rotterdam
* International Institute of Social Studies, The Hague
* Maastricht University, Maastricht
* University of Groningen, Groningen

### France

* Sorbonne Paris North University

### Canada

In Canada, post-Keynesians can be found at the University of Ottawa and Laurentian University.

### Germany

In Germany, post-Keynesianism is very strong at the Berlin School of Economics and Law[32] and its master's degree courses: International Economics [M.A.] and Political Economy of European Integration [M.A.]. Many German Post-Keynesians are organized in the Forum Macroeconomics and Macroeconomic Policies.[33]

### Australia

#### University of Newcastle

The University of Newcastle in New South Wales, Australia, houses the post-Keynesian think-tank the Centre of Full Employment and Equity (CFFE). New Life – Blind Melon.

## Major post-Keynesian economists

Main article: Biography:List of Post-Keynesian economists

Major post-Keynesian economists of the first and second generations after Keynes include:

* Basil J Moore
* Marc Lavoie
* Philip Arestis
* Victoria Chick
* Alfred Eichner
* James Crotty
* Paul Davidson
* Wynne Godley
* Geoff Harcourt
* Donald J. Harris
* Michael Hudson
* Nicholas Kaldor
* Michał Kalecki
* Frederic S. Lee
* Augusto Graziani
* Steve Keen
* Jan Kregel
* Paolo Leon
* Abba P. Lerner
* Hyman Minsky
* Basil Moore
* Edward J. Nell
* Luigi Pasinetti
* Joan Robinson
* George Shackle
* Anthony Thirlwall
* Fernando Vianello
* William Vickrey
* L. Randall Wray
* Dimitri B. Papadimitriou
* Sidney Weintraub
* Tracy Mott

## See also

* Disequilibrium macroeconomics
* Endogenous money
* Job guarantee
* Keynesian economics
* Neo-Keynesian economics
* New Keynesian economics
* Keynes' Treatise on Probability

## Notes

1. ↑ Skidelsky 2009, p. 42
2. ↑ Financial markets, money and the real world, by Paul Davidson, pp. 88–89
3. ↑ Lavoie, Marc (2006), "Post-Keynesian Heterodoxy" (in en), Introduction to Post-Keynesian Economics, Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 1–24, doi:10.1057/9780230626300_1, ISBN 9781349283378
4. ↑ Dequech, David (2012). "Post Keynesianism, Heterodoxy and Mainstream Economics" (in en). Review of Political Economy 24 (2): 353–368. doi:10.1080/09538259.2012.664364. ISSN 0953-8259.
5. ↑ Katzner, Donald W. (2003). "Equilibrium and Non-equilibrium". The Elgar Companion to Post Keynesian Economics. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. pp. 126–131.
6. ↑ Eichner and Kregel 1975
7. ↑ King 2002, p. 10 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKing2002 (help)
8. ↑ Hayes 2008 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHayes2008 (help)
9. ↑ Arestis 1996
10. ↑ Palley, Thomas (2008-01-01). "Macroeconomics without the LM: A Post-Keynesian Perspective". PERI Working Papers. doi:10.7275/1284545. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/peri_workingpapers/175.
11. ↑ For a general introduction see Holt 2001
12. ↑ Kaldor 1980
13. ↑ "Only the ignorant live in fear of hyperinflation". Financial Times. 2014-04-10. https://www.ft.com/content/46a1ce84-bf2a-11e3-a4af-00144feabdc0.
14. ↑ Palley, Thomas (April 2010). "The Limits of Minsky's Financial Instability Hypothesis as an Explanation of the Crisis". Monthly Review 61 (11): 28. doi:10.14452/MR-061-11-2010-04_2. https://monthlyreview.org/2010/04/01/the-limits-of-minskys-financial-instability-hypothesis-as-an-explanation-of-the-crisis/.
15. ↑ Minsky 1975
16. ↑ Lavoie, Marc (2009), "Post-Keynesian Heterodoxy", Introduction to Post-Keynesian Economics (London: Palgrave Macmillan UK): pp. 1–24, doi:10.1057/9780230235489_1, ISBN 978-0-230-22921-1, http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230235489_1, retrieved 2022-04-04
17. ↑ Robinson 1974
18. ↑ Pasinetti 2007
19. ↑ Harcourt 2006, Pasinetti 2007
20. ↑ Davidson 2007
21. ↑ Godley, Wynne; Lavoie, Marc (2012). Monetary Economics. An Integrated Approach to Credit, Money, Income, Production and Wealth. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-30184-9.
22. ↑ Richters, Oliver; Glötzl, Erhard (2020). "Modeling economic forces, power relations, and stock-flow consistency: a general constrained dynamics approach". Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 43 (2): 281–297. doi:10.1080/01603477.2020.1713008.
23. ↑ Caverzasi, Eugenio; Godin, Antoine (2015). "Post-Keynesian stock-flow-consistent modelling: a survey". Cambridge Journal of Economics 39 (1): 157–187. doi:10.1093/cje/beu021.
24. ↑ Lavoie, Marc (2022). "Stock-flow consistent macroeconomic modeling and Post-Keynesian Institutionalism". A Modern Guide to Post-Keynesian Institutional Economics. doi:10.4337/9781800885752.00020. ISBN 978-1-80088-575-2.
25. ↑ "July 2018 newsletter – Basil J Moore" (in en-US). https://res.org.uk/newsletter/july-2018-newsletter-basil-j-moore/.
26. ↑ Luke Petach; Daniele Tavani (September 2019). "No one is alone: Strategic complementarities, capacity utilization, growth, and distribution". Structural Change and Economic Dynamics (Elsevier) 50: 203–215. doi:10.1016/j.strueco.2019.07.001. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0954349X18303400. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
27. ↑ Daniele Tavani; Luke Petach (April 2021). "Firm beliefs and long-run demand effects in a labor-constrained model of growth and distribution". Journal of Evolutionary Economics (Springer) 31 (2): 353–377. doi:10.1007/s00191-020-00680-w. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00191-020-00680-w. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
28. ↑ "Victoria Chick (1936–2023) | PKES" (in en). https://www.postkeynesian.net/news/17012023-victoria-chick/.
29. ↑ "Cambridge Econometrics" (in en-GB). https://www.camecon.com/.
30. ↑ "E3ME by Cambridge Econometrics" (in en-GB). https://www.e3me.com/.
31. ↑ "model E3ME – Energy – Environment – Economy Model for Europe". https://web.jrc.ec.europa.eu/policy-model-inventory/explore/models/model-e3me/.
32. ↑ "HWR Berlin – Campus4U". https://campus4u.hwr-berlin.de/qisserver/rds?state=modulBeschrDetailInfo&moduleParameter=modDescr&struct=auswahlBaum&nextdir=qispos/modulBeschr/gast&next=redTree.vm&createInfoTree=Y&create=blobs&expand=1&nodeID=auswahlBaum|modul:pordnr=5012&pord.pordnr=5012&lastState=modulBeschrGast&noDBAction=y&init=y&asi=.
33. ↑ Hein, Eckhard; Priewe, Jan (2009). "Forum: The Research Network Macroeconomics and Macroeconomic Policies (FMM) – Past, present and future". European Journal of Economics and Economic Policies: Intervention 6 (2): 166–173. doi:10.4337/ejeep.2009.02.04.

## References

* Arestis, Philip (1996). "Post-Keynesian economics: towards coherence". Cambridge Journal of Economics 20: 111–135. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.cje.a013604.
* Davidson, Paul (2007). John Maynard Keynes. Palgrave Macmillan.
* Eichner and Kregel (1975). "An Essay on Post-Keynesian Theory: A New Paradigm in Economics". Journal of Economic Literature 13: 1293–1314.
* Harcourt, Geoff (2006). The Structure of Post-Keynesian Economics. Columbia University Press.
* Hayes, M.G. (2008). The Economics of Keynes: A New Guide to the General Theory. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84844-056-2.
* Kaldor, Nicholas (1980). "Monetarism and UK economic policy". Cambridge Journal of Economics 4 (3): 271–292. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.cje.a035457.
* King, J.E. (2002). A history of post Keynesian economics since 1936. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84064-420-3.
* Minsky, Hyman (1975). John Maynard Keynes. Columbia University Press.
* Pasinetti, Luigi (2007). Keynes and the Cambridge Keynesians. Columbia University Press.
* Robinson, Joan (1974). An Introduction to Modern Economics (2 ed.). McGraw Hill.
* Skidelsky, Robert (2009). Keynes: The Return of the Master. Allen Lane. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-84614-258-1. https://archive.org/details/keynesreturnofma0000skid/page/42.

## Further reading

* Holt, Ric (2001). A New Guide to Post Keynesian Economics. Routledge.
* Holt, Ric; Pressman, Steven (2006). Empirical Post Keynesian Economics: Looking at the Real World. M.E. Sharpe.

## External links

* Structure of Post Keynesian Economics-Geoff Harcourt
* William Vickrey 
--Fifteen Fatal Fallacies of Financial Fundamentalism: A Disquisition on Demand Side Economics
* Presentation of post Keynesian economics Marc Lavoie
* Samuelson and the Keynes/Post Keynesian Revolution:by Paul Davidson
* Professor L. Randall Wray:Why The Federal Budget Is Not Like a Household Budget
* Post-Keynesian economics: towards coherence Cambridge Journal of Economics

* v
* t
* e

Macroeconomics

Basic concepts|

* Aggregate demand
* Aggregate supply
* Business cycle
* Deflation
* Demand shock
* Disinflation
* Effective demand
* Expectations
* Adaptive
* Rational
* Financial crisis
* Growth
* Inflation
* Demand-pull
* Cost-push
* Interest rate
* Investment
* Liquidity trap
* Measures of national income and output
* Microfoundations
* Money
* Endogenous
* Money creation
* Demand for money
* Liquidity preference
* Money supply
* National accounts
* SNA
* Nominal rigidity
* Price level
* Recession
* Shrinkflation
* Stagflation
* Supply shock
* Saving
* Unemployment

Policies|

* Fiscal
* Monetary
* Commercial
* Central bank

Models|

* IS–LM
* AD–AS
* Keynesian cross
* Multiplier
* Accelerator
* Phillips curve
* Arrow–Debreu
* Harrod–Domar
* Solow–Swan
* Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans
* Overlapping generations
* General equilibrium
* DSGE
* Endogenous growth
* Matching theory
* Mundell–Fleming
* Overshooting
* NAIRU

Related fields|

* Econometrics
* Economic statistics
* Monetary economics
* Development economics
* International economics

Schools|

| Mainstream|

* Keynesian
* Neo-
* New
* Monetarism
* New classical
* Real business-cycle theory
* Stockholm
* Supply-side
* New neoclassical synthesis
* Saltwater and freshwater

|

Heterodox|

* Austrian
* Chartalism
* Modern Monetary Theory
* Disequilibrium
* Marxian
* Post-Keynesian
* Circuitism
* Market monetarism

Notable macroeconomists|

* François Quesnay
* Adam Smith
* Thomas Robert Malthus
* Karl Marx
* Léon Walras
* Georg Friedrich Knapp
* Knut Wicksell
* Irving Fisher
* Wesley Clair Mitchell
* John Maynard Keynes
* Alvin Hansen
* Michał Kalecki
* Gunnar Myrdal
* Simon Kuznets
* Joan Robinson
* Friedrich Hayek
* John Hicks
* Richard Stone
* Hyman Minsky
* Milton Friedman
* Paul Samuelson
* Lawrence Klein
* Edmund Phelps
* Robert Lucas Jr.
* Edward C. Prescott
* Peter Diamond
* William Nordhaus
* Joseph Stiglitz
* Thomas J. Sargent
* Paul Krugman
* N. Gregory Mankiw

See also|

* Macroeconomic model
* Publications in macroeconomics
* Economics
* Applied
* Microeconomics
* Political economy
* Mathematical economics

Category

* v
* t
* e

normal;">Keynesians

Founder|

* John Maynard Keynes

Neo-Keynesians|

* Gardner Ackley
* Robert Solow
* William Baumol
* James Duesenberry
* Robert Eisner
* Trygve Haavelmo
* Alvin Hansen
* Roy Harrod
* Walter Heller
* John Hicks
* Lawrence Klein
* James Meade
* Lloyd Metzler
* Franco Modigliani
* Robert Mundell
* Arthur Melvin Okun
* Don Patinkin
* William Phillips
* William Poole
* Paul Samuelson
* James Tobin

Post-Keynesians|

* Victoria Chick
* Paul Davidson
* Evsey Domar
* James K. Galbraith
* John Kenneth Galbraith
* Myron J. Gordon
* Geoff Harcourt
* Michael Hudson
* Richard Kahn
* Nicholas Kaldor
* Michał Kalecki
* Steve Keen
* Jan Kregel
* Marc Lavoie
* Abba P. Lerner
* Hyman Minsky
* Bill Mitchell
* Basil Moore
* Steven Pressman
* Joan Robinson
* G. L. S. Shackle
* Pavlina R. Tcherneva
* Anthony Thirlwall
* Sidney Weintraub
* L. Randall Wray

New Keynesians|

* George Akerlof
* Ben Bernanke
* Olivier Blanchard
* Alan Blinder
* Guillermo Calvo
* Richard Clarida
* Brad DeLong
* Huw Dixon
* Stanley Fischer
* Jordi Galí
* Mark Gertler
* Robert J. Gordon
* Stephany Griffith-Jones
* Nobuhiro Kiyotaki
* Paul Krugman
* Greg Mankiw
* Marc Melitz
* Maurice Obstfeld
* Edmund Phelps
* Ricardo Reis
* Kenneth Rogoff
* David Romer
* Julio Rotemberg
* Nouriel Roubini
* Robert Shiller
* Andrei Shleifer
* Joseph Stiglitz
* Lawrence Summers
* John B. Taylor
* Michael Woodford

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Keynesian economics

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