Information technology management

Short description: none

Template:Dist Template:Information technology management Information technology management (IT management) is the discipline whereby all of the information technology resources of a firm are managed in accordance with its needs and priorities. Managing the responsibility within a company entails many of the basic management functions, like budgeting, staffing, change management, and organizing and controlling, along with other aspects that are unique to technology, like software design, network planning, tech, data, data center support etc.[1][2]

Information Technology Management extends beyond technical support to encompass the strategic oversight of technology in alignment with organizational objectives. Its purview includes resource allocation, financial planning, risk mitigation, and ensuring the seamless delivery of IT services, all crucial for maintaining business operations and competitive positioning.[3]

## Contents

* 1 History - Overview
* 1.1 Evolution of IT Management
* 1.2 Relationship to Information Systems and MIS
* 2 Purpose
* 3 IT management disciplines
* 3.1 Business/IT alignment
* 3.2 Systems Analyst
* 3.3 IT governance
* 3.4 IT financial management
* 3.5 IT service management
* 3.6 Information Systems
* 3.7 Information security
* 3.8 IT strategy
* 3.9 IT Project management
* 3.10 IT configuration management
* 3.11 IT infrastructure
* 4 Technical Foundations
* 4.1 Infrastructure and Cloud Management
* 4.2 Information Security Management (ISM)
* 4.3 Configuration Management Database (CMDB)
* 4.4 Data Architecture
* 5 Operational Practices
* 5.1 Data Management
* 5.2 DevOps
* 5.3 ITSM Tools
* 6 Governance and Management Frameworks
* 6.1 ITIL (Service Management Framework)
* 6.2 COBIT (IT Governance Framework)
* 6.3 Data Governance
* 7 Theoretical Foundations
* 7.1 Resource-Based View (RBV)
* 7.2 Agency Theory
* 7.3 Transaction Cost Economics
* 7.4 Other Perspectives
* 7.5 Summary of Theoretical Perspectives
* 8 Role in Business Strategy
* 8.1 Strategic Alignment
* 8.2 Enabling Competitive Advantage
* 8.3 Digital Transformation Leadership
* 8.4 Governance, Risk, and Compliance (GRC)
* 8.5 Value Creation and Performance Measurement
* 9 IT managers
* 10 Consequences of IT management deficiencies
* 11 Career pathways
* 11.1 Leadership and Management
* 11.2 Strategy, Analysis, and Data Science
* 11.3 Architecture and Engineering
* 11.4 Software Development
* 11.5 Security, Infrastructure, and Administration
* 11.6 Support and Training
* 12 Academic Programs
* 12.1 Bachelor of Information Technology Management
* 12.2 Master of Information Technology Management
* 12.3 PhD in Information Technology Management
* 13 Research
* 14 See also
* 15 References

## History - Overview

The term information technology emerged in management science during the 1960s. At first, it referred to computer‑based mathematical techniques designed to replace mid‑level managers. The formal management of information technology began to develop more clearly in the 1970s and 1980s, when businesses recognized that information systems required structured planning, governance, and leadership rather than purely technical oversight.[4]

Early foundations of IT management evolved from the field of Management Information Systems (MIS) and business computing.[5] Researchers and practitioners began studying how information systems could support managerial decision making, organizational control, and strategic planning.[6] As information systems grew more complex—especially with the spread of enterprise software, networking, and the internet in the 1990s—organizations required professionals who could bridge the gap between technical specialists and business leadership. This need contributed to the emergence of IT management as its own professional and academic field.

Information Technology Management refers to the organizational discipline concerned with overseeing the planning, development, implementation, and governance of information technology resources. It encompasses the strategic alignment of IT with business objectives, the management of IT infrastructure and applications, and the leadership of technology professionals.[5]

### Evolution of IT Management

Richard L. Nolan first proposed the Stages Theory in 1973 as a normative framework for understanding organizational learning in IT management. The theory posits that organizations assimilate computer technologies through four distinct stages, forming an "S‑shaped" learning curve:[7][8]

* Initiation – Limited investment and contained experimentation to prove the value of technology
* Contagion – Rapid, relatively uncontrolled proliferation of technology throughout the organization
* Control – Management controls slow growth to a manageable rate after inefficiencies emerge
* Integration – Accumulated learning produces a balanced relationship between managed controls and growth

These four stages correspond to three historical eras defined by dominant technological designs: the Data Processing Era (mainframes, 1960–1980), the Microcomputer Era (1980–1995), and the Network Era (1995–2010).[9]

Based on Nolan's historical analysis, the primary purposes of IT management include:[7]

* Support organizational efficiency: Automate routine tasks to reduce costs and improve accuracy
* Enable strategic advantage: Use IT to sense and respond to customer needs, create new business models, and compete effectively
* Manage information as a resource: Move beyond managing technology to exploiting information directly to add value to products and services
* Bridge technical and business domains: IT managers serve as intermediaries between technical teams and executive leadership
* Drive organizational transformation: Use IT to redesign business processes, flatten hierarchies, and enable new forms of collaboration

Shoshana Zuboff introduced the concept of "informate" to distinguish the capacity of information technology to generate information about underlying processes from the simpler task of automation. While automation replaces human labor, informate makes processes visible to workers and managers, enabling new forms of learning, coordination, and control. This theoretical shift moved organizational attention from using computers merely to perform tasks faster to using them to understand and improve how work is done.[10]

The formal institutionalization of Information Resources Management (IRM) is significantly tied to the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980. This legislation served as a turning point for IT management by mandating two fundamental shifts:[11]

* Organizational Integration: It required the consolidation of previously siloed functions—such as telecommunications, data processing, information systems development, and records management—into a unified management structure.
* Asset Reorientation: It shifted the focus of IT management from mere hardware oversight to the governance of information as a strategic resource.

IT management evolved from mainframe maintenance in the mid‑20th century to include minicomputers (1960s‑70s), personal computers and software development (1980s), internet‑era cybersecurity and global infrastructure (1990s), and cloud computing (21st century). Each phase expanded the scope and strategic importance of the IT manager role.[12]

* 1960s–1970s – Minicomputers made computing power available to medium‑sized businesses and schools. Specialized roles such as systems analysts and database administrators emerged, and IT management began shifting toward optimizing technology for business needs.
* 1980s – The rise of personal computers and the software industry, led by companies like IBM, Microsoft, and Apple, expanded IT management to include network administration, user support, and software development. IT departments grew larger and more complex as organizations used IT for competitive advantage.
* 1990s – Internet growth and client‑server architecture brought e‑commerce, digital marketing, and global communications. IT management had to address cybersecurity, data privacy, and global infrastructure, requiring continuous learning and adaptation.
* Mid‑20th century – IT management was centered on operating and maintaining large mainframe computers. The role was highly technical, focused on hardware and basic software.
* 21st century – Cloud computing (e.g., AWS, Azure) shifted organizations from expensive in‑house infrastructure to scalable, on‑demand services, transforming IT management practices.

### Relationship to Information Systems and MIS

Several related disciplines are frequently conflated with Information Technology Management (ITM), though each has a distinct focus:

* Information Technology Management (ITM) is the discipline of managing all technology resources. This practical field focuses on the operational aspects of technology, including budgets, installations, and support.
* Information Systems (IS) is a broader, socio‑technical field that studies the interaction between people, processes, and technology.[13]
* Management Information Systems (MIS) is a specific application of IS focused on managerial decision‑making. MIS is considered a subset of the broader IS discipline and is designed to provide managers with reports and analysis to support their decisions.[6]

In summary, IT management focuses on managing technology infrastructure and services; information systems encompass the broader socio‑technical systems that use information; and management information systems represent a category of information systems designed to support management and decision‑making.[14][15]

Comparison of IT Management, Information Systems (IS), and Management Information Systems (MIS)  Concept  | Focus  | Scope  | Perspective

|
|
|

Information Technology Management (ITM) | Technology infrastructure (hardware, software, networks, data centers)  | Operational efficiency, security, maintenance, and service delivery  | Technical and operational ("how-to"): budgets, installations, support
Information Systems (IS) | Interaction of people, processes, and data  | Designing systems to support organizational problem‑solving and information flow  | Holistic: examining how human and organizational factors interact with technology
Management Information Systems (MIS) | Managerial decision‑making (reports, analysis, business intelligence)  | Strategic support: providing timely, relevant information to managers  | Management‑centric: applying IT specifically to business strategy and decisions

## Purpose

The central aim of IT management is to generate value through the use of technology. To achieve this, business strategies and technology must be aligned.

In the context IT management, the purpose is to strategically coordinate technology resources, people, and business processes to create measurable value, align IT capabilities with organizational goals, and ensure long-term competitive advantage.[16][17]

The primary objective of IT management is to ensure that the technologies essential to the organization are secure, high-performing, and strategically aligned with business goals to deliver measurable value and competitive advantage. This involves identifying how emerging technologies such as cloud computing, data analytics, and artificial intelligence can optimize operations, and generate new revenue streams.[2][18]

IT Management is different from management information systems. The latter refers to management methods tied to the automation or support of human decision making.[19] IT Management refers to IT related management activities in organizations. MIS is focused mainly on the business aspect, with a strong input into the technology phase of the business/organization.

In the early era of computing, IT management was primarily concerned with hardware oversight and system availability. The focus was largely technical, with little attention given to service delivery or aligning technology with broader organizational objectives.[20]

A primary focus of IT management is the value creation made possible by technology. This requires the alignment of technology and business strategies. While the value creation for an organization involves a network of relationships between internal and external environments, technology plays an important role in improving the overall value chain of an organization. However, this increase requires business and technology management to work as a creative, synergistic, and collaborative team instead of a purely mechanistic span of control.[21]

Historically, one set of resources was dedicated to one particular computing technology, business application or line of business, and managed in a silo-like fashion.[22] These resources supported a single set of requirements and processes, and couldn't easily be optimized or reconfigured to support actual demand.[23] This led technology providers to build out and complement their product-centric infrastructure and management offerings with Converged Infrastructure environments that converge servers, storage, networking, security, management and facilities.[24][25] The efficiencies of having this type of integrated and automated management environment allows enterprises to get their applications up and running faster, with simpler manageability and maintenance, and enables IT to adjust IT resources (such as servers, storage and networking) quicker to meet unpredictable business demand.[26][27]

Information technology management is an interdisciplinary field drawing from management, international business, sociology, psychology, computer science, and telecommunications. It provides a framework for executives, researchers, and practitioners to leverage information systems for competitive advantage, manage cross-border data and infrastructure, and address the societal implications of digital transformation.[28]

In the field of information technology management, effective change management and innovation are essential for organizational adaptation and sustainability. Understanding these practices enables IT leaders to balance innovation with operational stability, supporting smooth transitions and long term resilience in an environment of rapidly evolving technology.[2]

Information technology management is the strategic coordination of technology resources to meet business objectives. It encompasses strategic budgeting, staffing, organizational alignment, and technical implementation. Modern IT managers act as partners in business transformation aligning information systems with corporate goals. Primary responsibilities include:[29]

* Strategic planning, Developing technology roadmaps aligned with organizational goals
* Resource allocation, Distributing budgets and human capital efficiently
* Systems integration, Ensuring connectivity across different technology platforms
* Security management, Protecting digital assets and managing cybersecurity risks
* Innovation facilitation, Identifying and implementing emerging technological solutions

In the 21st century, IT management has become a strategic partner enabling agility, innovation, and competitive advantage through cloud computing, AI, and IoT. Today, IT managers actively participate in high level executive decision making, providing counsel on technology trends, investment priorities, and risk management to help organizations anticipate disruptions and capitalize on market opportunities.[30]

## IT management disciplines

The below concepts are commonly listed or investigated under the broad term IT Management:[31] [32] [33] [34][35]

* Business/IT alignment
* Systems Analyst
* IT governance
* IT financial management
* IT service management
* Information Systems[36]
* Information security[36]
* IT strategy
* IT Project management
* IT configuration management
* IT infrastructure[37][38]

### Business/IT alignment

Business-IT alignment ensures that IT strategy supports organizational business goals. Misalignment may result from communication gaps, ambiguous objectives, or technical limitations. IT managers now engage in business decisions, needing expertise in both technology and business strategy. Alignment is achieved through agile practices, cross-functional communication, and continuous feedback.[2] If the goal is improving customer experience, IT may invest in CRM systems, data analytics tools, and digital marketing technologies. If the goal is reducing costs, IT may focus on automation and process optimization often supported by AI.[30]

Successful business-IT alignment remains challenging due to lack of a uniform definition, unilateral strategies, and inadequate measurement tools. The Strategic Alignment Maturity Model (SAMM) was developed to measure alignment maturity but is subjective and varies by organizational tier. Organizations typically combine strategic (Balanced Scorecard), tactical (COBIT), and operational (ITIL) frameworks with cascading KPIs and KGIs. Native metrics often need adjustment to fit SAMM criteria.[39]

### Systems Analyst

A systems analyst, also known as business technology analyst, is an information technology professional who specializes in analyzing, designing and implementing information systems.[40] The Systems Analyst acts as the primary analytical liaison within IT Management who bridges business requirements and technical implementation. While IT Management provides the leadership and oversight, the Systems Analyst provides the essential design and analytical foundation that enables the successful delivery of information services.[41]

Their primary role is to study organizational problems and needs to determine how people, data, processes, and technology can best achieve business improvements. New systems may be needed when existing systems fail or when none exist. Key skills include technical (hardware/software), management (planning/control), analytical (problem solving, systems thinking), and interpersonal (communication). These are applied throughout all systems development life cycle(SDLC) phases: investigation, analysis, design, development, implementation, and maintenance.[42]

### IT governance

The discipline of information technology governance first emerged in 1993 as a derivative of corporate governance and deals primarily with the connection between an organisation's strategic objectives, business goals and IT management within an organization. It highlights the importance of value creation and accountability for the use of information and related technology and establishes the responsibility of the governing body, rather than the chief information officer or business management.

IT governance, risk, and compliance (GRC) provides the structures and policies that guide how technology is directed and controlled. Frameworks such as COBIT for governance and ISO/IEC 27001 for information security offer reference models for planning, delivering, and monitoring IT services.[3]

IT governance refers to the structures and rules that shape how technology decisions are made and controlled within an organisation. It sets expectations for oversight and accountability in IT spending and operations by clarifying decision rights, defining responsibilities, and using committees and performance indicators to monitor outcomes.[12]

### IT financial management

Financial management in IT treats technology as a strategic investment rather than solely an operational expense. IT leaders prepare and manage budgets, distinguish between capital expenditures (CapEx) and operating expenditures (OpEx), and evaluate the total cost of ownership (TCO) of systems by considering implementation, training, maintenance, support, and replacement. The growth of cloud computing has shifted many costs from CapEx to OpEx subscription models. Effective vendor and contract management, together with clear demonstrations of business value, helps position the IT function as a strategic partner to senior leadership.[3]

IT Portfolio Management (ITPM) relies on a tight integration with IT Financial Management to ensure data driven decision making and resource optimization. ITPM requires deep hooks into financial systems to track costs and measure the value realization of technology investments. This connection enables the rationalization process, identifying redundant or underperforming assets to reduce IT complexity and overhead.[43]

### IT service management

The figure illustrates how ITSM frameworks (ITIL, COBIT, ISO/IEC 20000, FitSM) relate to quality (ISO 9000), security (ISO/IEC 27000), and software maturity standards (ISO 15504, CMMI), with arrows showing conceptual adoption.

IT Service Management (ITSM) is a key component of information technology management that focuses on the design, delivery, operation, and continual improvement of IT services provided to users and organizations. Rather than concentrating solely on hardware or software infrastructure, ITSM emphasizes managing IT as a set of services that support business processes and organizational objectives.[44]

IT Service Management (ITSM) refers to the structured approach organizations use to deliver and maintain technology services that support business operations. It ensures that technical issues such as system failures, network slowdowns, or application errors—are addressed promptly and effectively. ITSM acts as a guiding framework for managing IT services, keeping technology aligned with business goals rather than disrupting them. ITSM principles are to prevent website crashes during peak hours, avoid lost sales, and maintain customer satisfaction. Whether for small businesses or large enterprises, ITSM provides the foundation for reliable and efficient IT operations.[20]

Characteristics of IT Services:

* Intangible and Collaborative: They are not physical products but involve ongoing processes such as support, consulting, and application management.
* Customer Centric: Designed to meet specific needs, improve efficiency, or enhance customer experiences.
* Managed & Delivered: Managed by IT service providers or internal teams using frameworks such as ITIL, ensuring quality, availability, and performance.[45]

### Information Systems

An Information System (IS) is a formal, sociotechnical, and organizational system designed to collect, process, store, and distribute information.[46] In the context of IT management, information systems are considered distinct from pure information technology, while IT focuses on the technological components (hardware, software, and networks), information systems encompass the integration of these technologies with people, processes, and organizational structures to support business objectives.[47]

Information systems relationship to information technology, computer science, information science, and business.

Information Systems constitute the sociotechnical infrastructure comprising hardware, software, telecommunications, databases, and human resources upon which modern organizations depend to manage operations and compete in the marketplace.[13] While IS provides the structural foundation for processing data into knowledge, IT Management functions as the administrative and strategic framework required to govern these assets. IT Management encompasses the full lifecycle of information systems, from initial feasibility studies and system design to the strategic outsourcing of services or internal development. Ultimately, IT Management serves as the vital link that transforms information systems from mere technical tools into sustainable corporate assets, balancing technological innovation with operational risk mitigation.

### Information security

Information security (InfoSec) is a core discipline of IT management focused on protecting the data confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA triad) of data.[48] Within IT management, InfoSec integrates risk management, access control, cryptography, change management, and incident response. It operates within governance frameworks such as ISO/IEC 27000 and NIST, and addresses legal compliance (e.g., GDPR, HIPAA, PCI DSS).[49] InfoSec also involves business continuity planning, disaster recovery, and balancing security investments against organizational productivity and cost, as described in models like Gordon-Loeb.[50][51]

As organizations become increasingly dependent on digital systems, they face escalating risks related to cybersecurity, data breaches, and technology failures. IT management plays a strategic role in identifying, assessing, and mitigating these risks to safeguard digital assets and ensure business continuity. IT managers utilize security technologies like firewalls, encryption, multi‑factor authentication, and intrusion detection systems to protect data. They also perform audits, vulnerability assessments, and incident response tests to strengthen defenses.[30]

According to the SANS | GIAC 2026 Cybersecurity Workforce Research Report, IT management faces significant challenges including AI governance gaps (only 17% have comprehensive frameworks), a widening skills gap (60% vs. 40% headcount shortage), budget constraints (36% primary obstacle), and unclear career progression (32%, triple from 2025). On the information security side, AI is reshaping entry-level roles (32% reduction in SOC analysts), regulatory compliance is driving hiring (95% impact, up from 40%), and certifications have become the leading skill validation method (58% consider them very or extremely important). Technical capability now outweighs work experience in hiring priorities (55% vs. 46%), and skills gaps directly contribute to security breaches in 27% of organizations.[52]

IT managers oversee infrastructure, software systems, security, and service delivery while ensuring alignment with strategic goals. Modern IT management also addresses version control, requirements tracking, defect monitoring, and automated testing. These tools help security professionals, developers, and system administrators manage both traditional vulnerabilities and emerging risks introduced by new technologies.

A key responsibility is integrating security into the full technology lifecycle. Approaches such as DevSecOps embed security practices into development and deployment pipelines. Additionally, the information security management life cycle (ISML) provides structured processes for risk assessment, threat analysis, and the continuous integration of security controls from initial planning through design and operations.[53]

Risk management elements

Information security management is an integral component of comprehensive IT management, shifting the focus from limited hardware centric maintenance to business risk management, governance, and organizational alignment. IT risk management (ITRM) is a core discipline within IT management that focuses on identifying, assessing, and mitigating risks associated with the use, ownership, operation, and adoption of IT within an organization.[54][55]

An IT risk management system (ITRMS) is a component of a broader enterprise risk management (ERM) system.[56] ITRMS are also integrated into broader information security management systems (ISMS). The continuous update and maintenance of an ISMS is in turn part of an organisation's systematic approach for identifying, assessing, and managing information security risks.[57]

### IT strategy

IT strategy and planning aligns technology with business goals. IT managers evaluate systems like ERP and CRM to maximize business value, use portfolio management to prioritize projects based on ROI, strategic fit, resources, and risk, and monitor emerging technologies (cloud, AI, etc.) to gain a competitive edge.[3] This section defines Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Services as the implementation, customization, integration, and ongoing support of software solutions. These services are designed to streamline business processes, enhance overall efficiency, and enable data driven decision making across various functional areas of an organization.[20][58]

IT management has evolved into a complex function due to challenges like high employee turnover, quality/reliability issues with bespoke software, and systemic risks. Modern IT managers and CIOs must focus on managing projects that align with business expectations regarding time, cost, and budget. Key issues include deciding between outsourcing versus in-house development, establishing robust systems management processes to ensure uptime, and managing change for both the IT department and impacted users.[58]

The purpose of IT strategy is to deliver systems that are effective, efficient, responsive, and adaptable to current and future business needs as well as regulatory requirements. IT strategy sustains a technology framework that helps an organization achieve its mission and goals. IT strategy into three main subcomponents:[59]

* IT Application Strategy
* Technology Management Strategy for IT
* IT Management Strategy

Finally, IT management includes developing change management strategies for both IT staff and employees in user departments affected by new system implementations.[59]

When setting IT objectives, current performance must be measured against metrics. Objectives should define outcomes and support business, IT, risk, or compliance goals. Both baseline and stretch targets are recommended. The process of crafting these objectives requires alignment with the organization's wider strategy, often conducted through tools such as SWOT analysis, PESTEL, and strategic canvassing.[60]

### IT Project management

IT project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and overseeing technology projects with defined start and end dates. Projects typically follow five phases: initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and controlling, and closing. Common methodologies include Waterfall, Agile, and DevOps, each offering different approaches to resource optimization, risk management, and quality assurance.[2]

IT Project Management is the practical implementation of a master plan. It involves a structured, repeatable set of methods and processes designed to manage specific:[61]

* Resources & Timelines
* Costs & Benefits
* Strategic Alignment

Effective IT project management relies on the meticulous planning of time and resources throughout the project lifecycle. To achieve realistic planning, the project manager must focus on three distinct phases: Pre-Project Estimation, Execution Phase, Project Closure. Identifying the critical path is essential to detect bottlenecks. Delays in critical activities can impact the entire project timeline and may have cascading effects on interdependent projects.[62]

### IT configuration management

Configuration management (CM) is a core discipline within IT management, particularly under infrastructure and operations (I&O) and governance (GRC). It ensures system integrity over time by systematically tracking and approving changes to system components. Unlike IT asset management (AM), which focuses on financial accounting and inventory, CM focuses on the relationships between components and the continuity of the services they support.[63][64][65]

Configuration Management Database (CMDB) is a repository that stores IT configuration items (hardware, software, servers, etc). The CMDB supports service change and execution referred to as Configuration Items (CIs), feeding data into various IT processes.[62]

### IT infrastructure

IT infrastructure is responsible for the stable delivery of day‑to‑day technology services. It covers on‑premises hardware, networks, cloud environments, and end‑user support. IT service management (ITSM) practices are used to handle incidents, underlying problems, and change in a controlled way, often supported by defined service level agreements (SLAs) that specify targets such as system availability or response times. When infrastructure and operations are effective, the underlying technology becomes largely invisible to users, enabling them to focus on their primary work.[3]

Network switch

The fields of IT management and IT service management rely on IT infrastructure, and the ITIL framework was developed as a set of best practices with regard to IT infrastructure. The ITIL framework assists companies with the ability to be responsive to technological market demands. Technology can often be thought of as an innovative product which can incur high production costs. However, the ITIL framework helps address these issues and allows the company to be more cost effective which helps IT managers to keep the IT Infrastructure functioning.[66]

IT infrastructure management presents several recurring challenges:

Scalability: Growing businesses need infrastructure that handles higher loads without performance decline. This requires hardware additions, software optimization, and network reconfiguration, often with significant initial costs.[12]

Security: Persistent threats such as malware, ransomware, phishing, and targeted attacks make protection of the IT environment a continuous priority. Organisations need layered security measures: firewalls, intrusion detection, regular patching, encryption, and multi-factor authentication.[12]

Reliability: Downtime risks financial losses and reputation harm. Redundancy, disaster recovery plans, backups, and failover systems are necessary to maintain service continuity.[12]

Cost control: Budget constraints force trade-offs between capital and operational expenses. Total cost of ownership includes hardware, software, personnel, and maintenance. Cloud computing's pay-as-you-go model helps manage costs.[12]

Within the broader field of information technology management, infrastructure management is a core component of the Infrastructure and Operations (I&O) function. It encompasses:[45]

* Hardware and network maintenance
* Data center operations
* Remote monitoring and support
* Capacity planning and scalability
* Service level agreement (SLA) compliance

## Technical Foundations

The technical foundations of IT management comprise the core technological infrastructure that IT managers oversee and integrate within organizations. These foundations include computer hardware (servers, workstations, storage systems, data centers), software (operating systems, enterprise applications, middleware), networking and telecommunications systems, and cloud computing architectures.[29][44]

### Infrastructure and Cloud Management

IT infrastructure and Cloud Infrastructure Management: Management of servers, networks, and storage. Modern foundations rely on hybrid cloud and virtualization, allowing for rapid scaling and resource optimization.[67]

Cloud computing has transformed IT management by enabling on‑demand scalability, shifting costs from capital to operational expenses, requiring new security and compliance diligence, and simplifying data storage, analytics, and disaster recovery. IT managers must now oversee cloud providers, ensure regulatory compliance, and leverage cloud‑based capabilities for strategic advantage.[12]

### Information Security Management (ISM)

Information Security Management (ISM): Grounded in the CIA triad (Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability). This includes the implementation of information security management systems (ISMS) based on standards like ISO/IEC 27001, covering firewalls, encryption, identity and access management (IAM), and endpoint protection.[68][69]

An information security management system (ISMS) comprises the interrelated security elements of an organization, enabling the creation, implementation, communication, and evaluation of policies and objectives. Within IT management, the IT manager oversees the ISMS, ensuring alignment between security controls, business goals, and user behavior. ISMS development is influenced by organizational needs, objectives, security requirements, size, and processes. It supports risk management and addresses confidentiality, integrity, and availability requirements.[70]

### Configuration Management Database (CMDB)

Configuration Management Database (CMDB): A fundamental technical repository that stores information about hardware and software assets (Configuration Items - CIs) and their interdependencies. It provides the single source of truth for change management and troubleshooting.[71]

Within IT management, CMDBs support help desk operations, problem diagnosis, security analysis, asset management, audit compliance, monitoring, disaster recovery, and insurance claims. Effective CMDBs include features such as auto-discovery (passive or agent-based), searchable data across device types, and historical change tracking. Passive discovery using SNMP or WMI is suitable for broad network mapping, while agent-based discovery provides more detailed, real-time information for critical systems.[71]

### Data Architecture

Data architecture and interoperability: Technical standards for API management, data warehousing, and enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems that integrate business functions into a unified technical ecosystem.[72]

Data architecture defines the structures, models, and policies that govern how an organization collects, stores, integrates, and manages data. It typically includes the development and maintenance of data models (e.g., business, logical, and physical data models), the selection of core data entities (data blocks), and ongoing updates to the data architecture as systems and requirements change.[73]

## Operational Practices

Operational practices define how teams collaborate and deliver value within the technical environment.

### Data Management

Data management is the practice of collecting, organizing, processing, integrating, securing, and archiving data throughout its entire lifecycle. In IT management, this practice focuses on maintaining high-quality, accessible, and usable data to support decision-making, optimize operations, and facilitate strategic planning. By implementing structured management frameworks, IT managers can reduce storage costs, mitigate risks associated with data growth, and provide a reliable foundation for information systems and business processes.[74]

### DevOps

DevOps is an ITSM practice that integrates development and operations teams through automation, collaboration, and measurement. It aims to accelerate software delivery, improve release frequency, and reduce deployment failures. DevOps aligns well with adaptive frameworks such as Agile and Scrum.[75]

### ITSM Tools

IT Service Management (ITSM) tools: Many IT service management platforms include features for handling user requests and incident reports without manual intervention. These systems, such as ServiceNow, Jira Service Management, and BMC Remedy, can automatically generate support tickets, direct them to the appropriate teams or individuals, and track their progress through to completion. This approach helps shorten response times and ensures that each request is addressed according to established service level agreements (SLAs).[76]

## Governance and Management Frameworks

These frameworks provide the structural guidance required to manage IT organizations and align technology with business strategy.

### ITIL (Service Management Framework)

ITIL is a framework that provides practices for IT service management (ITSM) focused on aligning IT services with business needs. It is a process-oriented framework, not a theoretical model, and provides guidance on the "how" of IT service delivery, complementing higher-level governance frameworks.[75]

ITIL supports IT operations processes. ITIL V2 defined service management processes including change, release, configuration, incident, problem, availability, continuity, capacity, service level, and financial management. ITIL V3 introduced a service lifecycle model connecting these practices with the four key stages of service: strategy, design, transition, and operations.[77]

### COBIT (IT Governance Framework)

COBIT (Control Objectives for Information and Related Technologies) is a collection of best practices for managing IT organizations and defines five key areas of IT governance: strategic alignment, value delivery, resource management, risk management, and performance measurement. It also defines a guideline of four IT domains containing 34 IT processes.[77]

COBIT defines the components needed to build and sustain a governance system, including:[72]

* Processes, policies, and procedures
* Organizational structures
* Information flows and skills
* Infrastructure, culture, and behaviors

### Data Governance

Data governance refers to the policies, procedures, and organizational structures used to control the quality, security, and lifecycle of enterprise data. Effective data governance programs define roles and responsibilities, ensure compliance with regulatory requirements, and provide high-quality, trusted data for business operations and analytics.[74]

DAMA-DMBOK (Data Management Body of Knowledge) is commonly used as a reference for data management within IT management, particularly for defining data governance practices, roles, and processes. It provides a standard, industry-oriented view of data management functions, activities, and best practices, serving as an introductory reference for data management as a professional discipline.[72]

## Theoretical Foundations

The theoretical foundations of IT management draw on several models that explain how organizations adopt, manage, and derive value from information technology. Unlike practical frameworks that prescribe specific actions (such as COBIT or ITIL), theoretical foundations provide conceptual lenses for understanding organizational behavior and technological change.[78]

### Resource-Based View (RBV)

The Resource-Based View positions IT capabilities as strategic resources that can provide sustained competitive advantage when they are valuable, rare, imperfectly imitable, and non-substitutable (VRIN). This theory explains why two organizations using identical technology may achieve different performance outcomes based on their unique IT management capabilities.[79]

### Agency Theory

Agency Theory examines relationships between principals (organizations) and agents (IT managers or vendors), addressing conflicts of interest. In IT management, this theory helps explain IT governance mechanisms, outsourcing decisions, and incentive structures.[80]

### Transaction Cost Economics

Transaction Cost Economics explains why organizations choose to outsource IT functions versus developing capabilities internally, focusing on the costs of coordinating economic exchange across organizational boundaries.[81]

### Other Perspectives

Other theoretical perspectives informing IT management include the Knowledge-Based View (knowledge as a source of value), Institutional Theory (regulatory, normative, and mimetic pressures), and the Technology Acceptance Model (user adoption and resistance to new systems).[82][83]

These theoretical lenses provide IT managers with conceptual tools to analyze problems, justify decisions, and design effective technology strategies within complex organizational contexts.

### Summary of Theoretical Perspectives

The following table summarizes the key theoretical perspectives that inform IT management:

Key Theoretical Perspectives in IT Management  Theory  | Core Focus  | Application in IT Management

|
|

Transaction Cost Economics | Costs of coordinating economic exchange across boundaries | Make‑or‑buy decisions for IT functions
Agency Theory | Principal‑agent relationships and conflicts of interest | Outsourcing decisions, IT governance, incentive structures
Resource‑Based View (RBV) | IT capabilities as strategic, VRIN resources | Sustained competitive advantage through IT
Knowledge‑Based View | Knowledge as primary source of organizational value | Knowledge management systems, collaboration platforms
Structuration Theory | Mutual shaping of technology and social structures | Technology acceptance, resistance to change
Institutional Theory | Coercive, normative, and mimetic pressures for isomorphism | Compliance, industry standards, technology adoption
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) | Perceived usefulness and ease of use | User training, change management, system implementation

These theoretical lenses provide IT managers with conceptual tools to analyze problems, justify decisions, and design effective technology strategies within complex organizational contexts.

## Role in Business Strategy

IT management has evolved from a technical support function into a strategic business partner that directly influences organizational performance and competitive positioning.[84] The central role of IT management in business strategy manifests across several dimensions.

### Strategic Alignment

A primary responsibility of IT management is ensuring that technology initiatives align with organizational objectives. This involves developing technology roadmaps that support business goals, prioritizing IT investments based on expected return on investment and strategic relevance, and bridging the gap between technical capabilities and business expectations. Misalignment—caused by poor communication, unclear objectives, or technical limitations—can undermine strategic outcomes.[85]

### Enabling Competitive Advantage

IT managers identify and implement emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, cloud computing, and the Internet of Things (IoT) to create competitive differentiation. Examples include developing omnichannel retail platforms, implementing data analytics for customer insights, and deploying automation tools that enhance operational efficiency. Effective IT management transforms technology from a cost center into a driver of innovation and market advantage.[86]

### Digital Transformation Leadership

IT managers play a critical role in leading digital transformation initiatives that reshape business models, processes, and customer experiences. This involves managing organizational change, ensuring employee adoption of new systems, and integrating technologies across previously siloed functions. The IT manager serves as a bridge between technical teams and executive leadership, translating complex technical concepts into actionable business strategies.[87]

### Governance, Risk, and Compliance (GRC)

IT management ensures that technology use aligns with legal, regulatory, and ethical standards. This includes implementing frameworks such as COBIT (for governance), ISO 27001 (for information security), and complying with industry regulations such as HIPAA (healthcare) or GDPR (data protection). Effective GRC protects organizational assets while maintaining stakeholder trust.[88]

### Value Creation and Performance Measurement

IT managers demonstrate the business value of technology investments through financial management practices including total cost of ownership (TCO) analysis, return on investment (ROI) calculations, and performance metrics tied to business outcomes. This accountability positions IT as a strategic partner rather than merely an operational expense.[89]

In summary, IT management serves as the critical link between technological capabilities and business strategy, ensuring that technology investments drive measurable outcomes such as cost reduction, revenue growth, customer satisfaction, and competitive resilience.

## IT managers

IT managers have a lot in common with project managers but their main difference is one of focus: an IT manager is responsible and accountable for an ongoing program of IT services while the project manager's responsibility and accountability are both limited to a project with a clear start and end date.[90]

Most IT management programs are designed to educate and develop managers who can effectively manage the planning, design, selection, implementation, use, and administration of emerging and converging information and communications technologies. The program curriculum provides students with the technical knowledge and management knowledge and skills needed to effectively integrate people, information and communication technologies, and business processes in support of organizational strategic goals.[91]

IT managers assess proposed systems—such as enterprise resource planning (ERP) and customer relationship management (CRM) platforms—to identify those that offer the greatest business value. This work typically involves IT portfolio management, in which projects are prioritized according to expected returns, strategic relevance, resource constraints, and risk. It also requires continuous monitoring of emerging technologies, including cloud services, artificial intelligence, and sector‑specific solutions, to recognize opportunities for competitive advantage.[3]

An IT manager is responsible for overseeing an organization's technology operations, including project leadership, resource allocation, and maintaining the performance of networks, servers, and other technical infrastructure. The role extends beyond routine technical support to include ensuring team productivity, managing software and hardware lifecycles, and promptly addressing system failures or security incidents.[92]

IT managers use portfolio analytics derived from financial, asset, service, and project tracking systems to make informed decisions. Application portfolio management applies to both custom built and externally sourced software, including SaaS, without requiring access to source code. IT managers also monitor technology trends, manage platforms, and minimize complexity, all of which have direct financial implications.[43]

In an organization, the IT manager handles technology related operations while also engaging with strategic objectives. IT manager is highly multifaceted, requiring the ability to manage diverse expectations across an organisation ranging from administrative technical support to high level strategic business goals. Responsibilities typically span system maintenance, data centers, telecommunications, servers, workstations, websites, interdepartmental coordination, and participation in projects like digital commerce. The position balances everyday technical problem solving with broader contributions to business development.[93]

IT managers oversee the planning, implementation, and maintenance of information systems. Their responsibilities may include planning hardware or software upgrades, coordinating the installation of computer systems, negotiating with technology vendors, and protecting organizational networks from cybersecurity threats such as malware and hacking.[94]

IT Managers need to know predominantly Technical and Managerial skills such as analyst of computer systems, information security analyst, compute, planning, communication technologies, and business processes.[36]

IT manager are responsible for planning, organizing, and directing an organization's technological systems. They serve as bridges between technical capabilities and business objectives, translating complex technical requirements into actionable organizational strategies.[29]

* Strategic IT Planning: Forecasting technological needs and aligning investments with business objectives.
* Infrastructure and Data Management: Managing networks, hardware, and data assets to ensure system stability and scalability.
* Cybersecurity and Risk Management: Implementing organizational security policies and proactive threat detection.
* Financial Stewardship: Managing technology budgets, cost-optimization, and resource allocation.

Artificial intelligence and machine learning automate routine activities, reveal patterns in data, and support automated decision-making. Their adoption can lead to fewer errors, quicker insights, and better customer service through tools like chatbots and recommendation systems.[2]

## Consequences of IT management deficiencies

In 2013, hackers managed to install malware with the intent of stealing Target's customers' information. The malware targeted "40 million credit card numbers—and 70 million addresses, phone numbers, and other pieces of personal information". About six months before this happened, Target invested 1.6 million dollars to install the malware detection tool made by FireEye, whose security product is also used by the CIA. The software spotted the malware, and alert was sent out as intended. However, nothing was done beyond that point. The hackers successfully got away with one third of US Consumers' confidential information. Target's security system's unresponsiveness led to 90 lawsuits being filed against Target, which went on top of another approximate $61 million USD spent just responding to the breach.[95]

IT management often faces financial limitations that affect the adoption of new technologies. Managers must balance maintaining existing infrastructure with investing in modern systems while demonstrating measurable returns on investment (ROI). IT budgets are frequently reduced during periods of economic constraint, increasing expectations for efficiency with limited resources. As a result, IT managers must combine technical expertise with skills in financial planning, cost control, and stakeholder coordination to ensure that technology initiatives remain aligned with organizational objectives.[2]

For IT managers, emerging technologies bring both promise and complexity. They open doors to innovation and operational gains but also require careful handling of integration and risk. AI and MML are transforming IT management by automating tasks, improving decisions, and enhancing customer experiences. However, challenges include ensuring data quality and security, integrating with legacy systems, and addressing ethical issues such as bias and job loss.[2]

Common risks in IT management include strategic misalignment, cybersecurity vulnerabilities, resource management errors, and talent gaps. These can lead to security breaches, financial losses, and reputational damage. Mitigation requires proactive strategy, continuous learning, robust risk assessment, organizational adaptability, ongoing training, and flexible infrastructure. Effective IT management turns challenges into opportunities for innovation and growth.[29]

## Career pathways

In December 2010, the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) released a 25‑point plan to improve information technology management. To monitor the success of this initiative, OMB's Office of E‑Government and Information Technology (E‑Gov), in collaboration with the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) and the Chief Information Officers (CIO) Council, launched the IT Program Manager Career Path in May 2011.[96]

This effort included:

* The creation of a new basic title and definition for Information Technology Program Manager under the Technology Management Series, GS‑2210.
* The release of the IT Program Management Career Path Guide, which provides guidance to federal agencies on establishing and improving the IT program management career path at each agency.[96]

Individuals specializing in information technology management pursue diverse professional careers that span strategic, operational, and technical domains within organizations.[3]

IT managers identify an organization's technology needs, oversee software and hardware upgrades, negotiate with vendors, coordinate system installations, and protect networks from cyber threats. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment for IT managers is projected to grow 15% by 2024, driven by digital integration, system upgrades, and cybersecurity demands. Strong demand exists in finance, insurance, manufacturing, government, and healthcare. U.S. News and World Report ranked IT manager as the best technology job in 2025.[94]

The demand for computer and information technology managers in the United States has grown sharply over the past decade and continues to rise. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, employment in IT management is projected to increase by 17% between 2023 and 2033, generating approximately 106,900 new job openings nationwide. Wisconsin projects a 7% increase (about 2,200 openings) over the same period. U.S. News and World Report ranks IT manager as 1st in Best Technology Jobs, 2nd in Best STEM Jobs, and 12th in Best Paying Jobs.[97]

Information technology management offers various career opportunities across multiple domains. Modern IT roles are diverse, ranging from high-level strategic leadership to specialized technical execution. These roles are broadly categorized as follows:[98][99][3][36][100][101]

### Leadership and Management

This category is the backbone of organizational technology strategy. Roles such as IT Managers, Directors, and Systems Managers oversee overall technology operations, negotiate with vendors, and manage budgets. IT Project Managers are critical here, serving as the bridge between technical teams and business goals to ensure that large scale initiatives are delivered on time and within scope.[3] IT Consultant, IT Service Manager,[99] IT project manager and IT Director[101] also fall within this leadership domain, contributing to strategic decision making and the alignment of IT with organizational goals.

### Strategy, Analysis, and Data Science

Positions in this domain, including Business Intelligence Analysts[98] and Computer Systems Analysts, act as the link between business needs and technical implementation. By evaluating systems and analyzing data trends, Data Warehousing Specialists and Information Research Scientists enable informed decision making. Information research scientists explore new ways to collect, store, and interpret data, often working on advanced analytics or search technologies. Software quality assurance analysts design test plans and automated checks to ensure applications work correctly before release. Data warehousing specialists build and maintain large repositories that consolidate data from multiple sources for reporting and analysis. Health information technology specialists focus on electronic health records, medical billing systems.

### Architecture and Engineering

This group is responsible for the foundation and structural integrity of the digital environment. Computer Systems Architects design the blueprints for robust, scalable platforms. Computer network architects[101] plan and build data communication networks, including local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), and cloud‑connected infrastructures. Database architects design the schema, security, and storage strategies for large scale database systems.

### Software Development

Developers are the primary architects of digital solutions. Applications developers[98] build end‑user programs for specific tasks, such as mobile apps, desktop productivity tools, or customer relationship management (CRM) systems.

### Security, Infrastructure, and Administration

This domain ensures the availability and safety of organizational data. Information Security Analysts[101] and Cybersecurity Specialists[100] proactively protect systems against threats, while Cloud and Network Administrators oversee daily operations. Database Administrators ensure the integrity and accessibility of information, while Document Management Specialists organize the digital assets that support daily business workflows.

### Support and Training

These professionals form the frontline of IT functionality. User Support Specialists ensure that organizational staff can effectively utilize deployed systems. Training and development specialists create and deliver educational programs that teach employees how to use information systems effectively covering topics such as new software rollouts, security awareness, or data privacy practices.

## Academic Programs

Information Technology Management (IT Management) is an interdisciplinary field that combines information technology, business strategy, leadership, and organizational management.[102] IT Management focuses on: IT strategy and governance business IT alignment, project and service management, cybersecurity and risk management, data and digital transformation and leadership in technology driven organizations.[103]

IT Management programs are offered worldwide in business schools (emphasizing strategy and management), information science/IT colleges (focusing on technical aspects). Some institutions offer ITM in engineering or computing units (emphasizing systems), while a few have dedicated ITM departments.[104] Programs span bachelor's to doctoral levels.

Graduates should be able:

1. to explain the important terminology, facts, concepts, principles, analytic techniques, and theories used in IT management.
2. to apply important terminology, facts, concepts, principles, analytic techniques, and theories in IT management when analyzing complex factual situations.
3. to integrate (or synthesize) important facts, concepts, principles, and theories in IT management when developing solutions to IT management multifaceted problems in complex situations.[105]

One core Information Technology Management syllabus explicitly covers potential AI errors through modules on artificial intelligence, databases, analytics, and information security. It treats algorithmic bias and ethical AI use as managerial responsibilities.[106]

### Bachelor of Information Technology Management

The Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Management is an undergraduate program that blends business and IT subjects to prepare students for leadership roles in technology management.[107] The curriculum covers network management, database administration, strategic management, e-business, management information systems, financial information management[108] and daily IT operations.[109] [110][111]

Information Technology Management program integrates technical proficiency with business strategy to prepare students for leadership roles in the modern IT marketplace. The program teaches how organizations leverage technology resources to execute core business functions and gain competitive advantage. This combination of business insight and technological expertise distinguishes Berkeley graduates in diverse career paths across information systems, IT management, and digital business environments.[112]

The Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Management is designed to bridge the gap between technical infrastructure and strategic business leadership.[113]

Unlike traditional computer science degrees that focus heavily on software development, this program prepares professionals to oversee, coordinate, and govern complex technological ecosystems within organizations.[110]

IT Management students learn how to plan, implement, and manage technological resources to support organizational goals, while Computer Science students are trained to design and develop software, algorithms, and computing architectures. Graduates in IT Management typically pursue careers in network and systems administration, cloud computing, cybersecurity, and IT governance, whereas Computer Science graduates often work in software engineering, application development, and computer hardware design.[114]

### Master of Information Technology Management

File:SCSJPG.jpegThe Georgetown University School of Continuing Studies at Georgetown University offers a Master in Information Technology Management

Modern master's programs in IT Management are designed to cultivate leadership at the intersection of business strategy and technical innovation. Programs are customizable, often providing both on campus and online learning formats to accommodate working professionals. Students typically tailor their education through specialized focus areas, such as: artificial intelligence (AI) and digital technology and business intelligence, cybersecurity and project management.[115]

This IT management course covers blockchain technology, IT governance, cloud computing, business intelligence, management networking, cybersecurity, IT operations, and enterprise systems alongside industry practices.[116][117] Graduates are prepared to lead and collaborate with teams of AI experts, software engineers, data scientists, application developers, and business analysts.[118]

MSITM graduates pursue roles in business analysis, enterprise architecture, information assurance, network security, IT strategy consulting, data analytics, systems analysts, and database management.[119][120]

Key areas of study include:[120]

* Systems and Strategy: Enterprise information systems, systems analysis, and IT strategy.
* Data and Quantitative Analysis: Database management, data warehousing, and quantitative methods.
* Operational Management: Project management, business modeling, and software development lifecycles.
* Network Infrastructure: Essential training in network architecture and security.

### PhD in Information Technology Management

PhDs in IT Management can train students in diverse research methods and cutting‑edge topics, preparing them to become researchers and instructors at leading academic institutions.[121]

A PhD in Information Technology Management is a doctoral program designed to prepare scholars for academic careers in research universities. The curriculum typically includes a major in IT management, a minor field, research methods, economics or behavioral analysis, and additional business coursework as determined by the student's guidance committee.[122]

## Research

The Information Resources Management Journal (IRMJ) is a quarterly peer reviewed academic journal focusing on applied research in information technology management. Established in 1988, the journal is published by IGI Global in association with the Information Resources Management Association (IRMA).[123] IRMJ covers topics such as executive information systems, IT security, global IT management, electronic commerce, emerging technologies, decision support systems, and IT management research and practice.[124]

## See also

* Information Resources Management Journal
* Bachelor of Information technology management
* Master of Science in Information Technology Management

## References

1. ↑ McNurlin, Barbara (2009). Information Systems Management in Practice (8th ed.). Prentice Hall.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 (in en) Mastering IT management. Cybellium Ltd. 2023. pp. 6,12,45–46,115,119,160–161. ISBN 9798869753373. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Mastering_IT_management/obfnEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 "What Is Information Technology Management and Its Roles". Syracuse University. https://ischool.syracuse.edu/information-technology-management/.
4. ↑ "Cybernetics, Management Science, and Technology Policy: The Emergence of “Information Technology” as a Keyword, 1948–1985". Sage Publishing. https://sk.sagepub.com/book/edvol/navigator-technology-studies/chpt/cybernetics-management-science-technology-policy.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Information Technology Management from 1960-2000". Harvard Business School. https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=28232.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "What is Management Information Systems?". Mays Business School. January 2009. http://mays.tamu.edu/info/what-is-mis/.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 A Nation Transformed by Information. Oxford University Press. 2000. pp. 217. ISBN 9780195352009. https://www.google.com/books/edition/ServiceNow_for_IT_Service_Management_Man/MsGGEQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0.
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9. ↑ Nolan, Richard L. (2000). "Information Technology Management from 1960-2000". in Chandler, A.; Cortada, J.. A Nation Transformed by Information. Oxford University Press.
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24. ↑ Huff, Lisa, “The Battle for the Converged Data Center Network,” Data Center Knowledge, August 18, 2011.
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27. ↑ "Golden, Bernard, "Cloud Computing: Two Kinds of Agility," CIO, July 16, 2010.". http://www.cio.com/article/599626/Cloud_Computing_Two_Kinds_of_Agility.
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29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 "What Is Information Technology Management and Why It Matters". International College of Management, Sydney. https://www.icms.edu.au/degree-discovery/what-is-information-technology-management.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Devi, Dhamini, Dr.S.Niranjana,Ms.V. (2025). Innovations in E-Commerce and IT Management. SK Research Group of Companies. pp. 65, 67. ISBN 9789364926676. https://www.google.com/books/edition/IT_Strategy_Technology_Innovation/-7zL0Zxpa1UC?hl=en&gbpv=0.
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32. ↑ 28 Nov. 2008
33. ↑ McKeen, James D., and Smith, Heather A., Making IT Happen: Critical Issues in IT Management, Wiley Series in Information Systems, 2003
34. ↑ CIO Wisdom: Best Practise from Silicon Valley's Leading IT Experts, Lane, D. (ed), Prentice Hall 2004
35. ↑ Veen, Annelies van der; Jan van Bon (2007). Foundations of ITIL V3. Van Haren Publishing. ISBN 978-90-8753-057-0.
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37. ↑ Axelos (2021). Axelos ITIL 4 Foundation. Axelos.
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54. ↑ ISACA THE RISK IT FRAMEWORK ISBN 978-1-60420-111-6 (registration required)
55. ↑ Campbell, Tony (2016). Practical Information Security Management. Apress. pp. 40–42. ISBN 9781484216859. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Practical_Information_Security_Managemen/sbWiDQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0.
56. ↑ "ISACA THE RISK IT FRAMEWORK (registration required)". http://www.isaca.org/Knowledge-Center/Research/Documents/RiskIT-FW-18Nov09-Research.pdf.
57. ↑ Enisa Risk management, Risk assessment inventory, page 46
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66. ↑ "What is ITIL 4? ITIL 4 Framework & Processes Explained" (in en-US). https://www.bmc.com/blogs/itil-4/.
67. ↑ "CLOUD COMPUTING: A NEW PHASE IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT". University of Baltimore School of Law. https://jitm.ubalt.edu/xxii-1/article4.pdf.
68. ↑ Humphreys, E. (2016). "Chapter 2: ISO/IEC 27001 ISMS Family". Implementing the ISO/IEC 27001:2013 ISMS Standard. Artech House. pp. 11–26. ISBN 9781608079315. https://books.google.com/books?id=Yy6pCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11.
69. ↑ Campbell, T. (2016). "Chapter 6: Standards, Frameworks, Guidelines, and Legislation". Practical Information Security Management: A Complete Guide to Planning and Implementation. APress. pp. 71–94. ISBN 9781484216859. https://books.google.com/books?id=sbWiDQAAQBAJ.
70. ↑ Ciekanowski, Marek; Zurawski, Slawomir; Ciekanowski, Zbigniew; Pauliuchuk, Yury; Czech, Artur (2024-04-01). "Chief Information Security Officer: A Vital Component of Organizational Information Security Management". European Research Studies Journal XXVII (2): 35–46. doi:10.35808/ersj/3370. ISSN 1108-2976. https://ersj.eu/journal/3370.
71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Baschab, Jon; Piot, John (2007). The Executive's Guide to Information Technology. Wiley. pp. 200–202. ISBN 9780470135914. https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Executive_s_Guide_to_Information_Tec/YokHUkRBZoAC?hl=en&gbpv=0.
72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 Global Standards 6th Edition. Van Haren Publishing. 2025. pp. 22–24, 29–31. ISBN 9789401813112. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Global_Standards_6th_Edition/AtheEQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0.
73. ↑ Kowalczuk, Zdzislaw; Orłowski, John (2013). Advanced Modeling of Management Processes in Information Technology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 36. ISBN 9783642408779. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Advanced_Modeling_of_Management_Processe/YdS6BQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0.
74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 Turban, Efraim; Pollard, Caroli; Wood, Gregory (2025). Information Technology for Management, with EBook Access Code. Wiley. pp. 116–118. ISBN 9781394243549. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Information_Technology_for_Management_wi/5opCEQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0.
75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Renard, Laurent (1 March 2016). "Essential Frameworks and Methodologies to Maximize the Value of IT". ISACA. https://www.isaca.org/resources/isaca-journal/issues/2016/volume-2/essential-frameworks-and-methodologies-to-maximize-the-value-of-it.
76. ↑ Legarski, Ron (2024). Information Technology Consulting Services. SolveForce. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Information_Technology_Consulting_Servic/OjkeEQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0.
77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 Hirschbichler, Peter (2011). Implementation of an IT Balanced Scorecard. GRIN Verlag. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9783640813186. https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Executive_s_Guide_to_Information_Tec/YokHUkRBZoAC?hl=en&gbpv=0.
78. ↑ Ward, John; Peppard, Joe (2016). The Strategic Management of Information Systems: Building a Digital Strategy. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-94572-8.
79. ↑ Wade, Michael; Hulland, John (2004). "Review: The Resource-Based View and Information Systems Research". MIS Quarterly 28 (1): 107–142.
80. ↑ Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. (1989). "Agency Theory: An Assessment and Review". Academy of Management Review 14 (1): 57–74.
81. ↑ Williamson, Oliver E. (1981). "The Economics of Organization: The Transaction Cost Approach". American Journal of Sociology 87 (3): 548–577.
82. ↑ Grant, Robert M. (1996). "Toward a Knowledge-Based Theory of the Firm". Strategic Management Journal 17 (Winter): 109–122.
83. ↑ Davis, Fred D. (1989). "Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology". MIS Quarterly 13 (3): 319–340.
84. ↑ Bradley, Stephen P.; Nolan, Richard L., eds (1998). Sense and Respond: Capturing Value in the Network Era. Harvard Business School Press.
85. ↑ Henderson, John C.; Venkatraman, N. (1993). "Strategic Alignment: Leveraging Information Technology for Transforming Organizations". IBM Systems Journal 32 (1): 4–16.
86. ↑ Bharadwaj, Anandhi S. (2000). "A Resource-Based Perspective on Information Technology Capability and Firm Performance: An Empirical Investigation". MIS Quarterly 24 (1): 169–196.
87. ↑ Westerman, George; Bonnet, Didier; McAfee, Andrew (2014). Leading Digital: Turning Technology into Business Transformation. Harvard Business Review Press.
88. ↑ ISACA. (2012). COBIT 5: A Business Framework for the Governance and Management of Enterprise IT.
89. ↑ Brynjolfsson, Erik (1993). "The Productivity Paradox of Information Technology". Communications of the ACM 36 (12): 66–77.
90. ↑ Thomas, Rhané (June 15, 2009). "IT Managers and Project Management". PM Hut. http://www.pmhut.com/it-managers-and-project-management.
91. ↑ "Master of Management (Information Technology)". Charles Sturt University. http://www.csu.edu.au/courses/postgraduate/management_information_technology/course-overview#.VAax7mMm7IU.
92. ↑ "IT Manager Career". Western Governors University. https://www.wgu.edu/career-guide/information-technology/it-manager-career.html.
93. ↑ Holtsnider, Jaffe, Bill, Brian D. (2001). IT Manager's Handbook Getting Your New Job Done. Elsevier Science. ISBN 9781558606463. https://www.google.com/books/edition/IT_Manager_s_Handbook/c2aArxjaiNcC?hl=en&gbpv=0.
94. ↑ 94.0 94.1 "What Does an IT Manager Do?". Herzing University. https://www.herzing.edu/description/it-manager.
95. ↑ Riley, M., Elgin, B., Lawrence, D., & Matlack, C. (2014, March 13). Missed Alarms and 40 Million Stolen Credit Card Numbers: How Target Blew It. Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved from [1]
96. ↑ 96.0 96.1 Management Matters. U.S. Government Printing Office. 2014. pp. 6. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Management_Matters/QYDpXXHWrloC?hl=en&gbpv=0. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:
97. ↑ "Information Technology Management Career Outlook". University of Wisconsin–Madison. https://uwex.wisconsin.edu/stories-news/information-technology-management-career-outlook/.
98. ↑ 98.0 98.1 98.2 "Careers in Information Technology Management". American Public University System. https://www.apu.apus.edu/career-services/programs/it-management.
99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 "5 exciting careers for Information Technology Management graduates". University of Essex. https://online.essex.ac.uk/blog/5-careers-it-management-graduates/.
100. ↑ 100.0 100.1 "Information Technology Management: What can you do with an IT degree?". Management College of Southern Africa. https://www.mancosa.co.za/blog/information-technology-management-what-can-you-do-with-an-it-degree.
101. ↑ 101.0 101.1 101.2 101.3 "What Can You Do With an IT Management Degree?". Concordia University, St. Paul. https://online.csp.edu/resources/article/what-can-you-do-with-an-it-degree/.
102. ↑ "Information Technology Management (MA)". Webster University. https://www.webster.edu/catalog/current/graduate-catalog/degrees/information-technology-management-ma.pdf.
103. ↑ "BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT". National university. https://www.nu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/18-NU-1592_BS-Information-Technology-Management_Program-Flyer_v3.pdf.
104. ↑ "Information Technology Management (ITM)". Georgia Tech. https://www.scheller.gatech.edu/_files/pdf-pages/undergraduate/concentrations/itm-concentration-guide.pdf.
105. ↑ "Journal - Knowledge of Management, Economics and Information Technology". scientificpapers.org. http://www.scientificpapers.org/wp-content/files/1107_Information_Technology_Management.pdf.
106. ↑ Dameri, Renata Paola; Peppard, Joe (2026). Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on AI Research. Academic Conferences and Publishing Limited. ISBN 9781917204699. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Proceedings_of_the_5th_International_Con/K-i-EQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0.
107. ↑ "Principles of Information Technology Management". Columbus State University. https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?params=/context/compsci-collections/article/1006/&path_info=Principles_of_Information_Technology_Management.pdf.
108. ↑ "Information Technology Management degree". University of Waterloo. https://uwaterloo.ca/future-students/programs/information-technology-management.
109. ↑ "Bachelor of Science (Honours) Information Technology Management". South East Technological University. https://www.setu.ie/courses/bsc-hons-in-information-technology-management.
110. ↑ 110.0 110.1 "BS in Information Technology Management". Thomas Jefferson University. https://www.jefferson.edu/academics/colleges-schools-institutes/kanbar-college-of-design-engineering-commerce/school-of-business/academic-programs/information-technology-management.html.
111. ↑ "Bachelor of Science (Honours) Information Technology Management". University of Minnesota System. https://online.umn.edu/bachelor-science-information-technology-management.
112. ↑ "Information Technology Management Programs". Berkeley College. https://berkeleycollege.edu/academics/undergraduate-degrees/information-technology-management/index.html.
113. ↑ "Information Technology Management BSc (Hons)". Coventry University. https://www.coventry.ac.uk/course-structure/ug/eec/information-technology-management-bsc/.
114. ↑ "B.S.B.A. in Information Technology Management". Rider University. https://www.rider.edu/academics/colleges-schools/norm-brodsky-college-business/undergraduate/information-technology-management.
115. ↑ "Master's in Information Technology Management". Georgetown University. https://scs.georgetown.edu/programs/525/master-of-professional-studies-in-information-technology-management/.
116. ↑ "Master in Information Technology Management". Canadian University Dubai. https://www.cud.ac.ae/programs/masters/management/master-of-information-technology-management.
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118. ↑ "Master of Information Technology Management". Deakin University. https://www.deakin.edu.au/course/master-information-technology-management.
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121. ↑ "Information Technology Management". Georgia Tech. https://www.scheller.gatech.edu/explore-programs/phd/academics/concentrations/it-management.html.
122. ↑ "Ph.D. in Information Technology Management". Michigan State University. https://broad.msu.edu/phd/information-technology-management/.
123. ↑ "Information Resources Management Journal". Scimago Journal & Country Rank. http://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=19470&tip=sid. Retrieved 21 May 2026.
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