Rodinia

Short description: Hypothetical Neoproterozoic supercontinent

Rodinia (from the Russian родина, rodina, meaning "motherland, birthplace"[1][2][3]) was a Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic supercontinent that assembled 1.26–0.90 billion years ago[4] and broke up 750–633 million years ago.[5] Valentine & Moores 1970 were probably the first to recognise a Precambrian supercontinent, which they named 'Pangaea I'.[5] It was renamed 'Rodinia' by McMenamin & McMenamin 1990 who also were the first to produce a reconstruction and propose a temporal framework for the supercontinent.[6]

Rodinia formed at c. 1.23 Ga by accretion and collision of fragments produced by breakup of an older supercontinent, Columbia, assembled by global-scale 2.0–1.8 Ga collisional events.[7]

Rodinia broke up in the Neoproterozoic with its continental fragments reassembled to form Pannotia 633–573 million years ago. In contrast with Pannotia, little is known yet about the exact configuration and geodynamic history of Rodinia. Paleomagnetic evidence provides some clues to the paleolatitude of individual pieces of the Earth's crust, but not to their longitude, which geologists have pieced together by comparing similar geologic features, often now widely dispersed.

The extreme cooling of the global climate around 717–635 million years ago (the so-called Snowball Earth of the Cryogenian period) and the rapid evolution of primitive life during the subsequent Ediacaran and Cambrian periods are thought to have been triggered by the breaking up of Rodinia or to a slowing down of tectonic processes.[8]

## Contents

* 1 Geodynamics
* 1.1 Paleogeographic reconstructions
* 1.2 Breakup
* 2 Influence on paleoclimate and life
* 3 See also
* 4 References
* 4.1 Citations
* 4.2 General bibliography
* 5 External links

## Geodynamics

### Paleogeographic reconstructions

Rodinia at 900 Ma. "Consensus" reconstruction of Li et al. 2008.

The idea that a supercontinent existed in the early Neoproterozoic arose in the 1970s, when geologists determined that orogens of this age exist on virtually all cratons.[9][failed verification] Examples are the Grenville orogeny in North America and the Dalslandian orogeny in Europe.

Since then, many alternative reconstructions have been proposed for the configuration of the cratons in this supercontinent. Most of these reconstructions are based on the correlation of the orogens on different cratons.[10] Though the configuration of the core cratons in Rodinia is now reasonably well known, recent reconstructions still differ in many details. Geologists try to decrease the uncertainties by collecting geological and paleomagnetical data.

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Most reconstructions show Rodinia's core formed by the North American craton (the later paleocontinent of Laurentia), surrounded in the southeast with the East European craton (the later paleocontinent of Baltica), the Amazonian craton ("Amazonia") and the West African craton; in the south with the Río de la Plata and São Francisco cratons; in the southwest with the Congo and Kalahari cratons; and in the northeast with Australia, India and eastern Antarctica. The positions of Siberia and North and South China north of the North American craton differ strongly depending on the reconstruction:[11][12][13]

* SWEAT-Configuration (Southwest US-East Antarctica craton): Antarctica is on the Southwest of Laurentia and Australia is at the North of Antarctica.[14]
* AUSWUS-Configuration (Australia-western US): Australia is at the West of Laurentia.
* AUSMEX-Configuration (Australia-Mexico): Australia is at the location of current day Mexico relative to Laurentia.
* The "Missing-link" model by Li et al. 2008 which has South China between Australia and the west coast of Laurentia.[15] A revised "Missing-link" model is proposed in which Tarim Block serves as an extended or alternative missing-link between Australia and Laurentia.[16]
* Siberia attached to the western US (via the Belt Supergroup), as in Sears & Price 2000.[17]
* Rodinia of Scotese.[18]

Little is known about the paleogeography before the formation of Rodinia. Paleomagnetic and geologic data are only definite enough to form reconstructions from the breakup of Rodinia[17] onwards. Rodinia is considered to have formed between 1.3 and 1.23 billion years ago and broke up again before 750 million years ago.[19] Rodinia was surrounded by the superocean geologists call Mirovia (from Russian мировой, mirovoy, meaning "global").

According to J.D.A. Piper, Rodinia is one of two models for the configuration and history of the continental crust in the latter part of Precambrian times. The other is Paleopangea, Piper's own concept.[20] Piper proposes an alternative hypothesis for this era and the previous ones. This idea rejects that Rodinia ever existed as a transient supercontinent subject to progressive break-up in the latter part of Proterozoic times and instead that this time and earlier times were dominated by a single, persistent "Paleopangaea" supercontinent. As evidence, he suggests an observation that the palaeomagnetic poles from the continental crust assigned to this time conform to a single path between 825 and 633 million years ago and latterly to a near-static position between 750 and 633 million years.[8] This latter solution predicts that break-up was confined to the Ediacaran period and produced the dramatic environmental changes that characterised the transition between Precambrian and Phanerozoic times. However, this theory has been widely criticized, as incorrect applications of paleomagnetic data have been pointed out.[21]

### Breakup

In 2009 UNESCO's IGCP project 440, named 'Rodinia Assembly and Breakup', concluded that Rodinia broke up in four stages between 825 and 550 Ma:[22]

* The breakup was initiated by a superplume around 825–800 Ma whose influence—such as crustal arching, intense bimodal magmatism, and accumulation of thick rift-type sedimentary successions—have been recorded in South Australia, South China, Tarim, Kalahari, India, and the Arabian-Nubian Craton.
* Rifting progressed in the same cratons 800–750 Ma and spread into Laurentia and perhaps Siberia. India (including Madagascar) and the Congo–São Francisco Craton were either detached from Rodinia during this period or simply never were part of the supercontinent.
* As the central part of Rodinia reached the Equator around 750–700 Ma, a new pulse of magmatism and rifting continued the disassembly in western Kalahari, West Australia, South China, Tarim, and most margins of Laurentia.
* 650–550 Ma several events coincided: the opening of the Iapetus Ocean; the closure of the Braziliano, Adamastor, and Mozambique oceans; and the Pan-African orogeny. The result was the formation of Gondwana.

The Rodinia hypothesis assumes that rifting did not start everywhere simultaneously. Extensive lava flows and volcanic eruptions of Neoproterozoic age are found on most continents, evidence for large scale rifting about 750 million years ago.[1] As early as 850 and 800 million years ago,[19] a rift developed between the continental masses of present-day Australia, East Antarctica, India and the Congo and Kalahari cratons on one side and later Laurentia, Baltica, Amazonia and the West African and Rio de la Plata cratons on the other.[23] This rift developed into the Adamastor Ocean during the Ediacaran.

Around 550 million years ago, near the boundary between the Ediacaran and Cambrian, the first group of cratons eventually fused again with Amazonia, West Africa and the Rio de la Plata cratons.[24] This tectonic phase is called the Pan-African orogeny. It created a configuration of continents that would remain stable for hundreds of millions of years in the form of the continent Gondwana.

In a separate rifting event about 610 million years ago (halfway into the Ediacaran period), the Iapetus Ocean formed. The eastern part of this ocean formed between Baltica and Laurentia, the western part between Amazonia and Laurentia. Because the exact moments of this separation and the partially contemporaneous Pan-African orogeny are hard to correlate, it might be that all continental mass was again joined in one supercontinent between roughly 600 and 550 million years ago. This hypothetical supercontinent is called Pannotia.

## Influence on paleoclimate and life

Unlike later supercontinents, Rodinia would have been entirely barren. Rodinia existed before complex life colonized dry land. Based on sedimentary rock analysis Rodinia's formation happened when the ozone layer was not as extensive as it is today. Ultraviolet light discouraged organisms from inhabiting its interior. Nevertheless, its existence did significantly influence the marine life of its time.

In the Cryogenian period the Earth experienced large glaciations, and temperatures were at least as cool as today. Substantial areas of Rodinia may have been covered by glaciers or the southern polar ice cap.

Low temperatures may have been exaggerated during the early stages of continental rifting. Geothermal heating peaks in crust about to be rifted; and since warmer rocks are less dense, the crustal rocks rise up relative to their surroundings. This rising creates areas of higher altitude, where the air is cooler and ice is less likely to melt with changes in season, and it may explain the evidence of abundant glaciation in the Ediacaran period.[1]

The eventual rifting of the continents created new oceans and seafloor spreading, which produces warmer, less dense oceanic lithosphere. Due to its lower density, hot oceanic lithosphere will not lie as deep as old, cool oceanic lithosphere. In periods with relatively large areas of new lithosphere, the ocean floors come up, causing the eustatic sea level to rise. The result was a greater number of shallower seas.

The increased evaporation from the larger water area of the oceans may have increased rainfall, which, in turn, increased the weathering of exposed rock. By inputting data on the ratio of stable isotopes 18O:16O[failed verification] into computer models, it has been shown that, in conjunction with quick weathering of volcanic rock, this increased rainfall may have reduced greenhouse gas levels to below the threshold required to trigger the period of extreme glaciation known as Snowball Earth.[25]

Increased volcanic activity also introduced into the marine environment biologically active nutrients, which may have played an important role in the development of the earliest animals.

## See also

* Columbia, for one possible reconstruction of an earlier supercontinent
* Supercontinent cycle

## References

### Citations

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 McMenamin & McMenamin 1990, chapter: The Rifting of Rodinia
2. ↑ Redfern 2001, p. 335
3. ↑ Taube, Aleksandr M., R. S. Daglish (1993) 'Russko-angliiskii Slovar' =: Russian-English Dictionary. Moscow: Russkii iazyk ISBN 5-200-01883-8
4. ↑ Kee, Weon-Seo; Kim, Sung Won; Kwon, Sanghoon; Santosh, M.; Ko, Kyoungtae; Jeong, Youn-Joong (1 December 2019). "Early Neoproterozoic (ca. 913–895 Ma) arc magmatism along the central–western Korean Peninsula: Implications for the amalgamation of Rodinia supercontinent". Precambrian Research 335. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2019.105498. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301926819303791. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Li et al. 2008
6. ↑ Meert 2012, Supercontinents in Earth history, p. 998
7. ↑ Zhao et al. 2002; Zhao et al. 2004
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Piper 2013
9. ↑ Dewey & Burke 1973; the name 'Rodinia' was first used in McMenamin & McMenamin 1990
10. ↑ See for example the correlation between the North American Grenville and European Dalslandian orogenies in Ziegler 1990, p. 14; for the correlation between the Australian Musgrave orogeny and the Grenville orogeny see Wingate, Pisarevsky & Evans 2002, Implications for Rodinia reconstructions, pp. 124–126; fig. 5, p. 127
11. ↑ For a comparison of the SWEAT, AUSWUS, AUSMEX, and Missing-link reconstructions see Li et al. 2008, Fig. 2, p. 182. For a comparison between the "consensus" Rodinia of Li et al. 2008 and the original proposal of McMenamin & McMenamin 1990 see Nance, Murphy & Santosh 2014, Fig. 11, p. 9.
12. ↑ Examples of reconstructions can be found in Stanley 1999, pp. 336–337; Weil et al. 1998, Fig. 6, p. 21; Torsvik 2003, Fig. 'Rodinia old and new', p. 1380; Dalziel 1997, Fig. 11, p. 31; Scotese 2009, Fig. 1, p. 69
13. ↑ Wang, Chong; Peng, Peng; Wang, Xinping; Yang, Shuyan (October 2016). "Nature of three Proterozoic (1680 Ma, 1230 Ma and 775 Ma) mafic dyke swarms in North China: Implications for tectonic evolution and paleogeographic reconstruction". Precambrian Research 285: 109–126. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2016.09.015. Bibcode: 2016PreR..285..109W. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301926816303801. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
14. ↑ Moores 1991; Goodge et al. 2008
15. ↑ Li et al. 2008, Fig. 4, p. 188; fig. 8, p. 198
16. ↑ Wen, Bin; Evans, David A. D.; Li, Yong-Xiang (2017-01-15). "Neoproterozoic paleogeography of the Tarim Block: An extended or alternative "missing-link" model for Rodinia?". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 458: 92–106. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2016.10.030. Bibcode: 2017E&PSL.458...92W.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 "Other Reconstructions for Rodinia based on sources for Mojavia". Department of Geological Sciences, University of Colorado Boulder. May 2002. http://www.colorado.edu/GeolSci/Resources/WUSTectonics/mojavia/others.html.
18. ↑ Scotese 2009; Torsvik, Gaina & Redfield 2008
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Torsvik 2003, p. 1380
20. ↑ Piper 2010
21. ↑ Z.X, Li (October 2009). "How not to build a supercontinent: A reply to J.D.A. Piper". Precambrian Research 174 (1–2): 208–214. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2009.06.007. Bibcode: 2009PreR..174..208L.
22. ↑ Bogdanova, Pisarevsky & Li 2009, Breakup of Rodinia (825–700 Ma), pp. 266–267
23. ↑ Torsvik 2003, Fig. 'Rodinia old and new', p. 1380
24. ↑ See for example reconstructions in Pisarevsky et al. 2008, Fig. 4, p. 19
25. ↑ Donnadieu et al. 2004[page needed]

### General bibliography

* Bogdanova, S. V.; Pisarevsky, S. A.; Li, Z. X. (2009). "Assembly and Breakup of Rodinia (Some Results of IGCP Project 440)". Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation 17 (3): 259–274. doi:10.1134/S0869593809030022. ISSN 0869-5938. Bibcode: 2009SGC....17..259B. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255738849. Retrieved 7 February 2016.
* Dalziel, I. W. (1997). "Neoproterozoic-Paleozoic geography and tectonics: Review, hypothesis, environmental speculation". Geological Society of America Bulletin 109 (1): 16–42. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1997)109<0016:ONPGAT>2.3.CO;2. Bibcode: 1997GSAB..109...16D.
* Dewey, J. F.; Burke, K. C. (1973). "Tibetan, Variscan, and Precambrian basement reactivation: products of continental collision". Journal of Geology 81 (6): 683–692. doi:10.1086/627920. Bibcode: 1973JG.....81..683D.
* Donnadieu, Y.; Goddéris, Y.; Ramstein, G.; Nédélec, A.; Meert, J. G. (2004). "A 'snowball Earth' climate triggered by continental break-up through changes in runoff". Nature 428 (6980): 303–306. doi:10.1038/nature02408. PMID 15029192. Bibcode: 2004Natur.428..303D. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8672505. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
* Goodge, J. W.; Vervoort, J. D.; Fanning, C. M.; Brecke, D. M.; Farmer, G. L.; Williams, I. S.; Myrow, P. M.; DePaolo, D. J. (2008). "A positive test of East Antarctica–Laurentia juxtaposition within the Rodinia supercontinent". Science 321 (5886): 235–240. doi:10.1126/science.1159189. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 18621666. Bibcode: 2008Sci...321..235G. http://sites.coloradocollege.edu/pmyrow/files/2012/09/APositiveTestOfEastAntarcticaLaurentia.pdf. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
* Li, Z. X.; Bogdanova, S. V.; Collins, A. S.; Davidson, A.; De Waele, B.; Ernst, R. E.; Fitzsimons, I. C. W.; Fuck, R. A. et al. (2008). "Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: A synthesis". Precambrian Research 160 (1–2): 179–210. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.021. Bibcode: 2008PreR..160..179L. http://www.bdewaele.be/pdfs/Lietal_IGCP440_map_2008.pdf. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
* Loewy, S. L.; Dalziel, I. W. D.; Pisarevsky, S.; Connelly, J. N.; Tait, J.; Hanson, R. E.; Bullen, D. (2011). "Coats Land crustal block, East Antarctica: A tectonic tracer for Laurentia?". Geology 39 (9): 859–862. doi:10.1130/G32029.1. Bibcode: 2011Geo....39..859L. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232551854. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
* McMenamin, M. A.; McMenamin, D. L. (1990). The emergence of animals: the Cambrian breakthrough. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-06647-1.
* Meert, J.G. (2012). "What's in a name? The Columbia (Paleopangaea/Nuna) supercontinent". Gondwana Research 21 (4): 987–993. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2011.12.002. Bibcode: 2012GondR..21..987M. http://www.gondwanaresearch.com/hp/name.pdf. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
* Meert, J.G.; Torsvik, T.H. (2003). "The making and unmaking of a Supercontinent: Rodinia revisited". Tectonophysics 375 (1–4): 261–288. doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(03)00342-1. Bibcode: 2003Tectp.375..261M. http://www.geodynamics.no/guest/RodiniaRevisitedMeert_Torevik.pdf.
* Moores, E. M. (1991). "Southwest US-East Antarctic (SWEAT) connection: a hypothesis". Geology 19 (5): 425–428. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0425:SUSEAS>2.3.CO;2. Bibcode: 1991Geo....19..425M.
* Nance, R. D.; Murphy, J. B.; Santosh, M. (2014). "The supercontinent cycle: a retrospective essay". Gondwana Research 25 (1): 4–29. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2012.12.026. Bibcode: 2014GondR..25....4N. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235834618. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
* Piper, J. D. A. (2010). "Palaeopangaea in Meso-Neoproterozoic times: The palaeomagnetic evidence and implications to continental integrity, supercontinent form and Eocambrian break-up". Journal of Geodynamics 50 (3): 191–223. doi:10.1016/j.jog.2010.04.004. Bibcode: 2010JGeo...50..191P. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248515713. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
* Piper, J. D. A. (2013). "A planetary perspective on Earth evolution: lid tectonics before plate tectonics". Tectonophysics 589: 44–56. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2012.12.042. Bibcode: 2013Tectp.589...44P. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256860240. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
* Pisarevsky, S. A.; Murphy, J. B.; Cawood, P. A.; Collins, A. S. (2008). "Late Neoproterozoic and Early Cambrian palaeogeography: models and problems". Geological Society of London, Special Publications 294 (1): 9–31. doi:10.1144/SP294.2. Bibcode: 2008GSLSP.294....9P. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232561570. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
* Redfern, R. (2001). Origins: The Evolution of Continents, Oceans and Life. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3359-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=PqyMMs--IM4C&pg=PA9. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
* Scotese, C. R. (2009). "Late Proterozoic plate tectonics and palaeogeography: a tale of two supercontinents, Rodinia and Pannotia". Geological Society of London, Special Publications 326 (1): 67–83. doi:10.1144/SP326.4. Bibcode: 2009GSLSP.326...67S. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249552299. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
* http://www.scotese.com/Rodinia3.htm
* Sears, J. W.; Price, R. A. (2000). "New look at the Siberian connection: No SWEAT". Geology 28 (5): 423–426. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<423:NLATSC>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613. Bibcode: 2000Geo....28..423S.
* Stanley, S. M. (1999). Earth System History. W. H. Freeman & Co. ISBN 978-0-7167-2882-5.
* Torsvik, T. H. (2003). "The Rodinia Jigsaw Puzzle". Science 300 (5624): 1379–1381. doi:10.1126/science.1083469. PMID 12775828. http://www.earth.northwestern.edu/people/seth/Export/midcontinent/rodiniageom.pdf. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
* Torsvik, T. H.; Gaina, C.; Redfield, T. F. (2008). "Antarctica and Global Paleogeography: From Rodinia, through Gondwanaland and Pangea, to the birth of the Southern Ocean and the opening of gateways". in Cooper, A. K.; Barrett, P. J.; Stagg, H. et al.. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. pp. 125–140. doi:10.3133/of2007-1047.kp11. http://www.geodynamics.no/guest/Torsvik_Gaina_Redfield_Antarctica2008.pdf. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
* Valentine, J. W.; Moores, E. M. (1970). "Plate-tectonic Regulation of Faunal Diversity and Sea Level: a Model". Nature 228 (5272): 657–659. doi:10.1038/228657a0. PMID 16058645. Bibcode: 1970Natur.228..657V.
* Weil, A. B.; Van der Voo, R.; Mac Niocaill, C.; Meert, J. G. (1998). "The Proterozoic supercontinent Rodinia: paleomagnetically derived reconstructions for 1100 to 800 Ma". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 154 (1): 13–24. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(97)00127-1. Bibcode: 1998E&PSL.154...13W. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222481798. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
* Wingate, M. T. D.; Pisarevsky, S. A.; Evans, D. A. D. (2002). "Rodinia connections between Australia and Laurentia: no SWEAT, no AUSWUS?". Terra Nova 14 (2): 121–128. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3121.2002.00401.x. Bibcode: 2002TeNov..14..121W. http://people.earth.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/Evans/12_02-AUSMEX.pdf. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
* Ziegler, P. A. (1990). Geological Atlas of Western and Central Europe (2nd ed.). Shell Internationale Petroleum Maatschappij BV. ISBN 978-90-6644-125-5.
* Zhao, G.; Cawood, P. A.; Wilde, S. A.; Sun, M. (2002). "Review of global 2.1–1.8 Ga orogens: implications for a pre-Rodinia supercontinent". Earth-Science Reviews 59 (1): 125–162. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00073-9. Bibcode: 2002ESRv...59..125Z. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223833954. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
* Zhao, G.; Sun, M.; Wilde, S. A.; Li, S. (2004). "A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup". Earth-Science Reviews 67 (1): 91–123. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.02.003. Bibcode: 2004ESRv...67...91Z. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222891080. Retrieved 3 February 2016.

## External links

* Scotese Animation: Breakup of Rodinia & Formation of Pacific Ocean
* "Dance of the Giant Continents: Washington's Earliest History"
* IGCP Special Project 440: mapping Proterozoic supercontinents, including Rodinia
* Paleomap Project: Plate Tectonic Animations (java)

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