Soil biology

Short description: Study of living things in soil

Soil biology is the study of microbial and faunal activity in the soil. This photo shows the activity of both.

Soil biology is the study of microbial and faunal activity and ecology in soil. Soil life, soil biota, soil fauna, or edaphon is a collective term that encompasses all organisms that spend a significant portion of their life cycle within a soil profile, or at the soil-litter interface. These organisms include earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, fungi, bacteria, different arthropods, as well as some reptiles (such as snakes), and species of burrowing mammals like gophers, moles and prairie dogs.[1] Soil biology plays a vital role in determining many soil characteristics. The decomposition of organic matter by soil organisms has an immense influence on soil fertility, plant growth, soil structure, and carbon storage. As a relatively new science, much remains unknown about soil biology and its effect on soil ecosystems.[2][3]

## Contents

* 1 Overview
* 2 Scope
* 3 Bacteria
* 3.1 Nitrification
* 3.2 Nitrogen fixation
* 3.3 Denitrification
* 3.4 Actinomycetota
* 4 Fungi
* 4.1 Mycorrhizae
* 5 Invertebrates
* 6 Vertebrates
* 7 Table of soil life
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 Bibliography
* 12 External links

## Overview

The soil is home to circa 59% of the world's biodiversity.Cite error: Closing `</ref>` missing for `<ref>` tag Without the activities of soil organisms, organic materials would accumulate as undecayed litter at the soil surface, and there would be no humus[4] and no nutrients available for plants.[5]

The soil biota includes:

* Megafauna: size range – 20 mm upward, e.g. moles, rabbits, and rodents.
* Macrofauna: size range – 2 to 20 mm, e.g. woodlice, earthworms, beetles, millipedes, slugs, snails, ants, and harvestmen.
* Mesofauna: size range – 100 micrometres to 2 mm, e.g. tardigrades, mites, enchytraeids and springtails.
* Microfauna and Microflora: size range – 1 to 100 micrometres, e.g. yeasts, bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, and rotifers.

Of these, bacteria, archaea and fungi play key roles in maintaining a healthy soil.[6] They act as decomposers that break down organic materials to produce detritus and other breakdown products.[7] Burrowing soil detritivores, like earthworms, known as ecosystem engineers, ingest detritus and decompose it, while building a good granular soil structure and offering a habitat for various soil organisms.[8] Saprotrophs, well represented by fungi, archaea and bacteria, extract soluble nutrients from detritus and soil organic matter, in particular in the rhizosphere.[9] All other organisms living in the soil, each at its position along interconnected trophic networks (also called foodwebs), contribute to good health of the soil ecosystem.[10]

## Scope

Soil biology involves work in the following areas:

* Modelling of biological processes and population dynamics
* Soil biology, physics and chemistry: occurrence of physicochemical parameters and surface properties on biological processes and population behavior
* Population biology and molecular ecology: methodological development and contribution to study microbial and faunal populations; diversity and population dynamics; genetic transfers, influence of environmental factors
* Community ecology and functioning processes: interactions between organisms and mineral or organic compounds; involvement of such interactions in soil pathogenicity; transformation of mineral and organic compounds, cycling of elements; soil structuration

Complementary disciplinary approaches are necessarily utilized which involve molecular biology, genetics, ecophysiology, biogeography, ecology, soil processes, organic matter, nutrient cycling[11] and landscape ecology.

## Bacteria

Bacteria are single-cell organisms and the most numerous denizens of agricultural fields, with populations ranging from 100 million to 3 billion in a 'teaspoon' of productive soil.[12] They are capable of very rapid reproduction by binary fission (dividing into two) in favourable conditions. When in its exponential phase of growth Escherichia coli is thus capable of producing 1 milliard more in just 1 hour.[13] Most soil bacteria live close to plant roots in the rhizosphere and are often referred to as rhizobacteria, helping plants to grow.[14] Bacteria live in soil water, including the film of moisture surrounding soil particles, where some are able to swim by means of flagella.[15] The majority of the beneficial soil-dwelling bacteria need oxygen (and are thus termed aerobic bacteria), whilst those that do not require air are referred to as anaerobic, and tend to cause putrefaction of dead organic matter.[16] Aerobic bacteria are most active in a soil that is moist (but not saturated, as this will deprive aerobic bacteria of the air that they require), and neutral soil pH, and where there is plenty of food (carbohydrates and micronutrients from organic matter) available.[17] Hostile conditions will not completely kill bacteria; rather, the bacteria will stop growing and get into a dormant stage, often in the form of clay-coated quiescent colonies,[18] and those individuals with pre-adaptive mutations or rapidly evolving better-adapted traits may compete better in the new conditions.[19] Some Gram-positive bacteria (e.g. Bacillus, Clostridium) produce spores in order to wait for more favourable circumstances,[20] and Gram-negative bacteria get into a "nonculturable" resting stage.[21] Bacteria are colonized by persistent viral agents (bacteriophages) that replicate in bacterial hosts and promote gene transfer,[22] a property of bacteria-virus relationships now currently used in genetic engineering.[23]

From the organic gardener's point of view, the important roles that bacteria play are:

The nitrogen cycle

### Nitrification

Nitrification is a vital part of the nitrogen cycle, wherein certain chemolithotrophic nitrifying bacteria (e.g. Nitrosomonas), called autotrophic nitrifiers (manufacturing their own carbohydrate supply without using the process of photosynthesis) are able to transform nitrogen in the form of ammonium, which is produced by the decomposition of proteins, into nitrates, available to growing plants and once again converted to proteins.[24] Other nitrifying bacteria (e.g. Arthrobacter) are able of heterotrophic nitrification, a still badly known biochemical process of soil nitrogen transformation.[25]

### Nitrogen fixation

In another part of the nitrogen cycle, the process of nitrogen fixation constantly puts additional nitrogen into biological circulation. This is carried out by free-living nitrogen-fixing (diazotroph) bacteria in the soil or water such as Azotobacter and heterocyst-bearing cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), or by those that live in close symbiosis with legumes, such as rhizobia, or with actinorhizal plants, such as Frankia. These form colonies in nodules they create on the roots of peas, beans, Casuarina and related flowering plants. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are able to convert nitrogen from the atmosphere into nitrogen-containing organic substances,[26] and thus play a decisive role in incipient soil formation.[27]

### Denitrification

While nitrogen fixation converts nitrogen from the atmosphere into organic compounds, a series of processes called denitrification returns some amount of nitrogen to the atmosphere. Denitrifying bacteria tend to be anaerobes, or facultatively anaerobes (can alter between the oxygen dependent and oxygen independent types of metabolisms), including Achromobacter and Pseudomonas. The denitrification process caused by oxygen-free conditions converts nitrates and nitrites in soil into nitrogen gas or into gaseous compounds such as nitrous oxide or nitric oxide. In excess, denitrification can lead to overall losses of available soil nitrogen and subsequent loss of soil fertility.[28] An excess of nitrogen fertilizers may cause denitrification[29] in addition to nitrate loss by percolation to the aquifer.[30] However, fixed nitrogen may circulate many times between organisms and the soil before denitrification returns it to the atmosphere, as shown by the diagram above illustrating the nitrogen cycle.

### Actinomycetota

Actinomycetota (actinomycetes, actinobacteria) are critical in the decomposition of organic matter and in humus formation. They specialize in breaking down cellulose and lignin[31] along with the tough chitin[32] found in the exoskeletons of arthropods. Their various production of volatile metabolites is responsible for the sweet earthy aroma associated with a good healthy soil.[33] They require plenty of air and a pH between 6.0 and 7.5, but are more tolerant of dry conditions than most other bacteria and fungi.[34]

## Fungi

A gram of garden soil can contain around one million fungi, such as yeasts and moulds, and around 700 km fungal hyphae can live in 1 g of soil.[35] Fungi have no chlorophyll, and are not able to photosynthesise. They cannot use atmospheric carbon dioxide as a source of carbon, therefore they are chemo-heterotrophic, meaning that, like animals, they require a chemical source of energy rather than being able to use light as an energy source, as well as organic substrates to get carbon for growth and development. Given these requirements and the development of a dense hyphal network (mycelium) they actively participate to the degradation of freshly deposited organic remains and their transformation in humus (humification) and carbon dioxide (mineralization).[36]

Many fungi are parasitic, often causing disease to their living host plant, although some have beneficial relationships with living plants, as illustrated below. In terms of soil and humus creation, the most important fungi tend to be saprotrophic; that is, they live on dead or decaying organic matter, thus breaking it down and converting it to mineral forms (e.g. nitrate, ammonium, phosphate) that are available to the higher plants. A succession of fungi species will colonise the dead matter, beginning with those that use sugars and starches, which are succeeded by those that are able to break down cellulose and lignins.[37]

Fungi spread underground by sending long thin threads known as mycelium throughout the soil; these threads can be observed throughout many soils and compost heaps. From the mycelia the fungi is able to throw up its fruiting bodies, the visible part above the soil (e.g., mushrooms, toadstools, and puffballs), which may contain millions of spores. When the fruiting body bursts, these spores are dispersed through the air to settle in fresh environments, and are able to lie dormant for up to years until the right conditions for their activation arise or the right food is made available.[38] Fungal spores are dispersed by wind,[39] water,[40] but also by a variety of fungal-feeding animals, from small invertebrates (e.g. springtails)[41] to big mammals (e.g. wild boars),[42] helping them to colonize new, sometimes remote environments, hence the cosmopolitan distribution of many fungal species.[43]

### Mycorrhizae

Those fungi that are able to live symbiotically with living plants, creating a relationship that is beneficial to both, are known as mycorrhizae (from myco meaning fungus and rhiza meaning root). In mycorrhizae plant roots are invaded by the mycelia of the mycorrhizal fungus, which lives partly in the soil and partly in the root, and may either penetrate the root cortex without entering its cells (forming the Hartig net) and cover the root as a sheath (ectomycorrhizae) or be present in cortical cells in the form of arbuscules (arbuscular mycorrhizae). The mycorrhizal fungus obtains the carbohydrates that it requires from the root,[44] in return providing the plant with nutrients, including nitrogen[45] and phosphorus,[46] and with moisture.[47] Later the plant roots will also absorb the mycelium into its own tissues.[48] In some cases mycorrhizae could provide their host, either directly or indirectly, with nutrients issued from the degradation of more complex soil organic matter (humus).[49] Mycorrhizae can also benefit nutrients (other than sugar carbon) and moisture from the host,[50][51] and exchange nutrients (including carbon) and moisture between plants through common mycorrhizal networks.[52][53][54] Chemical signalling between plants through common mycorrhizal networks, although a beautiful concept, is still a matter of conjecture, more research being needed.[55][56]

Beneficial mycorrhizal associations (either ectomycorrhizae or arbuscular mycorrhizae) are to be found in many of our edible and flowering crops, to the exception of Brassicaceae (e.g. cabbage, turnip) as well as in the majority of tree species, especially in forests and woodlands, with Ericaceae (e.g. bracken, bilberry) harbouring a special type, called ericoid mycorrhizae.[57] Tree mycorrhizae create a fine underground mesh that extends greatly beyond the limits of the tree's roots, greatly increasing their feeding range and actually causing neighbouring trees to become physically interconnected.[58] The benefits of mycorrhizal relations to their plant partners are not limited to nutrients, but can be essential for plant reproduction. In situations where little light is able to reach the forest floor, a young seedling cannot obtain sufficient light to photosynthesise for itself and will not grow properly, causing a deficit of regeneration.[59] But, if the ground is underlain by a mycorrhizal mat, then the developing seedling will throw down roots that can link with the fungal threads and through them obtain the nutrients it needs.[60]

David Attenborough points out the plant, fungi, animal relationship that creates a "three way harmonious trio" to be found in forest ecosystems, wherein the plant/fungi symbiosis is enhanced by animals such as the wild boar, deer, mice, or flying squirrel, which feed upon the fungi's fruiting bodies, including truffles, and cause their further spread.[61] A greater understanding of the complex relationships that pervade natural systems is one of the major justifications of the organic gardener, in refraining from the use of artificial chemicals and the damage these might cause.[62]

Recent research has shown that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi produce glomalin, a protein that binds soil particles and stores both carbon and nitrogen. These glomalin-related soil proteins are an important part of soil organic matter.[63]

## Invertebrates

Main article: Biology:Soil animals

Soil fauna affect soil formation and soil organic matter dynamically on many spatiotemporal scales.[64] Earthworms, ants and termites, known as ecosystem engineers, mix the soil as they burrow, significantly affecting soil formation and organic matter dynamics.[65] Earthworms ingest soil particles and organic residues, enhancing the availability of plant nutrients in the material that passes through and out of their bodies.[66] By aerating and stirring the soil, and by increasing the stability of soil aggregates, these organisms help to assure the ready infiltration of water.[67] These organisms in the soil also help improve pH levels, by buffering them around neutrality, an equilibrating process (negative feedback loop) by which fungal activity is favoured in alkaline soils[68] while bacterial activity is favoured in acid soils.[69]

Ants and termites are also often referred to as soil engineers because, when they create their nests, there are several chemical and physical changes made to the soil.[70] Among these changes are increasing presence of the most essential elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, elements needed for plant growth.[71] They also can gather soil particles from differing depths of soil and deposit them in other places, leading to the mixing of soil so it is richer with nutrients and other elements.[72][73]

## Vertebrates

Main article: Biology:Soil animals

Gopher sticking out of burrow

The soil is also important to many mammals. Gophers, moles, prairie dogs, and other burrowing animals rely on this soil for protection and food.[74] The animals even give back to the soil as their burrowing creates nutrient-rich patches and allows more water to infiltrate the soil by increasing porosity, thus decreasing runoff along slopes.[75]

## Table of soil life

This table includes some familiar types of soil life, coherent with prevalent taxonomy as used in the linked Wikipedia articles.

Domain | Kingdom | Phylum | Class | Order | Family | Genus

|
|
|
|
|
|

Prokaryote | Bacteria | Pseudomonadota | Betaproteobacteria | Nitrosomonadales | Nitrosomonadaceae | Nitrosomonas
Prokaryote | Bacteria | Pseudomonadota | Alphaproteobacteria | Hyphomicrobiales | Nitrobacteraceae | Nitrobacter
Prokaryote | Bacteria | Pseudomonadota | Alphaproteobacteria | Hyphomicrobiales | Rhizobiaceae | Rhizobium[lower-alpha 1]
Prokaryote | Bacteria | Pseudomonadota | Gammaproteobacteria | Pseudomonadales | Azotobacteraceae | Azotobacter
Prokaryote | Bacteria | Actinomycetota | Actinomycetia |  |  |
Prokaryote | Bacteria | "Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae) |  |  |  |
Prokaryote | Bacteria | Bacillota | Clostridia | Clostridiales | Clostridiaceae | Clostridium
Eukaryote | Fungi | Ascomycota | Eurotiomycetes | Eurotiales | Trichocomaceae | Penicillium
Eukaryote | Fungi | Ascomycota | Eurotiomycetes | Eurotiales | Trichocomaceae | Aspergillus
Eukaryote | Fungi | Ascomycota | Sordariomycetes | Hypocreales | Nectriaceae | Fusarium
Eukaryote | Fungi | Ascomycota | Sordariomycetes | Hypocreales | Hypocreaceae | Trichoderma
Eukaryote | Fungi | Basidiomycota | Agaricomycetes | Cantharellales | Ceratobasidiaceae | Rhizoctonia
Eukaryote | Fungi | Zygomycota | Zygomycetes | Mucorales | Mucoraceae | Mucor
Eukaryote | SAR (clade) | Heterokontophyta | Bacillariophyceae (Diatomea algae) |  |  |
Eukaryote | SAR (clade) | Heterokontophyta | Xanthophyceae (Yellow-green algae) |  |  |
Eukaryote | Alveolata (clade) | Ciliophora |  |  |  |
Eukaryote | Amoebozoa (clade) |  |  |  |  |
Eukaryote | Plantae | Chlorophyta (green algae) | Chlorophyceae |  |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Nematoda |  |  |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Rotifer |  |  |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Tardigrada |  |  |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Entognatha | Collembola |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Entognatha | Diplura |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Entognatha | Protura |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Arachnida | Acarina |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Arachnida | Pseudoscorpionida |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Insecta | Coleoptera (larvae) |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Insecta | Coleoptera | Carabidae (Ground beetles) |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Insecta | Coleoptera | Staphylinidae (Rove beetle) |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Insecta | Diptera (larvae) |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Insecta | Hymenoptera | Formicidae (Ant) |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Chilopoda (Centipede) |  |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Diplopoda (Millipede) |  |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Symphyla |  |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Pauropoda |  |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Arthropoda | Malacostraca | Isopoda (woodlouse) |  |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Annelida | Clitellata | Haplotaxida | Enchytraeidae |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Annelida | Clitellata | Haplotaxida | Lumbricidae |
Eukaryote | Animalia | Mollusca | Gastropoda |  |  |

## See also

* Agricultural soil science
* Agroecology
* Biogeochemical cycle
* Compost
* Nitrification
* Nitrogen cycle
* Potting soil
* Soil food web
* Soil microbiology
* Soil science

## Notes

1. ↑ See Rhizobia for a list of other nitrogen-fixing bacteria occupying the similar niche of root nodules.

## References

1. ↑ Blume, Hans-Peter; Brümmer, Gerhard W.; Fleige, Heiner; Horn, Rainer; Kandeler, Ellen; Kögel-Knabner, Ingrid; Kretzschmar, Ruben; Stahr, Karl et al. (25 November 2015). "Soil organisms and their habitat". Scheffer/Schachtschabel Soil Science. Berlin, Germany: Springer Nature. pp. 87–122. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-30942-7_4. ISBN 978-3-642-30942-7. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/79635103/611e88. Retrieved 14 July 2025.
2. ↑ Huhta, Veikko (4 January 2007). "The role of soil fauna in ecosystems: a historical review". Pedobiologia 50 (6): 489–95. doi:10.1016/j.pedobi.2006.08.006. Bibcode: 2007Pedob..50..489H. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233427710. Retrieved 14 July 2025.
3. ↑ Briones, María Jesús Iglesias (2014). "Soil fauna and soil functions: a jigsaw puzzle". Frontiers in Environmental Science 2 (7). doi:10.3389/fenvs.2014.00007. Bibcode: 2014FrEnS...2....7B.
4. ↑ Brussaard, Lijbert; Juma, Noorallah G. (1996). "Organisms and humus in soils". in Piccolo, Alessandro. Humic substances in terrestrial ecosystems. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. pp. 329–59. doi:10.1016/B978-044481516-3/50009-8. ISBN 978-0-444-81516-3. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/68856839/e73098. Retrieved 17 July 2025.
5. ↑ Hopkins, David W.; Dungait, Jennifer A. J. (4 August 2010). "Soil microbiology and nutrient cycling". Soil microbiology and sustainable crop production. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. pp. 59–80. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9479-7_3. ISBN 978-90-481-9479-7. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/53687480/8d3a3d. Retrieved 17 July 2025.
6. ↑ Fierer, Noah; Wood, Stephen A.; Bueno de Mesquita, Clifton P. (February 2021). "How microbes can, and cannot, be used to assess soil health". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 153. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2020.108111. Bibcode: 2021SBiBi.15308111F. https://projects.au.dk/fileadmin/projects/ejpsoil/WP5/PhD_School_material/Soil_Systems/Literature_meeting_II/Fierer_SBB_2021.pdf. Retrieved 17 July 2025.
7. ↑ DeAngelis, Don L. (1992). "Nutrient interactions of detritus and decomposers". in DeAngelis, Don L.. Dynamics of nutrient cycling and food webs. Population and community biology series. 9. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. pp. 123–41. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-2342-6_7. ISBN 978-94-011-2342-6. https://archive.org/details/de-angelis-1992. Retrieved 18 July 2025.
8. ↑ Sharma, Dinesh Kumar; Tomar, Sonam; Chakraborty, Debashis (25 September 2017). "Role of earthworm in improving soil structure and functioning". Current Science 113 (6): 1064–71. doi:10.18520/cs/v113/i06/1064-1071. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320034382. Retrieved 18 July 2025.
9. ↑ Odelade, Kehinde Abraham; Babalola, Olubukola Oluranti (12 October 2019). "Bacteria, fungi and archaea domains in rhizospheric soil and their effects in enhancing agricultural productivity". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16 (20): 3873. doi:10.3390/ijerph16203873. PMID 31614851.
10. ↑ Lehmann, Johannes; Bossio, Deborah S.; Kögel-Knabner, Ingrid; Rillig, Matthias C. (25 August 2020). "The concept and future prospects of soil health". Nature Reviews Earth & Environment 1 (10): 544–53. doi:10.1038/s43017-020-0080-8. PMID 33015639. PMC 7116140. Bibcode: 2020NRvEE...1..544L. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/113580842/50f905. Retrieved 17 July 2025.
11. ↑ Ochoa-Hueso, Raul; Delgado-Baquerizo, Manuel; King, Paul T. A.; Benham, Merryn; Arca, Valentina; Power, Sally Anne (February 2019). "Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 129: 144–52. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009. Bibcode: 2019SBiBi.129..144O. https://www.academia.edu/41490992. Retrieved 18 July 2025.
12. ↑ Hoorman, James J. (2011). "The role of soil bacteria". Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University. https://symbio.co.uk/uploads/PDFs/The Role of Soil bacteria.pdf.
13. ↑ Hagen, Stephen J. (1 December 2010). "Exponential growth of bacteria: constant multiplication through division". American Journal of Physics 78 (12): 1290–6. doi:10.1119/1.3483278. Bibcode: 2010AmJPh..78.1290H. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/53812741/69d35d. Retrieved 18 July 2025.
14. ↑ Lugtenberg, Ben; Kamilova, Faina (October 2009). "Plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria". Annual Review of Microbiology 63: 541–56. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.62.081307.162918. PMID 19575558. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/47795051/2e02ce. Retrieved 18 July 2025.
15. ↑ Ramoneda, Josep; Fan, Kunkun; Lucas, Jane M.; Chu, Haiyan; Bissett, Andrew; Strickland, Michael S.; Fierer, Noah (January 2024). "Ecological relevance of flagellar motility in soil bacterial communities". The ISME Journal 18 (1). doi:10.1093/ismejo/wrae067. PMID 38648266. PMC 11095265. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380007739. Retrieved 18 July 2025.
16. ↑ Forbes, Shari L. (2008). "Decomposition chemistry in a burial environment". Soil analysis in forensic taphonomy: chemical and biological effects of buried human remains. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. 203–23. doi:10.1201/9781420069921.ch8. ISBN 978-0-429-24949-5. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/86969282/c01208. Retrieved 18 July 2025.
17. ↑ Linn, D. M.; Doran, John W. (July–August 1984). "Aerobic and anaerobic microbial populations in no-till and plowed soils". Soil Science Society of America Journal 48 (4): 794–9. doi:10.2136/sssaj1984.03615995004800040019x. Bibcode: 1984SSASJ..48..794L. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/55339465/ba26c5. Retrieved 18 July 2025.
18. ↑ England, Laura S.; Lee, Hung; Trevors, Jack T. (May 1993). "Bacterial survival in soil: effect of clays and protozoa". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 25 (5): 525–31. doi:10.1016/0038-0717(93)90189-I. Bibcode: 1993SBiBi..25..525E. https://www.academia.edu/67564243. Retrieved 18 July 2025.
19. ↑ Pekkonen, Minna; Ketola, Tarmo; Laakso, Jouni T. (30 September 2013). "Resource availability and competition shape the evolution of survival and growth ability in a bacterial community". PLOS One 8 (9). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076471. PMID 24098791. Bibcode: 2013PLoSO...876471P.
20. ↑ Stephenson, Keith; Lewis, Richard J. (April 2005). "Molecular insights into the initiation of sporulation in Gram-positive bacteria: new technologies for an old phenomenon". FEMS Microbiology Reviews 29 (2): 281–301. doi:10.1016/j.fmrre.2004.10.003. PMID 15808745.
21. ↑ Navarro Llorens, Juana María; Tormo, Antonio; Martínez-García, Esteban (July 2010). "Stationary phase in gram-negative bacteria". FEMS Microbiology Reviews 34 (4): 476–95. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2010.00213.x. PMID 20236330. https://www.academia.edu/93793235. Retrieved 21 July 2025.
22. ↑ Penadés, José R.; Chen, John; Quiles-Puchalt, Nuria; Carpena, Nuria; Novick, Richard P. (February 2015). "Bacteriophage-mediated spread of bacterial virulence genes". Current Opinion in Microbiology 23: 171–8. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2014.11.019. PMID 25528295. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/66937053/67f429. Retrieved 21 July 2025.
23. ↑ Pires, Diana P.; Cleto, Sara; Sillankorva, Sanna; Azeredo, Joana; Lu, Timothy K. (1 June 2016). "Genetically engineered phages: a review of advances over the last decade". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 80 (3): 523–43. doi:10.1128/mmbr.00069-15. PMID 27250768. PMC 4981678. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/86396708/fdda82. Retrieved 21 July 2025.
24. ↑ Prosser, James Ivor (1990). "Autotrophic nitrification in bacteria". Advances in Microbial Physiology 30: 125–81. doi:10.1016/S0065-2911(08)60112-5. ISBN 978-0-12-027730-8. PMID 2700538. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/63711198/aa7b3f. Retrieved 21 July 2025.
25. ↑ Brierley, Euan D. R.; Wood, Martin (August 2001). "Heterotrophic nitrification in an acid forest soil: isolation and characterisation of a nitrifying bacterium". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 33 (10): 1403–9. doi:10.1016/S0038-0717(01)00045-1. Bibcode: 2001SBiBi..33.1403B. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/49826656/b82024. Retrieved 21 July 2025.
26. ↑ Franche, Claudine; Lindström, Kristina; Elmerich, Claudine (3 December 2008). "Nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with leguminous and non-leguminous plants". Plant and Soil 321 (1–2): 35–59. doi:10.1007/s11104-008-9833-8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225535435. Retrieved 21 July 2025.
27. ↑ Schulz, Stefanie; Brankatschk, Robert; Dümig, Alexander; Kögel-Knabner, Ingrid; Schloter, Michael; Zeyer, Josef (18 June 2013). "The role of microorganisms at different stages of ecosystem development for soil formation". Biogeosciences 10 (6): 3983–96. doi:10.5194/bg-10-3983-2013. Bibcode: 2013BGeo...10.3983S.
28. ↑ Groffman, Peter M. (8 November 2012). "Terrestrial denitrification: challenges and opportunities". Ecological Processes 1 (11). doi:10.1186/2192-1709-1-11. Bibcode: 2012EcoPr...1...11G.
29. ↑ Mulvaney, Richard L.; Khan, Shahoor ad; Mulvaney, C. S. (February 1997). "Nitrogen fertilizers promote denitrification". Biology and Fertility of Soils 24 (2): 211–20. doi:10.1007/s003740050233. Bibcode: 1997BioFS..24..211M. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/39392824/310392. Retrieved 22 July 2025.
30. ↑ Burkart, Michael R.; Stoner, Jeffrey D. (1 May 2002). "Nitrate in aquifers beneath agricultural systems". Water Science and Technology 45 (9): 19–29. doi:10.2166/wst.2002.0195. PMID 12079102. Bibcode: 2002WSTec..45Q..19B. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/95148789/fa3a0e. Retrieved 22 July 2025.
31. ↑ Mason, J. Clark; Richards, Michelle; Zimmermann, Wolfgang; Broda, Paul (May 1988). "Identification of extracellular proteins from actinomycetes responsible for the solubilisation of lignocellulose". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 28 (3): 276–80. doi:10.1007/BF00250455. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/37544245/a6cb16. Retrieved 22 July 2025.
32. ↑ Lacombe-Harvey, Marie-Ève; Brzezinski, Ryszard; Beaulieu, Carole (21 June 2018). "Chitinolytic functions in actinobacteria: ecology, enzymes, and evolution". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 102 (17): 7219–30. doi:10.1007/s00253-018-9149-4. PMID 29931600. PMC 6097792. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325917137. Retrieved 22 July 2025.
33. ↑ Schöller, Charlotte E. G.; Gürtier, Hanne; Pedersen, Rita; Molin, Søren; Wilkins, Ken (27 March 2002). "Volatile metabolites from actinomycetes". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50 (9): 2615–21. doi:10.1021/jf0116754. PMID 11958631. Bibcode: 2002JAFC...50.2615S. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/53465747/873720. Retrieved 22 July 2025.
34. ↑ "Actinomycetes: remarkable antibiotic, nitrogen fixing, decomposer bacteria". https://www.the-compost-gardener.com/actinomycetes.html.
35. ↑ Bridge, Paul; Spooner, Brian (May 2001). "Soil fungi: diversity and detection". Plant and Soil 232 (1–2): 147–54. doi:10.1023/A:1010346305799. Bibcode: 2001PlSoi.232..147B. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/43238146/626729. Retrieved 22 July 2025.
36. ↑ Guggenberger, Georg (2005). "Humification and mineralization in soils". Microorganisms in soils: roles in genesis and functions. Soil Biology. 3. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. pp. 85–106. doi:10.1007/3-540-26609-7_4. ISBN 978-3-540-26609-9. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/47776478/0227be. Retrieved 22 July 2025.
37. ↑ Kjøller, Annelise H.; Struwe, Sten (2002). "Fungal communities, succession, enzymes, and decomposition". Enzymes in the environment: activity, ecology, and applications. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. 267–84. ISBN 978-0-429-20757-0. https://archive.org/details/kjoller-struwe-2002. Retrieved 22 July 2025.
38. ↑ Feofilova, E. P.; Ivashechkin, Aleksey A.; Alekhin, A. I.; Sergeeva, Yana E. (29 December 2011). "Fungal spores: dormancy, germination, chemical composition, and role in biotechnology (review)". Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology 48 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1134/S0003683812010048. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/53053083/0bc5ee. Retrieved 22 July 2025.
39. ↑ McCartney, Alastair; West, Jon (26 June 2007). "Dispersal of fungal spores through the air". Food mycology: a multifaceted approach to fungi and food. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. 65–81. ISBN 978-0-429-18901-2. https://archive.org/details/mc-cartney-west-2007. Retrieved 23 July 2025.
40. ↑ Golan, Jacob J.; Pringle, Anne (14 July 2017). "Long-distance dispersal of fungi". Microbiology Spectrum 5 (4): 1–24. doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.funk-0047-2016. PMID 28710849. PMC 11687522. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318455657. Retrieved 23 July 2025.
41. ↑ Dromph, Karsten M. (2001). "Dispersal of entomopathogenic fungi by collembolans". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 33 (15): 2047–51. doi:10.1016/S0038-0717(01)00130-4. Bibcode: 2001SBiBi..33.2047D. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/49826737/af7f3e. Retrieved 23 July 2025.
42. ↑ Piattoni, Federica; Oir, Francesca; Morara, Marco; Iotti, Mirco; Zambonelli, Alessandra (2012). "The role of wild boars in spore dispersal of hypogeous fungi". Acta Mycologica 47 (2): 145–53. doi:10.5586/am.2012.017.
43. ↑ Sato, Hirotoshi; Tsujino, Riyou; Kurita, Kazuki; Yokoyama, Kazumasa; Agata, Kiyokazu (November 2012). "Modelling the global distribution of fungal species: new insights into microbial cosmopolitanism". Molecular Ecology 21 (22): 5599–612. doi:10.1111/mec.12053. PMID 23062148. Bibcode: 2012MolEc..21.5599S. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/53049966/b58e99. Retrieved 23 July 2025.
44. ↑ Hampp, Rüdiger; Schaeffer, Christoph (1999). "Mycorrhiza: carbohydrate and energy metabolism". Mycorrhiza: structure, function, molecular biology and biotechnology (second ed.). Berlin, Germany: Springer. pp. 273–303. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-03779-9_12. ISBN 978-3-662-03779-9. https://archive.org/details/hampp-schaeffer-1999. Retrieved 24 July 2025.
45. ↑ Govindarajulu, Manjula; Pfeffer, Philip E.; Jin, Hairu; Abubaker, Jehad; Douds, David D.; Allen, James W.; Bücking, Heike; Lammers, Peter J. et al. (9 June 2005). "Nitrogen transfer in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis". Nature 435 (7043): 819–23. doi:10.1038/nature03610. PMID 15944705. Bibcode: 2005Natur.435..819G. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7797122. Retrieved 24 July 2025.
46. ↑ Plassard, Claude; Becquer, Adeline; Garcia, Kevin (September 2019). "Phosphorus transport in mycorrhiza: how far are we?". Trends in Plant Science 24 (9): 794–801. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2019.06.004. PMID 31272899. Bibcode: 2019TPS....24..794P. https://www.academia.edu/105159639. Retrieved 24 July 2025.
47. ↑ Plamboeck, Agneta H.; Dawson, Todd E.; Egerton-Warburton, Louise M.; North, Malcolm; Bruns, Thomas D.; Querejeta, José Ignacio (1 March 2007). "Water transfer via ectomycorrhizal fungal hyphae to conifer seedlings". Mycorrhiza 17 (5): 439–47. doi:10.1007/s00572-007-0119-4. PMID 17333298. Bibcode: 2007Mycor..17..439P. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6473985. Retrieved 24 July 2025.
48. ↑ Gutjahr, Caroline; Parniske, Martin (5 June 2017). "Control of partner lifetime in a plant-fungus relationship". Current Biology 27 (11): R420–R423. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.020. PMID 28586667.
49. ↑ Wu, Songlin; Fu, Wei; Rillig, Matthias C.; Chen, Baodong; Zhu, Yong-Guan; Huang, Longbin (May 2024). "Soil organic matter dynamics mediated by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: an updated conceptual framework". New Phytologist 242 (4): 1417–25. doi:10.1007/s00572-007-0119-4. PMID 17333298. Bibcode: 2007Mycor..17..439P.
50. ↑ Wang, Wanxiao; Shi, Jincai; Xie, Qiujin; Jiang, Yina; Yu, Nan; Wang, Ertao (12 September 2017). "Nutrient exchange and regulation in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis". Molecular Plant 10 (9): 1147–58. doi:10.1016/j.molp.2017.07.012. PMID 28782719. Bibcode: 2017MPlan..10.1147W.
51. ↑ Querejeta, José; Egerton-Warburton, Louise M.; Allen, Michael F. (January 2003). "Direct nocturnal water transfer from oaks to their mycorrhizal symbionts during severe soil drying". Oecologia 134 (1): 55–64. doi:10.1007/s00442-002-1078-2. PMID 12647179. Bibcode: 2003Oecol.134...55Q. https://www.academia.edu/65856381. Retrieved 25 July 2025.
52. ↑ Fitter, Alastair H.; Graves, J. D.; Watkins, N. K.; Robinson, David; Scrimgeour, Charlie (June 1998). "Carbon transfer between plants and its control in networks of arbuscular mycorrhizas". Functional Ecology 12 (3): 406–12. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2435.1998.00206.x. Bibcode: 1998FuEco..12..406F.
53. ↑ He, Xin-Hua; Critchley, Christa; Bledsoe, Caroline (18 June 2010). "Nitrogen transfer within and between plants through Common Mycorrhizal Networks (CMNs)". Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 22 (6): 531–67. doi:10.1080/713608315. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/50938261/c5a155. Retrieved 25 July 2025.
54. ↑ Egerton-Warburton, Louise M.; Querejeta, José Ignacio; Allen, Michael F. (April 2007). "Common mycorrhizal networks provide a potential pathway for the transfer of hydraulically lifted water between plants". Journal of Experimental Botany 58 (6): 1473–83. doi:10.1093/jxb/erm009. PMID 17350936. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6455980. Retrieved 25 July 2025.
55. ↑ Barto, E. Kathryn; Weidenhamer, Jeffrey D.; Cipollini, Don; Rillig, Matthias C. (November 2012). "Fungal superhighways: do common mycorrhizal networks enhance below ground communication?". Trends in Plant Science 17 (11): 633–7. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.007. PMID 22818769. Bibcode: 2012TPS....17..633B. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229434864. Retrieved 25 July 2025.
56. ↑ Rillig, Matthias C.; Lehmann, Anika; Lanfranco, Luisa; Caruso, Tancredi; Johnson, David (June 2025). "Clarifying the definition of common mycorrhizal networks". Functional Ecology 39 (6): 1411–7. doi:10.1111/1365-2435.14545. Bibcode: 2025FuEco..39.1411R.
57. ↑ Newman, Edward I.; Reddell, Paul (August 1987). "The distribution of mycorrhizas among families of vascular plants". New Phytologist 106 (4): 745–51. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1987.tb00175.x. PMID 33874079. Bibcode: 1987NewPh.106..745N.
58. ↑ Selosse, Marc-André; Richard, Franck; He, Xinhua; Simard, Suzanne W. (November 2006). "Mycorrhizal networks: des liaisons dangereuses?". Trends in Ecology and Evolution 21 (11): 621–8. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2006.07.003. PMID 16843567. Bibcode: 2006TEcoE..21..621S. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/49512111/1ad94a. Retrieved 25 July 2025.
59. ↑ Nicotra, Adrienne B.; Chazdon, Robin L.; Iriarte, Silvia V. B. (September 1999). "Spatial heterogeneity of light and woody seedling regeneration in tropical wet forests". Ecology 80 (6): 1908–26. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[1908:SHOLAW2.0.CO;2]. https://www.academia.edu/33974229. Retrieved 25 July 2025.
60. ↑ Högberg, Peter; Högberg, Mona N. (15 July 2022). "Does successful forest regeneration require the nursing of seedlings by nurse trees through mycorrhizal interconnections?". Forest Ecology and Management 516 (2). doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120252. Bibcode: 2022ForEM.51620252H. https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/29156/1/hogberg-p-et-al-20221007.pdf. Retrieved 25 July 2025.
61. ↑ Attenborough, David (1995). "The private life of plants, a BBC nature documentary series written and presented by David Attenborough". https://archive.org/details/the-private-life-of-plants-e-04-the-social-struggle.
62. ↑ George, Nirmal Philip; Ray, Joseph George (24 February 2023). "The inevitability of arbuscular mycorrhiza for sustainability in organic agriculture: a critical review". Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 7. doi:10.3389/fsufs.2023.1124688. Bibcode: 2023FrSFS...724688G.
63. ↑ Comis, Don (September 2002). "Glomalin: hiding place for a third of the world's stored soil carbon". Agricultural Research 50 (9): 4–7. https://agresearchmag.ars.usda.gov/AR/archive/2002/Sep/soil0902.pdf. Retrieved 28 July 2025.
64. ↑ Frouz, Jan (15 December 2018). "Effects of soil macro- and mesofauna on litter decomposition and soil organic matter stabilization" (in en). Geoderma 332: 161–172. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.08.039. ISSN 0016-7061. Bibcode: 2018Geode.332..161F. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/98524669/a7baf3. Retrieved 28 July 2025.
65. ↑ Franco, André L. C.; Cherubin, Mauricio R.; Cerri, Carlos E. P.; Six, Johan; Wall, Diana H.; Cerri, Carlos C. (November 2020). "Linking soil engineers, structural stability, and organic matter allocation to unravel soil carbon responses to land-use change". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 150. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2020.107998. Bibcode: 2020SBiBi.15007998F. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/113809717/e15380. Retrieved 28 July 2025.
66. ↑ Bhadauria, Tunira; Saxena, Krishan Gopal (14 December 2009). "Role of earthworms in soil fertility maintenance through the production of biogenic structures". Applied and Environmental Soil Science 2010: ID 816073. doi:10.1155/2010/816073.
67. ↑ Bouché, Marcel B.; Al-Addan, Fathel (March–April 1997). "Earthworms, water infiltration and soil stability: some new assessments". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 29 (3–4): 441–452. doi:10.1016/S0038-0717(96)00272-6. Bibcode: 1997SBiBi..29..441B. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/49827228/4e5c48. Retrieved 28 July 2025.
68. ↑ Gong, Xing; Wang, Shuai; Wang, Zhenwei; Jiang, Yuji; Hu, Zhengkun; Zheng, Yong; Chen, Xiaoyun; Li, Huixin et al. (1 August 2019). "Earthworms modify soil bacterial and fungal communities through enhancing aggregation and buffering pH". Geoderma 347: 59–69. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.03.043. Bibcode: 2019Geode.347...59G. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/106332794/300dda. Retrieved 28 July 2025.
69. ↑ Dempsey, Mark A.; Fisk, Melany C.; Fahey, Timothy J. (October 2011). "Earthworms increase the ratio of bacteria to fungi in northern hardwood forest soils, primarily by eliminating the organic horizon". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 43 (10): 2135–41. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.06.017. Bibcode: 2011SBiBi..43.2135D. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/46056188/c274a5. Retrieved 28 July 2025.
70. ↑ de Souza, Henrique Jesus; Delabie, Jacques Hubert Charles (2019). "Ecosystem engineers, ants and termites". in Starr, Christopher K.. Encyclopedia of social insects. Berlin, Germany: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90306-4_186-2. ISBN 978-3-319-90306-4. https://archive.org/details/de-souza-delabie-2020. Retrieved 29 July 2025.
71. ↑ Evans, Theodore A.; Dawes, Tracy Z.; Ward, Philip R.; Lo, Nathan (29 March 2011). "Ants and termites increase crop yield in a dry climate". Nature Communications 2. doi:10.1038/ncomms1257. PMID 21448161. Bibcode: 2011NatCo...2..262E.
72. ↑ Muon, Ratha; Ket, Pinnara; Sebag, David; Boukbida, Hanane Aroui; Podwojewski, Pascal; Hervé, Vincent; Ann, Vannak; Jouquet, Pascal (June 2023). "Termite constructions as patches of soil fertility in Cambodian paddy fields". Geoderma Regional 33. doi:10.1016/j.geodrs.2023.e00640. Bibcode: 2023GeodR..3300640M. https://hal.science/hal-04098870v1/file/Termite.pdf. Retrieved 29 July 2025.
73. ↑ Eldridge, David J.; Pickard, John (1994). "Effects of ants on sandy soils in semi-arid eastern Australia. II. Relocation of nest entrances and consequences for bioturbation". Soil Research 32 (2): 323–33. doi:10.1071/SR9940323. Bibcode: 1994SoilR..32..323E. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248884625. Retrieved 29 July 2025.
74. ↑ Kinlaw, Al (February 1999). "A review of burrowing by semi-fossorial vertebrates in arid environments". Journal of Arid Environments 41 (2): 127–45. doi:10.1006/jare.1998.0476. Bibcode: 1999JArEn..41..127K. https://www.academia.edu/48388183. Retrieved 29 July 2025.
75. ↑ Platt, Brian F.; Kolb, Dakota J.; Kunhardt, Christian G.; Milo, Scott P.; New, Lee G. (March–April 2016). "Burrowing through the literature: the impact of soil-disturbing vertebrates on physical and chemical properties of soil". Soil Science 181 (3–4): 175–91. doi:10.1097/SS.0000000000000150. https://fr.1lib.sk/book/91044921/0459bd. Retrieved 29 July 2025.

## Bibliography

* Alexander, 1977, Introduction to Soil Microbiology, 2nd edition, John Wiley
* Alexander, 1994, Biodegradation and Bioremediation, Academic Press
* Bardgett, R.D., 2005, The Biology of Soil: A Community and Ecosystem Approach, Oxford University Press
* Burges, A., and Raw, F., 1967, Soil Biology: Academic Press
* Coleman D.C. et al., 2004, Fundamentals of Soil Ecology, 2nd edition, Academic Press
* Coyne, 1999, Soil Microbiology: An Exploratory Approach, Delmar
* Doran, J.W., D.C. Coleman, D.F. Bezdicek and B.A. Stewart. 1994. Defining soil quality for a sustainable environment. Soil Science Society of America Special Publication Number 35, ASA, Madison Wis.
* Paul, P.A. and F.E. Clark. 1996, Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry, 2nd edition, Academic Press
* Richards, 1987, The Microbiology of Terrestrial Ecosystems, Longman Scientific & Technical
* Sylvia et al., 1998, Principles and Applications of Soil Microbiology, Prentice Hall
* Soil and Water Conservation Society, 2000, Soil Biology Primer.
* Tate, 2000, Soil Microbiology, 2nd edition, John Wiley
* van Elsas et al., 1997, Modern Soil Microbiology, Marcel Dekker
* Wood, 1995, Environmental Soil Biology, 2nd edition, Blackie A & P
* Vats, Rajeev & Sanjeev, Aggarwal. (2019). Impact of termite activity and its effect on soil composition.

## External links

* Michigan State University – Soil Ecology and Management: Soil Biology
* New South Wales – Soil Biology
* University of Minnesota – Soil Biology and Soil Management
* Soil-Net.com A free schools-age educational site, featuring much on soil biology and teaching about soil and its importance.
* Why organic fertilizers are a good choice for healthy soil
* Effects of transgenic zeaxanthin potatoes on soil quality Biosafety research project funded by the BMBF
* Phospholipid fatty-acid analysis protocol A method for analyzing the soil microbial community (pdf file)
* USDA-NRCS – Soil Biology Primer

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Topics in soil science

Main fields|

* Pedology
* Edaphology
* Soil biology
* Soil microbiology
* Soil zoology
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Soil topics|

* Soil
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Soil classification

USDA soil taxonomy|

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World Reference Base
for Soil Resources (1998–)|

* Acrisols
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Other systems|

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* 1938 USDA soil taxonomy
* List of U.S. state soils
* List of vineyard soil types

Non-systematic soil types|

* Sand
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Types of soil

Applications|

* Soil conservation
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Related fields|

* Geology
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* Earth materials
* Archaeology
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Societies, Initiatives|

* Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated
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* International Union of Soil Sciences
* International Year of Soil
* National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists (USA)
* OPAL Soil Centre (UK)
* Soil Science Society of Poland
* Soil and Water Conservation Society (USA)
* Soil Science Society of America
* World Congress of Soil Science

Scientific journals|

* Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B
* Journal of Soil and Water Conservation
* Plant and Soil
* Pochvovedenie
* Soil Research
* Soil Science Society of America Journal

See also|

* Land use
* Land conversion
* Land management
* Vegetation
* Infiltration (hydrology)
* Groundwater
* Crust (geology)
* Impervious surface/Surface runoff

* Wikipedia:WikiProject Soil
* Category soil
* Category soil science
* Index of soil-related articles
* List of soil scientists

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